What are tolerance codes?

Colors on the resistor like brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5-
band resistors only. The blank (20%) “Band” is only used with the “4-band” code (3 colored
bands + a blank “band”).

Example: 1

In this picture, you will see it colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold. This equates to 47 kΩ with a
tolerance of +/- 5%.
Example: 2

Here we have a resistor colored Green-Red-Gold-Silver, which would be 5.2 Ω with a tolerance
of +/- 10%.
Example: 3

A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 20%. When you see
only three color bands on a resistor, you know that it is actually a 4-band code with a blank
(20%) tolerance band.
Example: 4

A resistor colored Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet would be 3.3 kΩ with a tolerance of +/-

0.1%.
Example: 5

A resistor colored Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red would be 1.58 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 2%.

Example: 6

A resistor colored Blue-Brown-Green-Silver-Blue would be 6.15 Ω with a tolerance of +/-

0.25%.
How Does the Resistor Color Code Work?
Check out the All About Circuits Resistor Color Code Calculator, a handy tool for
reading resistor color code values.
Resistor values are often indicated with color codes. Practically all leaded resistors with a
power rating up to one watt are marked with color bands. The coding is defined in the
international standard IEC 60062. This standard describes the marking codes for resistors and
capacitors. In addition to defining the color bands, the standard also includes numerical codes,
as often used for surface mount SMD resistors.
The color code is given by several bands. Together they specify the resistance value, the
tolerance, and sometimes the reliability or failure rate. The number of bands varies from three
to six. At a minimum, two bands indicate the resistance value and one band serves as
multiplier. The resistance values are standardized; these values are called preferred values.

Resistor Color Code Chart

The chart below shows how to determine the resistance and tolerance for resistors. The table
can also be used to specify the color of the bands when the values are known. An automatic
resistor calculator can be used to quickly find the resistor values.
Tips for Reading Resistor Codes

In the sections below, examples are given for different numbers of color bands. But, first, here
are some general tips for reading the color code:

The reading direction might not always be clear. Sometimes the increased space between
bands 3 and 4 provide an indication of the reading direction. Also, the first band is usually the
closest to a lead. A gold or silver band (the tolerance) is always the last band.

It is a good practice to check the manufacturer’s documentation to be sure about the color
coding system used.
When in doubt, measure the resistance with a ohmmeter. In some cases this might even be the
only way to figure out the resistance; for example when the color bands are burnt off.

4 band resistor

The four band color code is the most common variation. These resistors have two bands for
the resistance value, one multiplier and one tolerance band. In the example shown here, the 4
bands are green, blue, red and gold. By using the color code chart, one finds that green stands
for 5 and blue for 6. The third band is the multiplier, with red representing a multiplier value
of 2 (102). Therefore, the value of this resistor is 56 · 10 2 = 56 · 100 = 5600 Ω. The gold band
means that the resistor has a tolerance of 5%. The resistance value lies therefore between
5320 and 5880 Ω (5560 ± 5%). If the tolerance band is left blank, the result is a 3 band
resistor. This means that the resistance value remains the same, but the tolerance is 20%.
5 band resistor

Resistors with high precision have an extra band to indicate a third significant digit. Therefore,
the first three bands indicate the significant digits, the fourth band is the multiplication factor,
and the fifth band represents the tolerance. For the example shown here: brown (1), yellow (4),
violet (7), black (x 100 = x1), green (0.5%) represents a 147 Ω resistor with a 0.5% tolerance.
There are exceptions to this 5-band color system. For example, sometimes the extra band may
indicate failure rate (military specification) or temperature coefficient (older or specialized
resistors). Please read the subsection “Color Code Exceptions" below for more information.
6 band resistor

Resistors with 6 bands are usually for high precision resistors that have an additional band to
specify the temperature coefficient (ppm/˚C = ppm/K). The most common color for the sixth
band is brown (100 ppm/˚C). This means that for a temperature change of 10 ˚C, the resistance
value can change 1000 ppm = 0.1%. For the 6 band resistor example shown above: orange (3),
red (2), brown (1), brown (x10), green (1%), red (50 ppm/°C) represents a 3.21 kΩ resistor
with a 1% tolerance and a 50 ppm/°C temperature coefficient.

Color Code Exceptions

Reliability band

Resistors that are produced according to military specifications, sometimes include an extra
band to indicate reliability. This is specified in failure rate (%) per 1000 hours of service. This
is rarely used in commercial electronics. Most often the reliability band can be found on four
band resistors. More information about the reliability can be found in the US military
handbook MIL-HDBK-199.
Single black band or zero-ohm resistor

A resistor with a single black band is called a zero-ohm resistor. Principally it is used as a wire
link that functions to connect traces on a printed circuit board (PCB). Using the resistor
package allows the same automated pick-and-place machines to place the components on a
circuit board.
5 band resistor with a 4th band of gold or silver
Five band resistors with a fourth band of gold or silver form an exception and are used on
specialized and older resistors. The first two bands represent the significant digits, the 3rd the
multiplication factor, the 4th the tolerance, and the 5th the temperature coefficient (ppm/˚C).
Deviating colors

For high voltage resistors, the colors gold and silver are often replaced with yellow and gray.
This is to prevent having metal particles in the coating.

Example: 1

In this picture, you will see it colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold. This equates to 47 kΩ with a
tolerance of +/- 5%.

Example: 2

Here we have a resistor colored Green-Red-Gold-Silver, which would be 5.2 Ω with a tolerance
of +/- 10%.

Example: 3

A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 20%. When you see
only three color bands on a resistor, you know that it is actually a 4-band code with a blank
(20%) tolerance band.
Example: 4

A resistor colored Orange-Orange-Black-Brown-Violet would be 3.3 kΩ with a tolerance of +/-

0.1%.

Example: 5

A resistor colored Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red would be 1.58 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 2%.

Example: 6

A resistor colored Blue-Brown-Green-Silver-Blue would be 6.15 Ω with a tolerance of +/-

0.25%.

All Types of Capacitor Symbol and Diagram

A Capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in form of an electric charge in an electrical
field. A capacitor is very well known as a passive electrical or electronic component. A capacitor
is a two-terminal device and the property or effect of a capacitor is called capacitance. The
capacitor is also known as Condensor.
The capacitor is a very useful component and it used in almost all electrical and electronic
circuits. The main function of a capacitor is to store electrical energy. A capacitor is used for
energy storing, power factor improvement, and filter circuits. There are various types of
capacitors according to their nature, polarity, and construction. In this article, we are going to see
all types of capacitor symbols and diagrams.

The different types of capacitor are,

Electrolytic Capacitor
Ceramic Capacitor
Polarized Capacitor
Non-Polarized Capacitor
Fixed Capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Trimmer Capacitor
Electrolytic Capacitor is made of aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The
other electrode is a liquid electrolyte. Electrolytic capacitors are polarized capacitors.
Electrolytic capacitors provide high capacitance but they have low tolerance and high explosion
risk. Here you can see the symbol of the electrolytic capacitor.
Ceramic capacitors are very cheap and compact in design. They are most suitable for high-
frequency applications. The ceramic capacitor only provides a low capacitance value. Ceramic
capacitors are nonpolarized capacitors. Here you can see the symbol of ceramic capacitor.

Polarized capacitors are unable to work with varying polarity power supply. They have specific
positive and negative terminals. When the positive terminal of the capacitor is connected to the
positive terminal of the power supply and the negative terminal of the capacitor is connected to
the negative terminal of the power supply, it will work properly. Electrolytic Capacitor, Super
capacitor are examples of Polarized Capacitor. Here, you can see the symbol of the polarized
capacitor.
Non Polarized capacitors are those which can work with varying polarity power supply. They
have not any specific positive or negative terminal. Ceramic capacitors are examples of non-
polarised capacitors. Here, you can see the symbol of the Non polarised capacitor.

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A fixed capacitor always provides a constant capacitance value. Its capacitance cannot be varied
or change. Here you can see the symbol of Fixed Capacitor. Normal compact electrolytic
capacitors and ceramic capacitors are examples of Fixed capacitors.
A variable capacitor can provide different capacitance values as per our requirements. We can
vary its capacitance value anytime. Here, you can see the symbol of the variable capacitor.

Trimmer capacitor is also one type of variable capacitor. It uses the trimming of the dielectric
medium of the capacitor to change the capacitance value. Here, you can see the symbol of the
Trimmer Capacitor.
Various Types Of Diodes With Their Characteristics & Uses
The diode is the most used semiconductor device in electronics circuits. It is a two-terminal
electrical check valve that allows the flow of current in one direction. They are mostly made
up of silicon but germanium is also used. Usually, they are used for rectification. But there are
different properties & characteristics of diodes which can be used for different application. These
characteristics are modified to form different types of diodes. Nowadays, several different types
of diodes having different properties are available.
 P-N Junction Diode
The P-N junction diode is made up of semiconductor material. It consists of two layers of
semiconductors. One layer is doped with P-type material and the other layer with N-type
material. The combination of these both P and N-type layers form a junction known as the P-N
junction. Hence the name P-N junction diode.

It allows the flow of current in the forward direction and blocks it in reverse direction. They are
also known as rectifier diode used for rectification.
There are different types of diodes that use the P-N junction with variation in doping
concentration. They are discussed below.
Small Signal Diode
It is a type of P-N junction diode which operates on low voltage signals. Its junction area is very
small. Due to which, the junction has less capacitance & low charge storing capacity. It enables
the small signal diode to have high switching speed with very fast recovery time. However, its
limitations are low voltage and current parameters.
Rectifier Diode
A rectifier diode is a type of P-N junction diode, whose P-N junction area is very large. This
results in high capacitance in reverse direction. It has low switching speed.

This is the most common and most used type of a diode. These types of diodes can handle heavy
current and are used in converting AC into DC (Rectification).
Schottky Diode
The Schottky diode, named after a German physicist Walter H. Schottky, is a type of diode
which consists of a small junction between an N-type semiconductor and a metal. It has no P-N
junction.
The plus point of the Schottky diode is that it has very low forward voltage drop and fast
switching. As there is no capacitive junction (P-N junction), the Schottky diode switching speed
is very fast.

The limitation of Schottky diode is that it has low reverse breakdown voltage and high reverse
leakage current.
Super Barrier Diodes
Super barrier diodes (SBR) are also rectifier diodes but they have a low forward voltage drop
just like a Schottky diode. They have low reverse leakage current just like a normal P-N
junction diode
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
The light emitting diode is also a type of P-N junction diode that emits light in the forward bias
configuration.
LED is made up of a direct-band semiconductor. When the charge carriers (electrons) cross the
barrier and recombine with electron holes on the other side, they emit photon particles (light).
While the color of the light depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor.
LED converts electrical energy into light energy.
Photodiode
The photo diode is a type of P-N junction diode that converts the light energy into electrical
current. Its operation is opposite to that of an LED.

Every semiconductor diode is affected by optical charge carriers. It is why they are packaged in a
light blocking material.
In the photodiode, there is a special opening that allows the light to enter its sensitive part.
When the light (Photon particles) strikes the PN junction, it creates an electron-hole pair. These
electron and hole flow out as electrical current. To increase its efficiency, a PIN junction diode
is used.
Laser Diode
A laser diode is similar to LED because it converts electrical energy into light energy. But
unlike LED, Laser diode produces coherent light.
The laser diode consists of a PIN junction, where electron and holes combine together in the
intrinsic (I) region. when they combine, it generates a laser beam.
Laser diodes are used in optical communication, laser pointer, CD drives and laser printer etc.
Tunnel Diode
Tunnel diode was invented by Leo Esaki in 1958 for which he received Nobel prize in 1973,
which is why it is also known as Esaki diode.
A tunnel diode is a heavily doped P-N junction diode. It works on the principle of the tunneling
effect. Due to heavy doping concentration, the junction barrier becomes very thin. This allows
the electron to easily escape through the barrier. This phenomenon is known as tunneling effect.
The Tunnel diode has a region in its VI curve where the current decreases as the voltage
increases. This region is known as the negative resistance region. The tunnel diode operates in
this region in different applications such as an oscillator and a microwave amplifier.
The symbol with VI characteristic curve of tunnel diode is given below:
 Zener Diode
Zener diode is named after Clarence Malvin Zener who discovered the zener effect.
It is a type of diode, which not only allows the flow of current in the forward direction but also in
reverse direction. when the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown voltage known as Zener
voltage it allows the current flow.
The Zener diode has heavier doping concentration than a normal P-N junction diode. Hence, it
has a very thin depletion region.
In forward bias, it operates as a simple P-N junction diode (Rectifier).
In reverse bias, it blocks until the reverse voltage reaches breakdown. After that, it allows the
current flow with a constant voltage drop.

Zener reverse breakdown is caused due to two reason i.e. electron quantum
tunneling and Avalanche breakdown.
A Zener diode is mainly used in reverse bias configuration. It provides a stabilized voltage for
protection of circuits from overvoltage.
Backward Diode
The backward diode or the back diode is a P-N junction diode, whose operation is similar to that
of tunnel diode and Zener diode. But the operating voltages are much lower.
A backward diode is essentially a tunnel diode, whose one side of the junction has relatively less
doping concentration compared to the other side.
In the forward bias, it operates as a tunnel diode but its tunneling effect is much reduced as
compared to tunnel diode. Otherwise, it operates as a normal P-N junction diode.
In reverse bias, it operates as a Zener diode but the breakdown voltages are much lower.
It is not widely used but it can be used for rectification of a small voltage signal (0.1 to 0.6v).
Due to its fast switching speed, it can be used as a switch in RF mixer and multiplier.
Avalanche Diode
The Avalanche diode is a P-N junction diode that is specifically designed to operate in
the avalanche breakdown region.
Avalanche breakdown is a phenomenon where sufficient reverse voltage is applied to the P-N
junction. Due to which, the minority carrier ionizes & starts a heavy current flow in reverse
direction.
Avalanche diode works electrically similar to the Zener diode. However, the doping
concentration of a Zener diode is relatively higher as compared to an avalanche diode.
The heavy doping inside the Zener diode creates a small junction & low voltages can easily
break it. However, the avalanche diode has a wide junction because of light doping
concentration. Thus, it requires a high voltage for its breakdown. This wide junction makes it a
better surge protector compare to a simple Zener diode.
Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS) Diode
Transient voltage suppression diode or TVS diode is a type of avalanche diode that protects the
circuit form high voltage surges.

The SRD (Step Recovery Diode) is made of a P-N junction with very low doping concentration
near the junction. Due to which, the charge carriers (electron and holes) near the junction also
decrease in number. Hence, the charge storing capacity near the junction becomes negligible.
This enables the SRD to switch from ON to OFF very fast.
In a normal diode, when it is switched from forward conduction to reverse cutoff, the current
flows briefly because of the stored charge. Due to which, the normal diode takes some time in
switching. The SRD does not store charge, So it can cease the current flow instantaneously.
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Gold Doped Diode
In such type of diode, Gold or platinum is used as the dopant (doping material). It enables the
diode to operate at fast switching speed but at the expense of increasing the forward voltage
drop. Also, its reverse leakage current is higher than a normal P-N junction diode.
Constant Current Diode
The constant current diode AKA the current-limiting diode (CLD) is a two terminal diode
made from JFET. It regulates the current flow through it up to a fixed level.

CLD is made by making short contact between the gate and the source of JFET. It limits the
current just like Zener diode limits voltage.
Step Recovery Diode
Step recovery diode or snap-off diode is a P-N junction diode which abruptly ceases the flow of
current when its direction is reversed.

The SRD (Step Recovery Diode) is made of a P-N junction with very low doping concentration
near the junction. Due to which, the charge carriers (electron and holes) near the junction also
decrease in number. Hence, the charge storing capacity near the junction becomes negligible.
This enables the SRD to switch from ON to OFF very fast.
In a normal diode, when it is switched from forward conduction to reverse cutoff, the current
flows briefly because of the stored charge. Due to which, the normal diode takes some time in
switching. The SRD does not store charge, So it can cease the current flow instantaneously

Peltier Or Thermal Diode

Peltier or thermal diode is a type of diode whose thermal resistance is different in one direction
than the other direction. So the heat generated flows in one direction to one side (terminal) and
leaving the other side cooler.
This diode is used in the application of heat monitoring in microprocessor and in refrigerators for
cooling effect.
Vacuum Diode
It is the simplest form of a diode made from a vacuum tube and two electrodes (cathode and
anode). The Anode and Cathode are enclosed inside the vacuum tube (empty glass).
When the cathode heats up it emits electrons, the anode picks up the electrons and the flow
continues.
The cathode can be heated directly or indirectly.

In forward bias, the free electron on cathode release into the vacuum after getting heat up. The
anode collects these electrons and the current flows.
In reverse bias, the free electron in the vacuum gets repelled by the anode as it is connected to
the negative terminal, therefore the current does not flow.
Varactor Diode
Varactor diode also known as Vericap diode are voltage controlled capacitors. They have a P-N
junction with variable junction capacitance.
The varactor diode operates under reverse bias conditions. The depletion layer between the P and
N-type material is varied by changing the reverse voltage.
All diode’s junction capacitance varies with reverse voltage but Varactor diode is able to use this
effect with a high range of capacitance.
The applications of Varactor diodes are as a voltage controlled oscillator in the phase-lock
loop, in RF tuning filters and frequency multipliers.
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Gunn Diode
Gunn diode AKA “Transferred Electron Device” (TED) is a type of diode having negative
resistance like tunnel diode. It is named after a British physicist J.B Gunn who discovered the
“Gunn Effect” in 1962.
The Gunn diode does not have P-N junction. In fact, it consists of only N-type material, which
is why it does not rectify AC or work like a normal diode. It is also the reason many people call
it “Transferred Electron Device” (TED) instead of a diode.

It consists of three N-type layers; two of them which are on the terminal’s side have a higher
doping concentration whereas the middle thin layer has a lighter doping concentration.
When the voltage is applied to Gunn diode, initially its current increases with increase in voltage.
At higher voltage, the resistance of the middle layer starts increasing with voltage. It results in
the fall of the current flow. This is the negative resistance region & Gunn diode operates in this
region.
The Gunn diode is used in an oscillator for generating microwaves of high frequency.
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PIN Diode
PIN diode is a three-layer diode i.e. P-layer, I-layer & N-layer. The ‘I‘ intrinsic semiconductor
layer is placed between heavily doped P and an N-type semiconductor.

The electron and holes from N and P-type region respectively flow to the intrinsic region (I).
Once the “I” region fills completely with electron-holes, the diode starts conduction.
In reverse bias, the wide intrinsic layer in the diode can block and tolerate high reverse voltages.
At higher frequency, the PIN diode will act as a linear resistor. It is because of the fact that the
PIN diode has poor reverse recovery time. The reason is that the heavily charged “I” region
does not get enough time to discharge during fast cycles.
While at low frequency, it acts as a rectifier diode. Because it gets enough time to discharge &
turn off during the cycle.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

SCR is a four-layer P-N-P-N semiconductor switching device. It has three terminals Anode,
Cathode, and Gate.

SCR is essentially a diode with an external control input known as the gate input. It allows
current flow in one direction.
When SCR is connected in the forward bias, it won’t yet allow the flow of current. This is known
as the forward blocking mode.
To make SCR conduct in the forward mode, it either needs the necessary voltage to cross
its breakover limit or by applying a positive pulse to its gate input.
To turn off SCR, either decrease the current below the holding current point or turn off the gate
input and short circuit the anode-cathode momentarily.
In reverse bias, the SCR does not allow current even after applying gate input. But if the reverse
voltage reaches reverse breakdown voltage, the SCR starts conduction due to avalanche
phenomena.
SCR is used for controlling high power circuits, rectification of high power AC
Shockley Diode
Shockley diode is a four layer PNPN diode. It resembles SCR but it has no control or gate input.
Shockley diode tends to stay ‘ON’ once it is turned ‘ON’ & tends to stay ‘OFF’ when it is turned
‘OFF’.

As we know that the Shockley diode has no gate input so the only way to switch it ‘ON’ is by
applying Forward voltage greater than its breakdown voltage.
After applying the voltage greater than its breakdown voltage, it will allow the current flow.
During conduction state, it won’t turn off even if the voltage decreases from its breakdown
voltage. To make it switch ‘OFF’, the voltage needs to be sufficiently lower than its breakdown
voltage.
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Point Contact Diode
It is also known as Cat Whisker diode or crystal diode.
It is a type of diode in which a small point junction is formed between a metal wire & N-types
semiconductor crystal.
“cat whisker” is a thin springy wire made of Phosphorus bronze or tungsten. It makes a point
contact junction with an N-type semiconductor, Hence the name point-contact diode.
As the junction formed is very small so the junction capacitance of point contact diode is very
low. Thus, there is very low charge storage capacity, which makes it a fast switching device.
During manufacturing, passing a relatively large current through the cat whisker wire results in
the formation of small a P-region upon the N-type semiconductor. This small junction acts as a
P-N junction.
Point contact diodes are used for low voltage signal & in microwave mixer & detectors.
These are some of the most common types of diodes used in designing and operation of
electronic circuits. If you want to add more kinds of diodes, let us know in the comment box
below.