Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels.

For example, if
we were looking at gender, we would most probably categorize somebody as either "male" or "female".
This is an example of a dichotomous variable (and also a nominal variable)

The dichotomous scale is used to elicit a Yes or No answer.

Multichotomous

If the discrete data have more than two possible values or categories, then they are referred to as
multichotomous. Race is an example of a multichotomous discrete variable. Race can be divided into
many possible categories: black, white, Asian, Hispanic, and so forth.

Dependent variable

A variable (often denoted by y) whose value depends on other factors. For example, a test score could
be a dependent variable because it could change depending on several factors such as how much you
studied, how much sleep you got the night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when
you took it

Independent variable

A variable (often denoted by x) whose variation does not depend on that of another. It is a variable that
stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure. For example,
someone's age might be an independent variable.

Moderating variable

A moderating variable is a type of variable that affects the relationship between a dependent variable
and an independent variable. It refers to a variable that can strengthen, diminish, negate, or otherwise
alter the association between independent and dependent variables. Moderating variables can also
change the direction of this relationship.

Mediating variable

Mediating variable (or intervening variable) is one that surfaces between the time the independent
variables start to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it.

Mediator further supports the independent variable to show its relationship with the dependent
variable
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

1. ON THE BASIS OF COLLECTION:

Secondary data are data that have been collected by others for another purpose than the
purpose of the current study. Some secondary sources of data are statistical bulletins,
government publications, published or unpublished information available from either within or
outside the organization, company websites and the Internet. The collection of secondary data
is very often quite helpful in the early stages of the research process.

Primary data is the data that the researcher gathers first hand for the specific purpose of the
study such as interviewing people, observation, or by administering questionnaires to
individuals.

2. DATA ON THE BASIS OF ANALYSIS:

NOMINAL SCALE: A Nominal Scale is a measurement scale, in which numbers serve as “tags” or
“labels” only, to identify or classify an object. This measurement normally deals only with non-
numeric (quantitative) variables or where numbers have no value (1 = Male, 2 = Female).

Below is an example of Nominal level of measurement.

Please select the degree of discomfort of the disease:

1-Mild
2-Moderate
3-Severe
In this particular example, 1=Mild, 2=Moderate, and 3=Severe. Here numbers are simply used as
tags and have no value.

For example, if we had interviewed 200 people, and assigned code number 1 to all male
respondents and number 2 to all female respondents, then computer analysis of the data at the
end of the survey may show that 98 of the respondents are men and 102 are women. This
frequency distribution tells us that 49% of the survey’s respondents are men and 51% women.
Other than this marginal information, such scaling tells us nothing more about the two groups.
Thus, the nominal scale gives some basic, categorical, gross information.

ORDINAL SCALE
Ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ranking and ordering of the data
without actually establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal data is quantitative
data which have naturally occurring orders and the difference between is unknown. It can be
named, grouped and also ranked.

Example: “How satisfied are you with our products?”

1- Totally Satisfied
 2- Satisfied
3- Neutral
4- Dissatisfied
5- Totally Dissatisfied

INTERVAL SCALE
Interval Scale is defined as a numerical scale where the order of the variables is known as well as
the difference between these variables. Variables that have familiar, constant, and computable
differences are classified using the Interval scale. It is easy to remember the primary role of this
scale too, ‘Interval’ indicates ‘distance between two entities’,

Interval scales hold no true zero and can represent values below zero. For example, you can
measure temperatures below 0 degrees Celsius, such as -10 degrees.

Ratio Scale
A ratio scale is a quantitative scale where there is a true zero and equal intervals between
neighboring points.
Ratio variables never fall below zero. Height and weight measure from 0 and above, but never
fall below it.

DATA ON THE BASIS OF TIME HORIZON

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
A study can be undertaken in which data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days
or weeks or months, in order to answer a research question. Such studies are called one‐shot or
cross‐ sectional studies.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
A study can be undertaken in which data are gathered more than one point of time. For
instance, the researcher might want to study employees’ behavior before and after a change in
the top management, so as to know what effects the change accomplished

What is Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the initial point of any
investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It includes components like variables,
population and the relation between the variables. A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test
the relationship between two or more variables.
Simple Hypothesis
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable. For example – If
you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more vegetables is an independent
variable, while losing weight is the dependent variable.

Complex Hypothesis
It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more independent variables.
Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin, and reduces the risk of many diseases
such as heart disease.

Directional Hypothesis
It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The relationship between
the variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged four years eating proper food over a five-
year period are having higher IQ levels than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and
direction of the effect. (Can be simple or complex but is for longer period )

Non-directional Hypothesis
It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between two variables,
without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship. Example Teacher & student relationship
influencing learning outcome

Alternate Hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis defines there is a statistically important relationship between two variables. It is
denoted by H1

Null Hypothesis
It provides a statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and there is no
relationship between independent and dependent variables. The symbol is denoted by “H O”. it is a hypothesis
where researcher tries to disapprove or nullify

Associative and Causal Hypothesis

It suggests that the two variables are related, but it does not imply that one variable causes the
other .Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the other
variable.
Whereas, the causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables.
that changes in one variable will cause changes in another variable,
Triangulation

Triangulation in research refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources to ensure the
validity and reliability of research findings. This involves collecting data from different sources,
using different methods of data collection, or comparing data from different perspectives to
corroborate findings.

For example, a researcher conducting a study on the effectiveness of a new teaching method
may use triangulation by collecting data from various sources such as interviews with teachers
and students, classroom observations, and test scores. By comparing the data from different
sources, the researcher can ensure the validity of their findingsSP and provide a more complete
picture of the research topic.

Overall, triangulation is a valuable technique for researchers to improve the quality of their
research by increasing the accuracy and reliability of their findings.

Sampling techniques
Sampling techniques are methods used in statistics and research to select a subset of
individuals or items from a larger population for analysis or study. Here's a brief overview of
some common sampling techniques:

Simple Random Sampling: In this technique, each individual or item in the population has an
equal chance of being selected, and the selection is made randomly. This method is
straightforward and easy to implement, but may not always be practical for large populations.
Stratified Sampling: This technique involves dividing the population into distinct subgroups or
strata based on certain characteristics (such as age, gender, or location), and then randomly
selecting samples from each stratum in proportion to their size in the population. This ensures
that each stratum is represented in the sample, which can improve the representativeness of
the sample for each subgroup.
Cluster Sampling: In this technique, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and a
random selection of clusters is made. Then, all individuals or items within the selected clusters
are included in the sample. Cluster sampling is useful when it is not feasible or practical to
sample from the entire population, and can save time and cost.
Systematic Sampling: This technique involves selecting samples at regular intervals from a list or
sequence. For example, every nth individual or item is selected from a population list.
Systematic sampling can be efficient and convenient, but may introduce bias if there is a pattern
or regularity in the list.
Convenience Sampling: This technique involves selecting individuals or items for the sample
based on their availability and accessibility, rather than using a random or structured method.
Convenience sampling is often used in informal or exploratory research, but may not be
representative of the entire population and can introduce sampling bias.
Purposive Sampling: This technique involves selecting samples based on specific criteria or
characteristics that are of interest to the researcher. Purposive sampling is often used in
qualitative research or when studying rare or hard-to-reach populations, but may not be
representative of the overall population.
Snowball Sampling: This technique involves identifying initial participants in a study and then
asking them to refer other potential participants. This method is often used in studies where the
population is difficult to identify or reach, such as in social network research or studies involving
sensitive topics.
These are some of the commonly used sampling techniques in research and statistics. The
choice of sampling technique depends on the research question, the population of interest, the
available resources, and the desired level of representativeness and generalizability of the
findings. It's important to carefully consider the strengths and limitations of each sampling
technique when designing a research study.