The extent to which a test is practical sometimes hinges

EL 115 | TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF on whether a test is designed to be norm-referenced or

GRAMMAR criterion-referenced.
UNIT 8 – GRAMMAR (LANGUAGE) In norm-referenced tests, each test taker’s score is
ASSESSMENT CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES interpreted in relation to a mean, median, standard
deviation, and/or percentile rank. The purpose in such
ASSESSMENT tests is to place test-takers along a mathematical
continuum in rank order. Typical of norm referenced
● is the act of gathering information on a daily
tests are standardized tests intended to be administered
basis in order to understand individual student’s
to large audiences, with results quickly disseminated to
learning needs. “In the context of language
test-takers. Such tests must have fixed, predetermined
(grammar) teaching and learning, ‘assessment’
responses in a format can be electronically scanned.
refers to the act of collecting information and
Practicality is a primary issue.
making judgments about a language learner’s
knowledge of a language and ability to use it.” Criterion-referenced tests are designed to give test-takers
(Chapelle & Brindley) feedback on specific course or lesson objectives, that is,
the ‘criteria.’ Classroom tests involving smaller
TESTING
numbers, and connected to a curriculum, are typical
● refers to procedures that are based on tests. In criterion-referenced testing. Here, more time and effort
learning, it is a salient part of assessment. on the part of the teacher (test administrator) are usually
required in order to deliver the feedback. In
LANGUAGE TESTING criterion-referenced tests practicality is just a secondary
issue in the design of the test; teachers may sacrifice
● is the practice and study of evaluating the time and effort in order to offer students appropriate and
proficiency of an individual in using a particular useful feedback –the instructional value of a test.
language effectively. (Allen) Testing (assessing) and teaching are interrelated.
MEASUREMENT 2. Reliability
● includes testing and other types of measurement, A reliable test is consistent and dependable. A number
as well as other types of information that result of sources of unreliability may be identified:
in quantitative data such as attendance, records,
questionnaires, teacher ratings of students, etc. ● The test itself (its construction), known as test
reliability
EVALUATION ● The administration of the test
● The test-taker, known as student-related
● is the culminating act of interpreting the
reliability
information gathered for the purpose of making
decisions or judgments about students’ learning ● The scoring of the test, - known as rater / scorer
and needs, often at reporting time. It forms as reliability
part of assessment. 3. Validity
In our attempt to have a description of language By far the most complex criterion of a good test is
assessment, we need to define some frequently validity, the degree to which the test actually measures
misunderstood terms. The word assessment has been a what it is intended to measure.
popular word for teachers – likewise with the terms
communicative or interactive. According to Brown How does one establish validity of a test? Statistical
(2007), that you are said to be in the cutting edge if you correlation with other related measures is a standard
assess your students in lieu of testing them. This is a method. But ultimately, validity can be established only
misunderstanding. by observation and theoretical justification.

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE (GRAMMAR) There is no final, absolute, and objective measure of

ASSESSMENT validity. We have to ask questions that give us
convincing evidence that a test accurately and
Whether we focus on testing or assessing, a finite sufficiently measures the test-taker for the particular
number of principles can serve as guidelines for the objective, or criterion, of the test.
design of a new test or assessment and for evaluating
efficacy of an existing procedure. Brown presents five Types of Validity
principles that various assessment specialists cite as
priorities for the design of language assessment. a. Content Validity

1. Practicality If a test actually samples the subject matters about which

conclusions are to be drawn, if it requires the test-taker
A good test is practical. It is within the means of to perform the behavior that is being measured, it can
financial limitations, time constraints, ease of claim content validity.
administration, and scoring and interpretation.
b. Face Validity

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A concept that is very closely related to content validity providing interactive feedback. Formal tests can also
is face validity, which asks the question “Does the test, have positive washback, but they are also subject to an
on the ‘face’ of it appear from the learner’s perspective inadvertent absence of washback if students simply
to test what it is designed to test?” To achieve “peak” receive a letter grade or a single overall numerical score.
performance on a test, a learner needs to be convinced
that the test is indeed testing what it claims to test. Face PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT
validity is almost always perceived in terms of content:
1. Assessment for Learning
If the test samples the actual content of what the learner
has achieved or expects to achieve. It focuses on the gap between where learners are in their
learning, and where they need to be – the desired goal.
c. Construct Validity
It can be realized through processes like sharing criteria
A third category of validity that teachers must be awre of with learners, effective questioning and feedback. It
in considering language tests is construct validity. One pertains to ‘all those activities undertaken by teachers
way to look at construct validity is to ask the question and their students that provide information to be used as
“Does this test actually tap into the theoretical construct feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities
as it has been defined? in which they are engaged.’(Black & William)

“Proficiency” is a construct. “Communicative Learners learn best

competence’ is a construct. “ Self-esteem” is a construct.
● when they understand clearly
Virtually every issue in language learning and teaching
● when they are given feedback
involves theoretical constructs. Tests are, in a manner of
● when they are given advice
speaking, operational definitions of such constructs in
● when they are fully involved.
that they operationalize the entity that is being measured
(Davidson, Hudson, & Lynch 1985) 2. Assessment as Learning
4. Authenticity It is about reflecting on evidence of learning. This is
part of the cycle of assessment where students and staff
A fourth major principle of language testing is
set learning goals, share learning intentions and success
authenticity, a concept that is a little slippery to define,
criteria, and evaluate their learning through dialogue and
especially within the art and science of evaluating and
self and peer assessment.
designing tests. Bachman & Palmer (1996) define
authenticity as ‘the degree of correspondence of the Students become aware of:
characteristics of a given language test task to the
features of a target language task,’ and tehn suggest an ● What they learn
agenda for identifying those target language tasks and ● How they learn
for transforming them into valid test items. ● What helps them learn.

When one claims for authenticity in a test task, this is a Students are able to build knowledge of themselves as
task that is likely to be enacted in the ‘real world’. Many learners and become metacognitive. Hence, students
test item types fail to simulate real-world tasks. They become aware of how they learn. It also helps them to
maybe contrived or artificial in their attempt to target a take more responsibility for their learning and participate
grammatical form or a lexical item. The sequencing of more in the process of learning.
items that bear no relationship to one another lacks
authenticity. 3. Assessment of Learning

In a test, authenticity may be present in the following Assessment of learning involves working with the range
ways: of available evidence that enables staff and the wider
assessment community to check on student’s progress
● The language in the test is as natural as possible. and using this information in a number of ways.
● Items are contextualized rather than isolated.
● Topics and situations are interesting, enjoyable, It also provides an arena for the management and
and humorous. planning of assessment, and for teachers to work
● Some thematic organization to items is provided, collaboratively with the evidence. It connects
such as through a story line or episode. assessment with the curriculum.
● Tasks represent, or closely approximate,
Judgments about students’ learning need to be
real-world tasks.
dependable. This means that:
5. Washback
● They are valid (based on sound criteria).
When students take a test, they will receive information ● They are reliable (accuracy of assessment and
(feedback) about their competence, based on their practice).
performance. Their feedback should “washback” to ● They are comparable (they stand up when
them in the form of useful diagnoses of strengths and compared to judgments in other departments or
weaknesses. Washback also includes the effects of schools).
assessment on teaching and learning prior the assessment
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE TESTS
itself, that is, on preparation for the assessment.
Informal assessment I by nature more likely to have Tests are essential parts of assessment, thus it is
built-in washback effects, because the teacher is usually important that their functions are clearly identified.
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 1. In Learning Assessment data can be collected and recorded by the
teacher and the students in many ways. Through these, a
In learning, tests are used to measure student’s language teacher can discover much about their students’
ability, to discover how much they have been learning, to knowledge, abilities, interests, and needs.
diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses, and to
motivate students in learning. 1. Observation

2. In Teaching It occurs during students’ reading, writing, listening, and

speaking experiences. It is an unobtrusive way for
Tests are used in teaching s a means to ensure effective teachers and students to determine progress during
teaching, to improve teaching quality, to obtain feedback learning. Observations are recorded on anecdotal notes,
on student learning place on a course. checklists and rating scales.
Tests can have a backwash effect, which means that they 2. Anecdotal Records
may result in changes of instructional programs or
teaching practices to reflect the test contents because These are notes written by the teacher regarding student
language teachers want their students to do well on high language behavior, or learning. They document and
stakes tests for many different reasons. describe significant daily events, and relevant aspects of
student activity and progress. These can be taken during
3. In Research student activities are at the end of the day.
Language tests have a potentially important role in 3. Checklists
virtually all research, both basic and applied, that is
related to the nature of language proficiency, language Observation checklists, usually completed while students
processing, language acquisition, language attrition, and are engaged in specific activities or processes, are lists of
language teaching. specific criteria that teachers focus on at a particular time
or process. They are used to record whether students
KINDS OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION have acquired specific knowledge, skills, processes,
abilities, and attitudes. Checklists inform teachers about
1. Diagnostic Assessment and Evaluation
where their instruction has been successful and where
These are usually given at the beginning of the school students need assistance or further instruction.
year and before each unit of study. The aims are to
4. Rating Scales and Rubrics
identify students’ knowledge and skills , their learning
needs, and their motivational and interest levels. The These record the extent to which specific criteria have
result of diagnostic assessment can help teachers been achieved by the student or are present in the
determine where to begin instruction and what concepts student’s work. Rating scales also record the quality of
or skills to emphasize. Diagnostic assessment provides the student’s performance at a given or within a given
teachers essential information in the selection of process.
relevant learning objectives and in the design of
appropriate student’s learning experiences 5. Portfolios

2. Formative Assessment and Evaluation These are collections of relevant work that reflect
students’ individual efforts, development, and progress
These focus on the processes and products of learning. over a designated period of time. These also provide
Formative assessment is continuous and is meant to students, teachers, parents, and administrators with a
inform the student, the parent/guardian, and the teacher broad picture of each student’s growth over time,
of the student’s progress in the course. This kind of including the student’s abilities, knowledge, skills, and
assessment and evaluation provides information upon attitudes. Students should be involved in the selection of
which instructional decisions and adaptations can be work to be included, goal setting for personal learning,
made to provide students with directions for future and self-assessment. The teacher can encourage critical
learning. thinking by having students decide which of their works
to include in their portfolios and explain why they chose
3. Summative Assessment and Evaluation
particular items. Instruction and assessment are
These occur most often at the end of a unit of instruction integrated as students and teachers collaborate to
and at term or year end when students are ready to compile relevant and individual portfolios for each
demonstrate achievement of curriculum objectives. student.

The aims are 6. Speaking and Listening

● to determine knowledge , skills, abilities, and Checklists, rating scales, and anecdotal notes used
attitudes that have been developed over a given throughout the lessons can provide information about the
period of time; students’ oral progress. Oral presentations and
● to summarize student’s progress; and incidental observations provide opportunities and
● to report this progress to students, incidental observations provide opportunities to gather
parents/guardians, and teachers. information about students’ listening and speaking
abilities. A rubric which includes performance criteria
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS can be useful for setting a mark for each student.

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Students should be aware of the expectations at each Examples of standardized proficiency tests are TOEFL
level. and IELTS

Speaking or listening may be more heavily emphasized 2. Achievement Tests

depending upon the particular unit or activities..
Teachers with the collaboration of the students will Achievement tests are directly related to language
determine the way that the unit will be evaluated; courses, their purpose being to establish how successful
however, it is important that students know from the individual students, groups of students, or the courses
beginning how they will be assessed and evaluated. themselves have been in achieving objectives.

7. Interviews / Conferences Two Types

During these discussions, teachers can discover students’ ● Final Achievement Tests – are those
perceptions of their own processes and products of administered at the end of the course. They may
learning. Interview questions can be developed to meet be written and administered by DepEd, district
the needs of specific students and to fit the curriculum or division or by members of teaching
objectives. institutions. The content of FAT should be
based directly on a detailed course syllabus or
8. Projects and Presentations on the books and other materials used.
(syllabus-content approach)
Criteria should be developed and/or discussed with
students at the outset of activities such as written reports, ● Progress Achievement Tests – are intended to
visual representations, oral presentations, or projects measure the progress that students make. They
which combine more than one aspect of language use contribute to formative assessment. Since
and understanding. ‘progress’ is towards the achievement of course
objectives, these tests should relate to objectives.
Teachers may assess the attitudes, skill development,
knowledge, or learning processes demonstrated by 3. Diagnostic Tests
students as they engage in language activities. Data
gathered during student activities can be recorded as Diagnostic tests are used to identify learners’ strengths
anecdotal notes, on checklists, rating scales, or by using and weaknesses at a particular aspect of a language.
a combination of these. They are intended primarily to ascertain what learning
still needs to take place.
9. Quizzes, Tests, and Examinations
4. Placement Tests
These are most often used for assessing students’
knowledge of content; however, they may be used to Placement tests are intended to provide information that
assess processes, skills, and attitudes. Tests, whether will help to of the teaching program most appropriate to
they are oral or written must represent students’ their abilities. They are used to assign students to
achievements as accurately as possible. classes at different levels.

Formats for test items should be varied; each type is Certain proficiency tests and diagnostic tests can act in
most effective at assessing and evaluating student the role of placement tests whose purpose is to place a
progress when used in conjunction with the other types. student into an appropriate level or a section in a
language curriculum.
KINDS OF LANGUAGE TESTS
5. Aptitude Tests
There are many kinds of tests each with a specific
purpose and a particular criterion to be measured. Five The type of test given to a person prior to any exposure
types are common tests in a language curriculum. The to the second language predicts a person’s future
descriptions are only for the purpose of identifying and success. A language aptitude test is designed to measure
differentiating the types not to serve a a manual for a person’s capacity or general ability to learn a foreign
designing such tests. language and to be successful in that undertaking.
Aptitude tests are considered to be independent of a
1. Proficiency Tests particular language.

These are designed to measure people’s ability in a CHAPTER 9 – GRAMMAR ASSESSMENT

language, regardless of any training they may have had
in that language. The content of a proficiency test, What is Grammar?
therefore, is not based on the content or objectives of
● Crystal (1995) defines grammar as that branch
language courses that people taking the test may have
of the description of language which accounts
followed.
for the way in which words combine to form
In the case of some proficiency tests, ‘proficient’ means sentences.
having sufficient command of the language for a ● Close (1982 ) “English Grammar is chiefly a
particular purpose. Whatever the particular purpose to system of syntax, that decides the order and
which the language is to be put, this will be reflected in patterns in which words are arranged into
the specification of test content at an early stage of a sentences.
test’s development.
Language Testing & Grammar Testing

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 ● Language testing is the practice and study of information they picked up from a specific
evaluating the proficiency of an individual in course.
using a particular language effectively. ● Assessment relates to individual student
Language testing is a field of study under the learning. It is the act of collecting information
umbrella of applied linguistics. and making judgments on a language learner’s
knowledge and ability to use it.
Main Focus:
Reasons to assess (summary)
● The assessment of first, second or other
language in the school, college, or university ● Diagnosing students strengths and weaknesses
context; ● Deciding what to and what not to teach next
● The assessment of language used in the ● Giving students feedback
workplace; ● Seeing students’ progress
● The assessment of language in immigration, ● Handing students their final grade
citizenship and asylum.
Types of Grammar Assessment
Assessment include the ff:
● Formative – on going process
● Listening ● Summative – at the end of learning
● Speaking ● Authentic – multiple forms of assessment that
● Reading reflect student learning achievement , motivation
● Writing and attitudes on instructionally relevant
● An integration of 2 or more of these skills or classroom activities. i.e. performance of the
other constructs of language ability. skills, demonstration – simulations and role
plays.
Note: Equal weight may be placed on knowledge ● Ten Takeaway Tips for Using Authentic
(understanding how the language works theoretically) Assessment
and proficiency (ability to use the language practically) ➔ Break Down Skill Work into Small Steps
or greater weight may be given to one aspect or the ➔ Build a Community of Practice
other. ➔ Work Backwards
➔ Have Fun
● A well-constructed English test can help
➔ Ensure Vigor
students in 2 ways:
➔ Give Cards a Try
- Test can create positive attitudes
➔ Tap into Students’ Interests
towards the class.
➔ Use Tasks on Demand
- Test can help students master the
➔ DYO: Do your Own Assessment
language.
➔ Use a Variety of Tracking Tools
● For teachers, they can also benefit from the test:
- To diagnose their own efforts and the CHAPTER 10 - HOW TO MAKE ASSESSMENT
efforts of their students. OF GRAMMAR SKILLS MORE EFFICIENT
- To provide insights into the ways on
how they can improve the evaluation Five characteristics to measure communicative
process. grammar (rea-dickins, 2003)
● Grammar tests are designed to measure students’
proficiency in matters ranging from inflections 1. The test must provide more context than only a
to syntax. Syntax involves the relationship of single sentence.
words in a sentence, including matters of 2. The test-taker should understand the
word-order, use of negative, question forms, and communicative purposes of the task.
connectives, etc. 3. He or she should also know the intended
audience.
Grammar Assessment 4. He or she must have to focus on the meaning
and not the form to answer correctly.
Why assess grammar: 5. Recognition is not sufficient. The test-taker
must be able to produce grammatical responses.
- Linguistic or communicative competence
- Structure or functions Reasons for liking grammar assessment tasks by
- Usage or use teachers and students:
- Prescriptive or descriptive
1. Gap filling ( initial form given or a choice of
● Assessment is another fundamental aspect of forms offered)
teaching
● Assessment can help to determine student’s Teachers: Easy to construct and check and develops
proficiency in a language automaticity
● Using assessment can help identify learner’s
strengths and weaknesses Students: Easy to fulfill/answer
● Teachers also need to use constant assessment to
2. Multiple Choice test ( choosing a morphological
determine how well students are comprehending
form, syntactic structure or word order)
the material that has been covered or how much

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Teachers: Easy to check and score and develops 11. Authentic (essay, letter, dialogue, monologue on
automaticity. a topic – grammatical comprehensibility
assessed)
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer
Teachers: It is communicative.
3. Transformation ( person, number, tense, voice,
mood, degrees of comparison, statement Students: It is communicative.
question)
Reasons for teachers and students not liking grammar
Teachers: Easy to construct, develops automaticity and assessment tasks
cognitive skills
1. Gap filling
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer.
Teachers: Mechanical, a chance to guess the correct
4. Clause combining (accompanied or not answer by chance.
accompanied by transformation)
Students: Dull, uncommunicative, often not enough
Teachers: Easy to construct and check; develops context.
speaking/writing
2. Multiple choice test
strategies.
Teachers: More than 2 choices may be difficult to make
Students: Easy to answer/accomplish. up, mechanical a high probability to guess the correct
answers by chance.
5. Making up sentences from the given words
(accompanied or not accompanied by Students: Dull, uncommunicative, often not enough
grammatical transformation) context, confusing sometimes.

Teachers: Easy to construct and check; develops 3. Transformation

speaking/writing strategies.
Teachers: Mechanical, no comprehension may be
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer. involved

6. Error identification Students: Dull, uncommunicative

Teachers: Easy to check and score; useful for future 4. Clause combining
language teachers.
Teachers: Mechanical
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer.
Students: Dull, uncommunicative
7. Error correction
5. Making up sentences from the given words
Teachers: Easy to construct, check and score; useful for
future language teachers. Teachers:

Students: Easy to accomplish/answer Students: Dull, uncommunicative, often difficult (if the
sentence is long)
8. Choosing independent sentence interpretation
based on the grammatical form/structure (while 6. Error identification
listening or reading)
Teachers: Mechanical, a high probability to guess the
Teachers: Develops lingua-pragmatic competence, correct answer by chance, may cause error fossilization.
listening/reading comprehension strategies.
Students: Dull, uncommunicative, difficult, often
Students: confusing.

9. Text-based (and probably the situation is 7. Error correction

described) gap filling.
Teachers: May cause error fossilization.
Teachers: Easy to construct, check, and score and is
Students: Too difficult, often the meaning of the
almost communicative.
sentence; due to the error is obscure.
Students: It is communicative and sometimes even
8. Choosing or independent sentence interpretation,
entertaining.
based on the grammatical form/structure (while
10. Grammatical games (dominoes, word games listening or reading)
etc.)
Teachers: Difficult to make up, the choosing is
Teachers: Motivating mechanical, there is a high to guess the correct answer
by chance; independent interpretation is difficult to
Students: Motivating assess.

Students: Difficult, demands high level of analytic skills

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 9. Text-based (probably the situation is described)
gap filling
10. The grammatical aspect of self-editing strategies
Teachers: It is difficult to find authentic texts containing needs to be practice. Let successful students
many target forms. speak out how they do it.
11. When the activity is difficult, model it (fulfill it
Students: yourself, or ask a bright student fulfill it first).
12. Works out a good rubric for authentic tasks, let
10. Grammatical Games
students participate in making it up. Provide
Teachers: Students may not concentrate attention on discrimination in assessment between mistakes
grammar. not causing (‘local”) and causing
misunderstanding (‘global”)
Students 13. While assessing, concentrate on student
achievement instead of failures, teach students to
11. Authentic (essay, letter, dialogue, monologue on turn their errors into useful lessons, steps for
a topic – grammatical comprehensibility future success.
assessed)
CHAPTER 11 - DESIGNING ASSESSSMENT
Teachers: Difficult to assess. TASKS
Students: May not concentrate on grammar and make Assessing Grammar
errors not made under other conditions.
a. Grammatical forms or the structure of a
TASKS 1-7 are traditional, language centered grammar language.
assessments.
Form is both morphology or how words are formed, and
TASKS 8-10 may be viewed as semi-authentic grammar syntax, how words are strung together. Both of them are
assessment. concerned with the linguistic accuracy of language.
TASK 11 is an authentic grammar assessment. It means b. The grammatical meaning of those forms.
that in real life we never do or gap filling or multiple
choice. We regularly write letters, speak with each other Grammatical meaning consists of both the literal and
(dialogue) or in front of the public (monologue). Only intended message that is conveyed by the form. It is
sometimes we interpret sentences. concerned with the meaningfulness of the language used.

Tips for effective assessment of grammar skills c. Their pragmatic meaning or use in a given
context.
1. To avoid boredom, hold tasks 1-7 as a
competition between or among groups as an The pragmatic or implied meaning results from the
ice-breaker or game. appropriate language choices a learner makes in a given
2. Make gap-filling and multiple choice text based communicative event/experience.
as often as possible, choose interesting
contents/texts. Designing Assessment Tasks: Selected Response
3. To avoid guessing by chance influencing the
● Multiple – choice Tasks
grade too much, involve 4-5 options, where
applicable. The most common selected response task presents a
4. Give effective examples demonstrating how a blank or underlined words in a sentence and the student
grammar mistake can turn into an ambiguous must choose the correct response from the options that
one. are given. (Grammatical form, Grammatical meaning,
5. Teacher’s reference book should contain a rich Grammatical form and meaning)
bank of assessment tasks constructed by
professionals. ● Discrimination Tasks
6. Use more text-based and situation-based
assessment tasks. The tasks that ask the student to attend to input that can
7. Do not use only tasks dealing with writing; be either language or non-language and to respond in the
involve tasks dealing with speaking, listening form of a choice between or among contrasts or
and reading. Involve both productive (speaking, opposites, such as true or false. (Grammatical form and
writing) and receptive/perceptive (listening, meaning)
reading) tasks.
● Noticing Tasks or Consciousness-raising
8. Ratio of drills to semi-authentic and authentic
Tasks
tasks should be in favor of the authentic tasks.
Remember that assessment only on drill-type Students are asked to indicate (underline or circle) that
level does not prepare for real-life problem they have identified a specific feature in the language
solving. sample. (grammatical meaning)
9. Not only grades and correctly done tasks should
be emphasized, but also the development of the Designing Assessment Tasks: Limited Production
strategies of fulfilling the tasks that involve
difficulties. Avoidance and meaning elicitation ● Gap-filling Tasks
strategies should be discussed and practiced.
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The language is presented in the form of sentence, or
passage in which a number of words are deleted. The
students must choose the appropriate response for the
deletion or gap based on the context in which language
is presented. (grammatical form, grammatical form and
meaning)

● Short-answer Tasks

The input is presented in the form of a question

following reading passage or oral/visual stimulus. The
expected test-taker response can vary from single word
to a sentence or two. (grammatical form and meaning,
testing grammatical form and meaning)

● Dialogue-completion Tasks

The input is presented in the form of a short

conversation or dialogue in which a part of the exchange
or t6he entire is left blank and the expected response
meant to be grammatically correct.

Designing Assessment Tasks: Extended Production

Five point scale for assessing syntactic knowledge

(Bachman & Palmer,1996)

● Information Gap Tasks

Presents the input in terms of incomplete information.

That is, one test-taker is given half- or some – of the
information and another is given complementary
information. Both test-takers then have question for
each other to get all the information. (grammatical form,
meaning, and pragmatic use)

● Role-play or Simulation Tasks

The input presents test-takers with a language or

non-language prompt that asks them to take on a role or
stimulate a situation to solve a problem, make decision,
or perform some transaction collaboratively.
(grammatical form, meaning, and pragmatic use)

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