Working with Operators, Constraints, and

Data Types
 Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Identify the different types of operators in MySQL

Determine the levels of data in SQL

List the different MySQL constraints

Differentiate between the data types in SQL

MySQL Operators
MySQL Operators

• An operator is a reserved word or character used

with the WHERE clause of an SQL statement.
• It specifies a condition in the SQL statement.
 Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations in SQL.

Consider variables: a = 5 and b = 10

Operator Description Example

+ Addition of two operands a + b = 15

- Subtraction of two operands a – b = -5

* Multiplication of two operands a * b = 50

/ Division of two operands a / b = 0.5

% Modulus or remainder from the division a%b=0

 Arithmetic Operators

Syntax

SELECT column 1 + column 2 FROM table 1

SELECT column 1 * column 2 FROM table 2

 Arithmetic Operators: Example

Problem Statement: You are a junior analyst in your organization. You need to help the HR
team determine salaries of employees for different scenarios.

Objective: Use arithmetic operators to determine the new values based on each scenario.
 Arithmetic Operators: Example

Consider the employee table given below, which has columns: Emp_ID, Emp_First_Name,
Emp_Last_Name, Emp_Salary, and Emp_Annual_Bonus.

Emp_Annual
Emp_ID Emp_F_Name Emp_L_Name Emp_Salary
Bonus

1134 Mark Jacobs 20000 1500

1256 John Barter 25000 1000

1277 Michael Scar 22000 1000

1300 Dan Harris 30000 2000

 Arithmetic Operators: Example

If you want to add the salary and bonus, use the addition operator. You get the following
results.
Syntax
SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_Salary +Emp_Annual_Bonus as
Emp_Total_Earning FROM Employee_Records;
 Arithmetic Operators: Example

Suppose for the same table there is another column named deductions, and you are required
to deduct this amount from the final earning. Here, you should use the subtract operator.

Emp_ID Deductions
1256 200
1300 150

Syntax
SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_Salary – Deductions as Emp_Final_Earning
FROM Employee_Records;
 Arithmetic Operators: Example

If you want to increase the salary of employees by two times, then you must use the
multiplication operator to get the following results.

Syntax
SELECT Emp_Salary * 2 as New_Salary FROM Employee_Records;
 Arithmetic Operators: Example

Similarly, if you want to reduce the salary of each employee by 50%, then you can use the
division operator to obtain the following results.

Syntax
SELECT Emp_Salary / 2 as New_Salary FROM Employee_Records;
 Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators perform bit manipulations between two expressions of integer data type.

Operator Description
& AND
│ OR
^ Exclusive OR

They take two integer values, convert them to binary bits, and then apply AND, OR, or NOT
operations on each bit.
 Bitwise Operators: Example

Consider the same employee table used for arithmetic operators. If you want to apply Bitwise AND on
salary and annual bonus, use the syntax below.

Syntax

SELECT Emp_Salary & Emp_Annual_Bonus from Employee_Records;

 Bitwise Operators: Example

Syntax
For Bitwise OR operation, use the syntax given below.
SELECT Emp_Salary | Emp_Annual_Bonus from Employee_Records;
 Comparison Operators

Comparison operators compare values between operands and return TRUE or FALSE based
on the condition.

Operator Description
= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to

Syntax

SELECT * FROM table1 WHERE column1 >= Condition

 Comparison Operators: Example

The example that was shown before has been used here. If you want to find the employees whose
salary is more than 2500, then you use the greater than operator.

Syntax
SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_Salary from Employee_Records WHERE
Emp_Salary > 25000;

Similarly, other comparison operators like less than, equal to, greater than equal to, or less
than equal to can be used based on the requirement.
 Compound Operators

Compound operators operate where variables are operated upon and assigned in the same line.

Compound Operators Description

+= Add equals
-= Subtract equals
*= Multiply equals
/= Divide equals
%= Modulo equals
&= Bitwise AND equals
^-= Bitwise exclusive equals
|*= Bitwise exclusive OR equals

Syntax
SELECT column1+= condition FROM table1;
 Logical Operators

Logical operators compare two conditions at a time to determine whether a row can be selected for an
output or not.

Logical Operators Description

AND Add equals
OR Subtract equals
BETWEEN Multiply equals
NOT Divide equals
LIKE Modulo equals

Syntax
SELECT column1, column 2 FROM table1 WHERE logical condition;

Syntax:
 Logical Operators: Example

Consider the same employee records table. If you want to extract data based on two conditions, that
are salary and location, then you use the AND operator.

Syntax

SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_Salary, Emp_Location from Employee_Records

WHERE Emp_Salary > 1000 AND Emp_Location = ‘California’;
 Logical Operators: Example

If you want to extract data based on any one of the two conditions mentioned, that are salary or annual
bonus, then you use OR operator.

Syntax

SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_Salary from Employee_Records WHERE

Emp_Salary > 22000 OR Emp_Annual_Bonus <1000;

Syntax:
 Logical Operators: Example

If you want to extract data by excluding a certain data record, that is, excluding employees from New
York, then you use the NOT operator.

Syntax

SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_F_Name, Emp_L_Name from Employee_Records

WHERE Emp_Location NOT = ‘New York’;

Syntax:
 Logical Operators: Example

If you want to extract data starting with a specific character or ending with a specific character, that is
employees whose name starts with M, then the LIKE operator is used.

Syntax

SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_F_Name from Employee_Records WHERE

Emp_F_Name LIKE ‘M%’;

Syntax:
Assisted Practice: Logical Operator

Duration: 20 Mins

Problem Statement: You are required to use a logical operator to identify the candidates in the age
group of 22 to 35 from the created table in the MySQL Workbench.
Assisted Practice: Logical Operator

Steps to be performed:
1. Create a database example, then make a table candidates that has columns FirstName, LastName,
and Age.

TABLE CREATION

CREATE TABLE `example`.`candidates` (

`FirstName` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`LastName` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
`Age` INT NOT NULL);
Assisted Practice: Logical Operator

Steps to be performed:
2. Insert values in the table candidates.

VALUE INSERTION

INSERT INTO `example`.`candidates` (`FirstName`, `LastName`, `Age`)

VALUES ('James', 'Smith', '23’),
('Maria ', 'Gracia', '21’),
('Michael ', 'Rodriguez', '27’),
('Robert ', 'Johnson', '41’),
('David', 'Hernandez', '27');
Assisted Practice: Logical Operator

Steps to be performed:
3. Write a query to select all the people in the age group of 22 to 35.

QUERY

SELECT * FROM example.candidates

WHERE Age BETWEEN 22 and 35;
Assisted Practice: Lab Output
Indexing in MySQL
 Indexing in MySQL

MySQL indexes sort data in a logical and sequential order.

Indexes are used to find rows with specific column values quickly.
 Indexing in MySQL

There are two ways to create an index:

Before the table is created After the table is created

Create Index
 Indexing in MySQL

Before creating the table, use the following syntax:

Syntax
CREATE TABLE t_index
(
col1 INT PRIMARY KEY,
col2 INT NOT NULL,
col3 INT NOT NULL,
col4 VARCHAR(20),
INDEX (col2,col3)
);
 Indexing in MySQL

After creating the table, use the following syntax:

Syntax

CREATE INDEX id_index ON table_name(column_name);

 Indexing in MySQL

Problem statement: Consider the junior DBA wants to improve the speed and result of the query by
adding an index.

Objective: Implement indexing and get the desire result.

Instructions: Refer the emp_data table which was created and shown before.
 Table Description

Field Name Description

EMP_ID Employee ID

FIRST_NAME First name of the employee

LAST_NAME Last name of the employee

GENDER Gender of the employee (M/F)

ROLE Designation of the employee (Junior, Senior, Lead, and Associate Data
Scientist)

DEPT Name of the department (Retail, Finance, Automotive, and Healthcare)

 Table Description

Field Name Description

EXP Experience of the employee

COUNTRY Country where the employee lives

CONTINENT Continent based on the country

SALARY Salary of the employee per month

Rating for the employee (1: Not Achieved Any Goals, 2: Below
EMP_RATING Expectations, 3: Meeting Expectations, 4: Excellent Performance, 5:
Overachiever

MANAGER_ID Employee ID for the manager

 Indexing in MySQL

Use the following emp_data:

 Indexing in MySQL

Execute the following statement to return the result of the employee who is a manager:

Example:

SELECT EMP_ID, FIRST_NAME,

LAST_NAME FROM sys.emp_data WHERE
ROLE 'MANAGER';
 Indexing in MySQL

If you want to check how MySQL performs the previous query internally, execute the following query:

Example:

EXPLAIN SELECT EMP_ID, FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME FROM sys.emp_data

WHERE ROLE = 'MANAGER';
 Indexing in MySQL

Create an index for a class column using the following query:

Example:
CREATE INDEX indx ON sys.emp_data (role);

EXPLAIN SELECT EMP_ID, FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME FROM sys.emp_data

WHERE ROLE = 'MANAGER';
 Indexing in MySQL

If you want to show the indexes of a table, execute the following query:

Example:

SHOW INDEXES FROM sys.emp_data;

 Indexing in MySQL

If you want to drop the index of a table, execute the following query:

Example:

DROP INDEX `indx` ON `emp_data`;

SHOW INDEXES FROM sys.emp_data;

Order of Execution in SQL
 Order of Execution in SQL

SELECT
Returns or derives the
required data

1
HAVING FROM
Filters the aggregated 6 2 Selects the table from
data which the data is obtained

3 JOIN
GROUP BY 5
Derives common data
Aggregates the data
from a different table
4

WHERE
Applies a condition to
filter data
 Order of Execution: Example

Consider the following syntax taken from the example of logical operators.

Syntax

SELECT Emp_ID, Emp_F_Name from Employee_Records WHERE

Emp_F_Name LIKE ‘M%’;

Here, the FROM clause is executed first to determine the table. Next, the WHERE clause is executed
to determine the condition. The SELECT statement is executed to extract the data that satisfies this
condition in the table.
 Order of Execution: Example

Consider that you have a customers table with customer ID, customer name, and their location.
If you want to identify the locations of more than five customers, then use the following syntax.

Syntax

SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Location FROM Customers GROUP BY

Location, HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;

Here, the FROM clause is executed first to determine the table. Next, the GROUP BY clause
aggregates the same location records. It is followed by the HAVING clause that determines the
condition. The SELECT statement is executed to extract the data that satisfies this condition in the
table.
MySQL Constraints
 MySQL Constraints

Constraint is a condition that specifies the type of data that can be entered into a table.

There are two types of constraints in MySQL:

• Column level restrictions
• Table level restrictions
 NOT NULL Constraint

NOT NULL constraint prevents the column from having NULL or empty values.

Example

CREATE table Employee (ID int, First_Name text NOT NULL, Last_Name text NOT_NULL,
City VARCHAR(30))
 Primary Constraint

Primary constraint provides a distinct identity to each record in a table. A table can only have one
primary key.

Example

CREATE table People (ID int Primary Key, Name varchar (30) NOT NULL, Age int)
 Primary and NOT NULL Constraints: Example

Problem Statement: As a product manager, you are required to create a table with product details,
such as product ID which is the primary key, product name, and date of manufacturing which is not a
not value.

Example

CREATE table Product_Details (Pro_ID int Primary Key, Pro_Name varchar (30) NOT
NULL, Date_Manf DATE);
 Primary and NOT NULL Constraints: Example

After creating the table, if there is no record for the NOT NULL field as shown below, then you are
prompted with an error.

Example

insert into Product_Details (Pro_ID, Date_Manf) values (151, "2021-02-24");

 Foreign Key Constraint

Foreign key constraint is used to connect two tables. It corresponds to the primary key of a
different table.

Example

CREATE table Teachers (Teacher_ID int Primary Key, Name varchar (30) NOT NULL,
Age int, College_ID int Foreign Key )
 Disable Foreign Key Check

Foreign key check is a feature in SQL that prevents us from making any changes to tables that have
foreign keys in them.

• If you want to make changes to the table, disable the

foreign key check, make changes, and enable the key
again.
• You can disable it by assigning zero to foreign key
check.

Example
SET foreign_key_checks = 0
 Foreign Key Constraint: Example

Problem statement: You are the sales manager of a store. You have data of your customers and their
orders in two different tables. You must ensure that the customer data added to the table on orders is
not different from the original data.

Objective: Use a foreign key to specify the column that must contain only the data present in the
primary table.
 Foreign Key Constraint: Example

Steps to perform:
• Create a table with data on customers, like customer name, last name, age, and customer ID as
primary key
• Create a table with data on orders, with order ID, order number, and person ID as the foreign key
• Set foreign key to zero to ensure that there are no external changes
 Foreign Key Constraint: Example

After creating the two tables, set foreign check to zero and insert them with the following data:

Example

insert into customers (Customer_ID, First_Name, Last_Name, Age) values (1,'Mark',

'Bouncer', 23),(2,'Max','Hussey',34),(3,'Harry','James',44);
insert into orders (Order_ID, Order_Number, Customer_ID) VALUES
(1,7765,3),(2,7734,3),(3,7789,2)

If you try to enter any customer ID that is not present in the customers table, MySQL will
prompt an error.
 Unique Constraint

Unique constraint ensures that there are no entries with the same value in a column.

Example

Create table Names (ID int NOT NULL, Name varchar (30), Age int, UNIQUE (ID))
 Unique Constraint: Example

Create a table named names using the syntax shown before. Add values to this table.

Example

insert into names (ID, Name, Age) values (1, 'George', 35),(2, 'Lily', 28);

You can see that there is an ID with 2 as value. If you try to enter a new record with the same ID, you
will be prompted with the following error.
 Check Constraints

Check constraint can be used to verify the value being entered into a record.

Example

Create table Tenants (ID int NOT NULL, Name varchar (30), Age int, Check
(Age >=18))
 Check Constraints: Example

Consider the example shown before for unique constraint. Add the check condition to verify that ID is
not more than 10.

Example

Create table Names (ID int NOT NULL, Name varchar (30), Age int, UNIQUE (ID),
Check (ID<=10));

When the ID entered is more than 10, the you will get the following error prompt.
 Check Constraints Emulation

These constraints are used to emulate the CHECK constraints.

The two MySQL triggers used are:

BEFORE INSERT BEFORE UPDATE

Assisted Practice: Constraint

Duration: 10 Min.

Problem Statement: You are required to create a new table with constraints and assign
Candidate_No. as the primary key in the MySQL Workbench.
Assisted Practice: Constraint

Steps to be performed:
1. Create a table named candidates, name columns as Candidate_No., FirstName, LastName, and
Age, and assign Candidate_No. as the primary key.

TABLE CREATION
CREATE TABLE `example`.`candidates` (

`Candidate_No.` INT NOT NULL,

`FirstName` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,

`LastName` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,

`Age` INT NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY (`Candidate_No.`));

Assisted Practice: Lab Output
SQL Data Types
 Data Types in SQL

Data type refers to the nature or format of data that is entered into the database.

Data types are divided into three categories:

• String
• Numeric
• Time and Date
 String Data Types in SQL

VARCHAR 2 3 BINARY

CHAR 1 4 VARBINARY

LONGTEXT 7 5 TEXT

6
TINYTEXT
 String Data Type: Example

Problem Statement: You are an IT administrator and want to create a table that shows the office
assets assigned to each employee, with the employee ID, employee Name with a restriction of number
of characters, and asset name which does not have any character limit.

Objective: Create a table with employee name of char data type and asset name of varchar data type.
 String Data Type: Example

Syntax

CREATE TABLE Asset_Tracker (Emp_ID int, Emp_Name char (7),

Asset_Name varchar (255);

Employee name has a character limit. When you enter a longer name as shown below in the third
instance, you will get an error notification.

Syntax
insert into Asset_Tracker (Emp_ID, Emp_Name, Asset_Name)
values (23, 'Michael', 'Printer'),(46, 'John', 'Laptop'),(36,
'Samantha', 'Desktop Printer');
 Numeric Data Types in SQL

INT FLOATING
Used to represent integer value Used to specify a number in floating
point format

NUMERIC
BIT DATA DOUBLE CHECK
Used to denote bit-value type Used as a standard floating-point
number
 Numeric Data Type: Example

Problem Statement: You are a sales manager who wants to create a table with price and quantity of
each item that has been sold.

Objective: Create a table with product name, quantity, and price with varchar, int, and float data
type respectively.
 Numeric Data Type: Example

Syntax
CREATE TABLE Sales_Tracker (Pro_Name varchar(255), Pro_Price float,

Pro_Quantity int);

Price is a float data type, because prices can have decimal values; quantity is always an integer.

Syntax
insert into Sales_Tracker (Pro_Name, Pro_Price, Pro_Quantity) values (‘Mobiles’,
8999.99, 26),(‘Laptops’,24455.77, 48),(‘Washing_Machines’,2344.55, 34);
Date and Time Data Types in SQL

DATE DATETIME

TIME TIMESTAMP
Assisted Practice: Data Type

Duration: 10 Min.

Problem Statement: You are required to create a new table with a field DOB with datatype as DATE in
the MySQL Workbench.
Assisted Practice: Data Type

Steps to be performed:
1. Create a table named candidates; name columns: Candidate_No. as Integer, FirstName
as Varchar, LastName as Varchar, Age as Integer, and DOB as Date. Assign Candidate_No.
as the primary key.

TABLE CREATION

CREATE TABLE `example`.`candidates` (

`Candidate_No.` INT NOT NULL,

`FirstName` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,

`LastName` VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,

`Age` INT NOT NULL,

`DOB` DATE NOT NULL,

PRIMARY KEY (`Candidate_No.`));

Assisted Practice: Lab Output
Knowledge Check
Knowledge
Check
Which of the following operators is used to compare two conditions?
1

A. Comparison operators

B. Compound operators

C. Logical operators

D. Arithmetic operators
 Knowledge
Check
Which of the following operators is used to compare two conditions?
1

A. Comparison operators

B. Compound operators

C. Logical operators

D. Arithmetic operators

The correct answer is C

Logical operators are used to compare two conditions in an SQL query.

Knowledge
Check In the logical sequence of execution in an SQL query, which of the following clauses is
2 processed first?

A. WHERE

B. FROM

C. SELECT

D. HAVING
 Knowledge
Check In the logical sequence of execution in an SQL query, which of the following clauses is
2 processed first?

A. WHERE

B. FROM

C. SELECT

D. HAVING

The correct answer is B

FROM is the first clause that will be executed in an SQL query.

Knowledge
Check Which of the following constraints is used to provide a unique identity to a column in
3 a table?

A. Primary key

B. Foreign key

C. Unique constraint

D. Check constraint
 Knowledge
Check Which of the following constraints is used to provide a unique identity to a column in
3 a table?

A. Primary key

B. Foreign key

C. Unique constraint

D. Check constraint

The correct answer is A

Primary key is the constraint that is used to provide a unique identity to a column in a table.
Lesson-End Project: School Ranking Analysis

Problem statement:
You are a database administrator in an institution, and you have been asked
to store the students’ details and their marks to track their progress. The
database helps to view the students’ marks with a rank that can be viewed,
updated, and evaluated to evaluate their performance.

Objective:
The objective is to design a database to retrieve the information of a student
as needed for the records.

Note: Download the student_datasets.csv and marksheet_datasets.csv

files from Course Resources to perform the required tasks
Lesson-End Project: School Ranking Analysis

Tasks to be performed:

1. Write a query to create a students table with the student ID, first name,
last name, class, and age fields and ensure that the last name, first name,
and student ID fields have the NOT NULL constraint and that the student
ID field is a primary key
2. Write a query to create a marksheet table with score, year, ranking, class,
and student ID fields
3. Write a query to insert values into the students and marksheet tables
Lesson-End Project: School Ranking Analysis

Tasks to be performed:

4. Write a query to display the student ID and first name of every student in
the students table whose age is greater than or equal to 16 and whose
last name is Kumar
5. Write a query to display the details of every student from the marksheet
table whose score is between 800 and 1000
6. Write a query to increase the score in the marksheet table by five and
create a new score column to display this new score
Lesson-End Project: School Ranking Analysis

Tasks to be performed:

7. Write a query to display the marksheet table in descending order of the

score
8. Write a query to display the details of every student whose first name
starts with an ‘a’

Note: Download the solution document from the Course Resources section
and follow the steps given in the document
 Key Takeaways

SQL operators are used to specify a condition in an SQL

statement.

Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations in

SQL query.

Join clause is used to derive common data from another table in

the database.

Foreign key check is a feature in SQL that prevents you from

making any changes to tables that have foreign keys in them.