By: Engr. Dr.

Anzar Mahmood
Associate Professor, SMIEEE
Declaration:
It is clearly stated that the material, for
the preparation of these CPD slides, is
taken from different books, research
papers, internet sources etc. I have tried
our best to mention the references at
suitable places.
 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

Plot of current and

voltage for simple
AC resistor circuit.

Plot of power
dissipated by the
AC resistor circuit.

Power is never –ve value when voltage and current are positive i.e
above the line and when both are –ve i.e below the line.
 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

Plot of current and

voltage for simple
AC inductor circuit.

Plot of power for

inductor circuit.

Power is +ve value when voltage and current are positive i.e above
the line and when both are –ve i.e below the line.

Current and voltage are 90o out of pahse, there are times when
one is +ve and other is negative value resulting frequent
occurrence of negative power.
 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

Plot of current and

voltage for simple AC
capacitor circuit.

Plot of power for

capacitor circuit.
Inductive circuit:
❑Current lags behind the voltage
❑Lagging power factor

Capacitive circuit:
❑Current leads the voltage
❑Leading power factor

1. I cos φ in phase with V

2. I sin φ 90o out of phase with V

•Component I cos φ is known as active or wattful component

•The reactive component is a measure of the power factor

•Circuit having small reactive current (I sin φ) will have high power
factor and vice-versa
 Power Factor

The phasor diagram of inductive circuit. Lagging current I from

supply voltage V and the angle of lag Φ
 5. The power factor of a circuit can be defined in one of the
following three ways
=
=

=
=

=
=

6. ❑The reactive power is neither consumed in the circuit nor it

does any useful work.
❑It merely flows back and forth in both directions in the circuit.
❑ A wattmeter does not measure reactive power.
 Power Triangle

Active power

Reactive power

Apparent power

➢ OA = VI cos φ and represents the active power in watts or kW

➢ AB = VI sin φ and represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR
➢ OB = VI and represents the apparent power in VA or kVA
1.

2. Power factor, cos φ = OA /OB = active power / apparent power

=kW/ kVA

3. The lagging reactive power is responsible for the low power

factor.

4. For leading currents, the power triangle becomes reversed.

Lagging reactive power of the load can be neutralized by leading
reactive power by placing capacitor parallel with the load
Analogy of Power Factor
Analogy of Power Factor
Lagging and Leading KVARs
Circuit draws a current of 10 A at a voltage
of 200 V and its p.f. is 0·8 lagging.
Then Find

Apparent power = ?
Active power = ?
Reactive power = ?

Which power does no useful work ?

Reactive power is a liability on the source because the
source has to supply the additional current (i.e., I sin φ).
 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

The power factor plays an important role in a.c. circuits since

power consumed depends upon this factor.

P = VL IL cos φ (For single phase supply)

IL = P/VL cos φ

P = √3 VL IL cos φ (For 3 phase supply)

IL = P / √3 VL cosφ

Load current is inversely proportional to the power factor

Lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa
1. Large kVA rating of equipment

2. Greater conductor size

3. Large copper losses

4. Poor voltage regulation

5. Reduced handling capacity of system

Why electrical machinery is rated in kVA?

Because the power factor of the load is not known when the
machinery is manufactured in the factory.
1. Large kVA rating of equipment

The electrical machinery (e.g., alternators, transformers,

switchgear) is always rated in kVA.

kVA = kW /cos φ
At low power factor, the kVA rating of the equipment has to
be made more, making the equipment larger and expensive.

2. Greater conductor size

Conductor will have to carry more current at low power factor.
This necessitates large conductor size.
3. Large copper losses
The large current at low power factor causes more I2R losses in all
the elements of the supply system. This results in poor efficiency.

4. Poor voltage regulation

The large current at low lagging power factor causes greater
voltage drops in alternators, transformers, transmission lines and
distributors
In order to keep the receiving end voltage within permissible limits,
extra equipment (i.e., voltage regulators) is required.

5. Reduced handling capacity of system

The reactive component of current prevents the full utilization
of installed capacity.
 Causes of Low Power Factor

The following are the causes of low power factor:

1. Induction motors (1φ and 3φ) low lagging power factor.

2. Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating

furnaces operate at low lagging power factor.

3. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which

increases the magnetisation current.
This results in the decreased power factor
 Motor Load and Power Factors

https://www.pdhonline.com/courses/e144/e144content.pdf
Typical Un-Improved Power Factors

https://www.slideserve.com/maitland/power-factor-correction-capacitors
 Power Factor Improvement

❑Device taking leading power should be connected in parallel

with the load.

❑The capacitor can neutralize the lagging reactive component

of load current.
<

I cos φ1 = I ′ cos φ2

I ′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC

➢IC leads the supply voltage by 90o

➢Resulting line current= I′

(Phasor sum of I and IC and its angle of lag is φ2)

➢φ2 < φ1
➢cos φ2 > cos φ1
(Hence, the power factor of the load is improved)
The following points are worth noting :

1. I ′ after p.f. correction is less than the original circuit current I.

2. The active or wattful component remains the same

before and after p.f. correction

I cos φ1 = I ′ cos φ2
3. The lagging reactive component is reduced after p.f.
improvement

It is equal to the difference between lagging reactive component

of load (I sin φ1) and capacitor current (Icsin 90o)

I ′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC
4. I cos φ1 = I ′ cos φ2
VI cos φ1 = VI ′ cos φ2
Active power (kW) remains unchanged.

5. I ′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC
VI ′ sin φ2 = VI sin φ1 − VIC

Net kVAR after p.f. correction = Lagging kVAR before p.f.

correction − leading kVAR of equipment
 Power Factor Improvement Equipment
Normal power factor range: 0.8 to 0·9

❑If it is lower, special steps taken to improve p.f.

P.F can be improved by the following equipment :

1.Static capacitors

2.Synchronous condenser

3.Phase advancers.
1.Static capacitors:

❑The capacitor draws a leading current and partly or completely

neutralises the lagging reactive component of load current.

❑Connected in delta or star for three-phase loads

❑Used for power factor improvement in factories, grid stations

etc.
Advantages
1. Low losses.

2. Require little maintenance as no rotating parts.

3. Easily installed as they are light and require no foundation.

4. Can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.

Disadvantages

1. Short service life ranging from 8 to 10 years.

2. Easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value.

3. Once damaged, their repair is uneconomical.

Effects of Harmonics on Capacitors
Medium Voltage Capacitor Bank 1200kVAR. 75 MVAr capacitor bank in a
Each unit is rated for 400kVAR at 7.2kV 150 kV substation
Power Factor Correction Vs Released System Capacity
2. Synchronous condenser

❑An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is known as

synchronous condenser.
❑It takes a leading current which partly neutralises the lagging
reactive component of the load.
❑Used at major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement
Advantages
1. Stepless control of power factor by varying the field excitation.

2. Windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.

3. The faults can be removed easily.

Disadvantages
1.Losses in the motor.
2. Maintenance cost is high.
3. It produces noise.
4. Except in sizes above 500 kVA, the cost is greater than that of
static capacitors of the same rating.
5. Auxiliary equipment has to be provided for starting.
3. Phase advancers
❑Used to improve the power factor of induction motors.

If the exciting ampere turns can be provided from some other

a.c. source, then the stator winding will be relieved of exciting
current and the power factor of the motor can be improve.

❑The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the

main motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor

❑Provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip

frequency.

❑Phase advancers are not economical for motors below 200 H.P.
 Calculations of Power Factor Correction

➢Inductive load taking a lagging current I at a power factor cos φ1

➢The capacitor takes a current IC which leads the supply voltage V by 90o.

➢The current IC partly cancels the lagging reactive component of the load.
❑Lagging reactive component of the load is reduced to I′sin φ.

I′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC sin 90o IC sin 90o

I′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC
I′ sin φ2

IC = I sin φ1 − I′ sin φ2 I sin φ1

Capacitance of capacitor to improve p.f. from cos φ1 to cos φ2

Xc= Vc/Ic = 1/ωC

C = Ic / ωV
Power triangle

KVAR supplied by
correction equipment

❖Active power (OA) does not change with power factor improvement.

❖kVAR of the load is reduced by the p.f. correction equipment,

improving the p.f. to cos φ.
Leading kVAR supplied by p.f. correction equipment

Leading kVAR supplied = BC = AB − AC

= kVAR1 − kVAR2
= OA (tan φ1 − tan φ2)
= kW (tan φ1 − tan φ2)
 Importance of Power Factor Improvement
Improvement of power factor is very important for:
1. Consumers
2. Generating stations
1. For consumers:
❑Reduction in maximum kVA demand and consequently
annual saving due to maximum demand charges.

2. For generating stations:

❑The generators are rated in kVA .
❑Station output is kW = kVA × cos φ
❑Greater the power factor of the generating station, higher
is the kWh it delivers to the system.
❑Improved power factor increases the earning capacity of the
power station
 Most Economical Power Factor
Improving the power factor reduces the maximum kVA
demand and there will be annual saving over the maximum
demand charges.

Power factor improvement involves investment in equipment.

Annual saving Annual expenditure

Net annual saving = in maximum - incurred on p.f.
demand charge correction equipment

The value to which the power factor should be improved so as

to have maximum net annual saving is known as the most
economical power factor.
➢Active load =P kW
➢Power factor = cos φ1
➢Charged at a rate of Rs x
per kVA of maximum
demand per annum

After power factor improvement:

➢Power factor = cos φ2

➢Expenditure incurred on the p.f. correction equipment be
Rs y per kVAR per annum
Original p.f. cos φ1 is OAB Improved p.f. cos φ is OAC
 = Rs X (kVA1 − kVA2) Where as Power factor=
= Rs x (P sec φ1 − P sec φ2) cos φ = active power /apparent power
=kW/kVA
= Rs x P (sec φ1 − sec φ2) …..(1) Or kVA= kW/ cos φ
= kW sec φ

= Rs y (kVAR1 − kVAR2)
kVAR = kVA sin φ = kW sin φ/ cos φ
= Rs y (P tan φ1 − P tan φ2) kVAR = kW tan φ
= Rs P y ( tan φ1 − tan φ2)…..(2)

Net annual saving, S = exp. (1) − exp. (2)

= xP (sec φ1 − sec φ2) − yP (tan φ1 − tan φ2)
Here only φ2 is variable while all other quantities are fixed
Therefore, the net annual saving will be maximum if differentiation
of above expression w.r.t. φ2 is zero.
➢d/dφ2 (S) = 0
➢d/φ2 [xP (sec φ1 − sec φ2) − yP (tan φ1 − tanφ2)] = 0

➢d/dφ2 (xP sec φ1) − d /dφ2 (xP sec φ2) − d /dφ2 (yP tan φ1) + yP d dφ2 (tan φ2) = 0

➢0 − xP sec φ2 tan φ2 − 0 + yP sec2 φ2 = 0

d/dx(sec x)= sec x tan x
d/dx (tanx) =sec2x
➢−x tan φ2 + y sec φ2 = 0
➢tan φ2 = y /x (sec φ2 )

➢sin φ2 = y/x

Most economical power factor:

cos φ2 = √(1 - sin 2φ 2)= √(1- (y / x)2
Meeting the Increased kW Demand on Power Stations

❑Sometimes power station is required to deliver more kW to

meet the increase in power demand.

This can be achieved by either of the following two

methods :

1. Increasing the kVA capacity at the same power

factor.

2. Improving the power factor without increasing the

kVA capacity of the station.
1. Increasing the kVA capacity

KW

φ1

KVA
2. Improving the power factor

KW

φ1 φ2

KVA
Economical comparison of two methods:
Extra cost of increasing kW capacity needs economical comparison
of the two methods.

Power station rating = S kVA is

supplying load at p.f. of cos φ1.

1. Increasing the p.f. to cos φ2

at S kVA ( B to E at same
rating)
2. Increasing the kVA rating of
the station at the original
p.f. cos φ1 (B to D).
1. Cost of increasing kVA capacity of station:
Where ( BF = AC), (OE = OB = P)

= BD = BF /cos φ 1= AC /cos φ 1
=( OC − OA) /cos φ1
=(OE cos φ2- OB cos φ1) /cos φ 1
= S (cos φ 2- cos φ 1)/ cos φ 1

If Rs x is the annual cost per kVA

of the station

=Rs x S (cos φ 2- cos φ 1)/ cos φ 1 ……..(1)

2. Cost of p.f. correction equipment.
The leading kVAR taken by the p.f. correction equipment is ED.

= ED = CD − CE
= OD sin φ1 − OE sin φ2
=(OC /cos φ1) sin φ1 − OE sin φ2
=(OE cos φ2/cosφ1) sin φ1 − OE sin φ2
= OE (tan φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ2)
= S (tan φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ2)

If Rs. y is the annual cost per kVAR of the p.f. correction equipment

= Rs y S (tan φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ2)……..(2)

Different cases:
1.The p.f. correction equipment will be cheaper if

y S (tan φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ2) < x S (cos φ 2- cos φ 1)/ cos φ1

y (tan φ1 cos φ2 − sin φ2) < x (cos φ 2- cos φ 1)/ cos φ1
2. The maximum annual cost per kVAR (i.e., y) of p.f.
correction equipment that would justify its installation is
when

xS
yS

y = x (cos φ2- cos φ1 ) / sin (φ1 - φ2)

 Power
Factor
Formulae
Power Factor Formulae
Selecting kVAR for 3-Phase Motors
To properly select the amount of kVAR required to
correct the lagging power factor of a 3-phase
motor you must have three pieces of information:

• kW (kilowatts)
• Existing Power Factor in percent
• Desired Power Factor in percent

The formula to calculate the required kVAR is:

Factor from Table x kW = kVAR of capacitors
required.
EXAMPLE:
A small machine tool plant used an average of 100
kW with an existing power factor of 80%. Their
desired power factor is 95%. The kVAR of
capacitors necessary to raise the power factor to
95% is found by using Table 1, which in this case
gives .421 as the factor needed to complete the
formula
referenced above:

.421 x 100 kW = 42 kVAR

Power Factor in Generator Capability Curve
 Power Factor Related Standards

• IEC 61921:2017
Power capacitors - Low-voltage power factor
correction banks
 Power Factor Related Standards
• IEEE STD 18-2012 , which is the standard for shunt power
capacitors allow capacitor tolerance between 0-10%. This
tolerance could be +15% according to IEC standard.
Voltage Tolerance

• Voltage tolerance is established by various national standards

such as ANSI C84.1.
• Capacitors that follow IEEE 18 standard is capable of operating
under the following contingency voltage conditions:
❑ 110% of rated rms voltage
❑ 120% of rated peak voltage
• To account for the presence of inevitable harmonic currents,
voltage tolerance and manufacturing tolerance IEEE STD 18 states
that capacitors shall be capable of operating at 135% of nominal
rms current based on rated kvar and rated voltage.
 IEC VS IEEE

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 IEC VS IEEE

• According to the IEC convention, (left on the figure

above), the Power Factor sign is solely dependent on
the direction of Real Power flow and is independent
of the load being Inductive or Capacitive.
• The power factor is positive for normal (positive) Real
Power flow, that is when Real Power flows into a load,
i.e energy is being consumed by the load.
• The power factor is negative for reverse (negative)
Real Power flow, that is when Real power flows out of
the load. i.e energy is being generated by the load (as
would be the case for any power generation plant)
 IEC VS IEEE

• According to the IEEE convention, (right on the figure

above), the Power Factor sign is solely dependent on the
nature of the load (that is Capacitive or Inductive). In this
case, it is independent on the direction of Real Power
flow.

➢ For an Inductive load the Power Factor is negative.

➢ For a Capacitive load, the power factor is positive.
 Power Factor Position of
Distribution Network of DISCOs’:

As per Distribution Planning Code (DPC) of

Distribution Code 2005, DISCOs and KE are
responsible for the maintenance of power factor
within the range of 90% to 100%, DISCOs and KE
were directed to submit the information regarding
power factor at Common Delivery Point (CDP) and
11 kV feeders. The information provided by DISCOs
transpired that the power factor position in SEPCO,
QESCO and PESCO is poor. These DISCOs have been
directed to submit plans for improvement of power
factor.
TRUE POWER FACTOR
In the sinusoidal case there is only one phase angle between the
voltage and the current (since only the fundamental frequency is
present; the power factor can be computed as the cosine of the
phase angle and is commonly referred as the displacement power
factor:

In the non-sinusoidal case, the power factor cannot be defined

as the cosine of the phase angle as in above equation. The
power factor that considers the contribution from all active
power, including both fundamental and harmonic frequencies,
is known as the true power factor. The true power factor simply
the ratio of total active power for all frequencies to the apparent
power delivered by the utility.
Power Factor Controller
1. PF correction multi step relay/controller

2. Capacitors

3. Magnetic Contactors

4. Fuse

5. Control Relays

6. Auto-Manual selector switch

7. LED indicators
THANK YOU