IAS Exam Congress

The History Compilation

for
CS (Prelims) - 24

Introduction:
“The History Compilation’’ is a compilation of all the links posted on IASEC dedicated History
Channel in last 1 to 2 years. All the links are also attached, if time permits it is advisable to read from
them also and try to find the topics which are already asked by UPSC in previous years, focus in depth on
those topics.
If you find any discrepancies in the compilation, you can write to us we will rectify it.

Best wishes 🙏
 TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1. Savitribai Phule:.........................................................3 43. Who coined Jai Hind:...............................................41
1. Rani Velu Nachiyar:.................................................... 4 44. Delhi Durbars:........................................................ 41
2. World's first Palm-leaf Manuscript Museum in Kerala:.. 4 45. India Gate:............................................................. 42
3. Bharatnatyam:........................................................... 5 46. Quit India Movement:..............................................43
4. Njanga Tribal fest:......................................................6 47. Mutasaddi:............................................................. 44
5. Koya tribe’s Kommu dance :.........................................6 48. Act X of 1859:......................................................... 45
6. Wanchuwa festival:.....................................................7 49. Assam’s Charaideo Moidams:.................................. 45
7. Mural depiction of Saint Tyagaraja’s work:...................7 50. Ahom Kingdom:...................................................... 46
8. Sufi influence in Mughal rule:...................................... 8 51. Lachit Borphukan:.................................................. 47
9. Persian translation of Mahabharat:........................... 10 52. M.G. Ranade:..........................................................47
10. UNESCO World Heritage Site of Hampi in 53. Raja Ramohan Roy:.................................................48
Vijayanagara:.............................................................. 10 54. Pandurang Khankhoje :........................................... 49
11. Mysuru Dasara:...................................................... 11 55. Bengal’s women revolutionaries:.............................. 50
12. Mughal Paintings:...................................................12 56. Cachar Swadeshi Sabha, 1907:.................................51
13. Ancient ports of India:.............................................13 57. 50 years of Pin Code:............................................... 51
14. History of Indo Roman Trade:.................................. 15 58. Hakki Pikki Tribe:...................................................52
15. Ancient links between Tamil traders and a Chinese port 59. Four Tribal Revolts addressed by President:.............. 53
city :............................................................................ 17
60. History of Indigo:.................................................... 55
16. Layered world of medieval kingdoms :.......................17
61. History of Shiva Nataraja Form:...............................56
17. Sun Temple in Konark, Odisha :................................19
62. Ashoka Era Mine in Andhra:....................................58
18. Bankim Chandra & Vande Mataram:....................... 20
63. Warkaris:............................................................... 58
19. Jatar Deul Temple:.................................................. 21
64. Indian Ascetics:.......................................................59
20. Ramappa Temple:................................................... 22
65. Buddhism in Gujarat:.............................................. 60
21. Panini’s Ashtadhyayi:..............................................23
66. Ashoka edicts silent on caste order:.......................... 61
22. Amar Jiban, the story of a Bengali woman whose desire
67. Maski Inscriptions of Ashoka:.................................. 61
to read led to a feminist revolution :...............................23
68. Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar (fondly called Thakkar
23. Jain Manuscript:..................................................... 24
Bapa):......................................................................... 62
24. Purandaradasa kritis:............................................. 24
69. Sapinda Marriage:.................................................. 63
25. UNESCO’s calls for submission of manuscripts :.........25
70. Badami Caves:........................................................ 64
26. Excavations in Keeladi:............................................ 25
71. Jevoha’s Witness:.................................................... 65
27. Khajuraho:............................................................. 26
72. Paruveta Utsavam:.................................................. 66
28. Buddhism Stupa architecture:.................................. 27
73. Artwork on the Constitution:................................... 67
29. Buddhist monastery complex at Bharatpur of Bengal: 27
74. Kozhikode and Gwalior in UNESCO Creative Cities
30. Copper utensils of Chalcolithic Age found in Attappady: Network:..................................................................... 68
28
75. Shantiniketan:........................................................ 68
31. Beads:.................................................................... 28
76. Hoysala temples on UNESCO heritage list:................ 69
32. Women heroes of India’s freedom struggle :.............. 29
77. Statue of Adi Shankaracharya:................................. 70
33. The Role of Radio Stations in the Indian Freedom
78. Odhuvars:.............................................................. 71
Struggle:......................................................................33
79. Sengol in New Parliament:.......................................72
34. Tribal Artwork of MP:.............................................34
80. Ram Mandir Architecture:....................................... 73
35. National Emblem of India:....................................... 34
81. Ramayana outside India:......................................... 74
36. Trial of Bhagat Singh:............................................. 35
82. Kamba Ramayana:..................................................75
37. Manifesto of HSRA:................................................. 36
83. Ayya Vaikundar:..................................................... 75
38. Abanindranath Bharat Mata painting:..................... 36
84. India,Bharat Controversy:....................................... 76
39. Vaikom Satyagraha:................................................ 37
85. Kalingattuparani:................................................... 77
40. E.V. Ramasamy Periyar:.................................. 38
41. Rajatarangini:................................................39
42. B.R Ambedkar tourist Circuit:.................................. 40

IAS Exam Congress

 1. Savitribai Phule:
➢ Savitri Bai Phule was the social reformer of the 19th century who
worked in the field of women education.
➢ A Dalit woman from the Mali community, Savitribai was born on
January 3, 1831, in Maharashtra’s Naigaon village.
➢ She was married at the tender age of 10, her husband Jyotirao Phule is
said to have educated her at home.
➢ At a time when it was considered unacceptable for women to even
attain education, the couple went on to open a school for girls in
Bhidewada, Pune, in 1848. This became the country’s first girls’
school.
➢ By the end of 1851, the Phules were running three schools in
Pune with around 150 girl students.
➢ Savitribai herself faced great animosity from the upper castes, including instances of
physical violence.
➢ One report from 1852 in The Poona Observer states, “The number of girl students in
Jotirao’s school is ten times more than the number of boys studying in the
government schools. This is because the system for teaching girls is far superior to what
is available for boys in government schools”.
➢ Beyond education along with Jyotirao, Savitribai started the Balhatya Pratibandhak
Griha (‘Home for the Prevention of Infanticide’) for pregnant widows facing
discrimination.
➢ Savitribai Phule also advocated inter-caste marriages, widow remarriage, and
eradication of child marriage, sati and dowry systems, among other social issues.
The Phules also adopted Yashwantrao, the child of a widow, whom they educated to
become a doctor.
➢ In 1873, the Phules set up the Satyashodhak Samaj (‘Truth-seekers’ society’), a
platform open to all, irrespective of their caste, religion or class hierarchies, with
the sole aim of bringing social equity. As an extension, they started ‘Satyashodhak
Marriage’ – a rejection of Brahmanical rituals where the marrying couple takes a pledge to
promote education and equality.
➢ Her friendship with Fatima sheikh: Savitri also set up a Mahila Seva Mandal with
Fatima’s help. One of the issues that took up was the forcible tonsuring of widows among
Hindus.
➢ She was also involved in relief work during the 1896 famine in Maharashtra and the 1897
Bubonic plague. She herself contracted the disease,breathed her last on March 10, 1897.
Literary works by Savitribai Phule:
➢ First collection of poems, called Kavya Phule (‘Poetry’s Blossoms’)
➢ Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (‘The Ocean of Pure Gems’), in 1892.
➢ Poem titled Go, Get Education, to make a clarion call to the downtrodden to pursue education, and
break free from the shackles of the caste system.
Literary works by Jyotirao Phule:
➢ Brahmananche Kasab (1869)
➢ Shetkaryancha Aasud (1883)
➢ Gulamgiri (1873)
➢ Trutiya Ratna (1855)

IAS Exam Congress

Link: On her 192nd birth anniversary, a look at the life of Savitribai Phule, India's first
woman teacher

1. Rani Velu Nachiyar:

➢ Context: The Prime Minister of India has paid tributes to
Rani Velu Nachiyar (3rd Jan 1730 – 25th Dec 1796) on her
birth anniversary.
➢ Rani Velu Nachiyar, also known as Veeramangai.
➢ Born in Ramnathpuram in 1730, Velu Nachiyar was the first
queen to have ever actively opposed the British rule. She
fought against the colonial rulers many years before the Sepoy
Mutiny.
➢ In collaboration with Hyder Ali and Gopala Nayaker, she
waged a war against the British and emerged victorious.
➢ Eventually, she went on to produce the first human bomb as
well as establish the first army of trained women soldiers in the
late 1700s.
➢ Nachiyar inherited the kingdom of her husband and ruled it for
ten more years. In 1790, the throne was inherited by her daughter Vellacci. She granted
powers to her daughter to the Marudu brothers to help with the administration of the
kingdom in 1780. Velu Nachiyar died a few years later, on 25 December 1796.
➢ Link: Velu Nachiyar

2. World's first Palm-leaf Manuscript

Museum in Kerala:
➢ Palm-leaf Manuscripts Museum in
Thiruvananthapuram district is a treasure trove
of ancient texts on palm leaves, that shed light
on administrative, socio-cultural and
economic facets of the Travancore kingdom in
Kerala which lasted for 650 years till the end
of the 19th century.
➢ With a collection of one crore palm leaves, the state government’s nodal agency for
museums Keralam – Museum of History and Heritage has put up on display a total
of 187 manuscripts dividing them across eight galleries. The galleries are ‘History of
Writing’, ‘Land and People’, ‘Administration’, ‘War and Peace’, ‘Education and Health’,
‘Economy’, ‘Art and Culture’, and ‘the Mathilakam Records’.
➢ The manuscripts in ancient scripts such as Vattezhuthu, Kolezhuthu, Malayanma, and
ancient Tamil and Malayalam are present in the museum.
➢ The manuscripts which delve into aspects as diverse as tax, administration, and trade
to education, prisons, and festivals in the erstwhile Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar
provide a fascinating glimpse of history that is rarely accessible to the common man.
➢ Besides palm-leaf manuscripts, scrolls, bamboo splints, and copper plates are included in
the collection.
➢ Link: World’s first Palm-leaf Manuscript Museum in Kerala capital a mine of stories - The
Hindu BusinessLine
IAS Exam Congress
 3. Bharatnatyam:
➢ Bharatnatyam is one among the eight classical dances of India.
➢ Bharatanatyam is one of the oldest (considered to be over 2000
years old) and most popular forms of classical dance that
originated in Tanjore district in Tamil Nadu, India.
➢ The origin of this dance can be traced to the sage Bharata Muni's
Natyashastra.
➢ The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main
sources of textual material, for the study of the technique and
grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance.
➢ Bharatanatyam has been a solo dance that was performed
exclusively by women, and expressed Hindu religious themes and
spiritual ideas, particularly of Shaivism, but also of
Vaishnavism and Shaktism.
➢ The form is characterised by a half-seated posture, the use of
classical dance mudras and theatrical emotive techniques.
➢ Bharatanatyam was practised in temples and courts
➢ The hereditary practitioners were historically wealthy, educated and followed a
cross-disciplinary training.
➢ The dance movements of women are called ‘lasya’ while the occasional male
movements are called ‘tandava.’
➢ Bharatanatyam dance is broken down into three very broad divisions: Nritta, Nritya and
Natya.
➢ Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes on many roles in
a single performance.
➢ Bharatnatyam dance is slow and moving, but at times fast and fluid and hence is also
called Fire Dance.
The salaam daruvu was a staple feature in parts of south India, where dancers would salute their patrons
with the Islamic gesture ‘salaam’. As British influence gained prominence, this salute changed to a more
western military style, open palm facing outwards, tips of the fingers at the temple of the forehead
crucial factor in explaining this phenomenon is the incorporation of the diversity of movements in modern
Bharatanatyam. From incorporating local folk forms such as kavadi, to utilising some of the more theatrical
elements of Kathakali. For several decades, purity in the form was defined by how well an artiste is able to
preserve the traditions of the guru. This gave rise to the term ‘bani’ — to describe various styles of
Bharatanatyam. Bani or tradition is term used to describe the dance technique and style specific to the
guru/school. These are named according to the village of the guru (with the exception of some
banis).Bharatanatyam is no longer an expression of faith to a certain training system. Performances that seem
faithful to their larger conceptual intentions resonate with audiences more than those that hold too many
influences.
➢ Some famous Bharatanatyam dancers from India: Alarmel Valli,Mallika
Sarabhai,Mrinalini Sarabhai,Padma Subramanyam.
➢ Link: How should Bharatanatyam be defined today? - The Hindu

IAS Exam Congress

4. Njanga Tribal fest:
➢ ‘Njanga’, was three-day tribal festival organised by the Information and Public
Relations department, Wayanad.
➢ A traditional tribal dance performed by students of Model Residential School (MRS) for
Tribal Children at Kaniyampetta.
➢ Gadhika, a ritualistic art form of the Adiya tribe performed by artistes of the P.K. Kalan
Memorial Tribal Arts Centre; a tribal painting exhibition; and folk songs by tribal artistes
were presented.
➢ Adiyas are a slave tribal sect, like Paniyas. They are traditionally known as Ravulayar.
But they have a distinct social identity and polygamy is allowed.
➢ This tribe calls the woman who commits such `offences’ as Chullachi and they allow them
to undergo purificatory ceremony known as 'Kalachu Veypu' to join their community back.
➢ The Adiya tribal community is divided into 20 classes called 'Mandu', headed by a
chieftain called 'Chommikkaran' or 'Peruman'.
➢ Link: ‘Njanga’ tribal fest begins at Pookode in Wayanad - The Hindu

5. Koya tribe’s Kommu dance :

➢ Koya are one of the few multi-racial and multi-lingual
tribal communities in India.
➢ They live in the forests, plains, and valleys on both sides of
the Godavari River, which lies in the central Indian state of
Andhra Pradesh.
➢ Many also live in the states of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
➢ They believe their main deity still resides in a cave in the
Bastar region.
➢ The Koyas adopted Bison horns to discover their two
cultural forms:
➢ The Kommu Koya dance, during which two Bison horns are adorned on the head
as part of the attire and they carry unique drum while dancing. The horns of the
Bison (Indian Gaur), are worn by the male dancer.
➢ The Permakore flute, which is made of a single horn.
➢ They have retained their rich and varied heritage of colourful dance and music which form
an integral part of their festivals and rituals.
➢ Many Koya deities are female, the most important being the "mother earth."
➢ Situated in the Polavaram project submergence area the tribals, who are set to be
rehabilitated from the flood-prone mandals, are in for a culture shock & faces risk of
extinction.
➢ Link: Koya tribe’s Kommu dance form faces risk of extinction - The Hindu

IAS Exam Congress

 6. Wanchuwa festival:
➢ The Wanchuwa festival is one of the most important celebrations in the life of the
Tiwa tribe of Assam.
➢ With every harvest, it comes with songs, dances, a bunch of rituals and people clad in their
native attires.
➢ Two-day Wanchuwa festival is usually marked by the sacrifice of a pig and prayers
being offered for a bountiful harvest.
➢ As spring comes to an end with a flourish and makes way for the rains, Tiwa communities
in Karbi Anglong district perform the ritual sacrifice, which is accompanied by dances
performed by young men of the community wearing brilliant tangerine head scarves.
➢ Following traditional custom, women winnow rice grains by hand and the men then
ceremonially pound the rice into powder in large wooden mortars.
➢ Brewing fresh rice beer is also a major part of the festival.
➢ Faces are painted with Rice powder by the tribal dancers.
➢ There is strong belief that the Wanchuwa festival with its sacrifices, dances and rituals
blesses seedlings and wards off natural calamities that damage the harvest.
➢ Agriculture is the mainstay of the 3.16 lakh-strong Tiwa community, who practise
shifting cultivation and grow paddy, sesame, ginger, mustard and chilli.
➢ Also known as Lalung, this indigenous community is recognized as a Scheduled Tribe
(ST) within the state of Assam.
➢ Link: Ushering in year’s cropping season in Assam: Season of seeds - The Hindu

7. Mural depiction of Saint Tyagaraja’s work:

➢ Context: Recently ‘Prahlada Bhakti Vijayam’ one of the three
musical dramas of Saint Tyagaraja which has been converted into the
mural painting format under the aegis of Dhyanasankalpam was
unveiled in Thrissala Bhagavathi Temple at Mankavu in Kozhikode,
which belongs to the Zamorin family and the ‘Nethronmeelanam’
(blackening the eyes) ceremony was held on the temple premises.
➢ The 50-feet-long and 5-feet-wide painting has been done on the
walls of the pond on the eastern side of the temple, another mural
painting based on Nouka Charitam’, another musical drama by
Saint Tyagaraja, already adorns the Sreekrishna temple.
➢ The author has skipped out on the two main characters in the story of Prahlada, his father
Hiranyakashipu and Lord Narasimha, while concentrating solely on the secret of Prahlada’s
birth and his attainment of peace.
➢ Dhayanasankalpam claims that this story has never been depicted as a picture
anywhere in India.
Saint Tyagraja:
➢ Born on May 14, 1767 in the village of Thiruvaiyaru in Tamil Nadu’s Thanjavur.
➢ Tyagaraja was named Tyagabrahmam at birth, in honour of lord Shiva who is worshipped as Tyagaraja in
the temple at his birthplace.
➢ He is widely regarded as one of three major composers – known as the Trinity – of Carnatic Music
who flourished at Tanjore or Thanjavur in the early 19th century, the others being Muthuswami
Dikshitar and Syama Sastri.
➢ Tyagaraja is said to have composed the music and penned the lyrics of thousands of kritis, mostly in

IAS Exam Congress

 praise of lord Rama, who is believed to be an incarnation of the god Vishnu.
➢ He is known to have created musical innovations, including the use of a structured variation of musical
lines within a performance, a practice that may have been derived from improvisatory techniques.
➢ In addition to individual pieces, he composed ‘Uthsava Sampradaya Kirtanas’ and ‘Divyanama
Sankirtanas’ for adoption in bhajans and festivals. The Pancharatna Kritis, one of the most famous
compositions by Tyagaraja are remembered even today and sung together by Carnatic musicians all over
the world as an offering from musicians and music lovers to the spirit of Tyagaraja.
Links: Tyagaraja: Iconic saint-poet of Carnatic music whose name came up in Parliament
,Mural depiction of Saint Tyagaraja’s work unveiled - The Hindu

8. Sufi influence in Mughal rule:

➢ Context: Author Muzaffar Alam come up with this substantial piece of work, The
Mughals and the Sufis: Islam and Political Imagination in India, 1500-1750.
➢ Starting with the shaky foundations in the early 16th century, under Zahiruddin
Muhammad Babur and Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun, who were no less formidable in
their own distinct ways, the Mughal empire was firmly established by the end of the
century by Emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar.
➢ Men of religion needed political patronage and protection, and rulers needed
legitimacy from the former on account of their popular appeal. The intercession by
holy men also meant divine blessings procured directly from God and His Prophets
and other representatives on earth, in this case important figures and shrines of the
popular saints such as Khwaja Gharib Nawaz Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer.
➢ Living legends from a variety of Sufi lineages such as the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdausi,
Shattari and Qadiri were active in India with a long history behind them. They were
known for being committed to what is professed as the Shariat(Part of Bashara
order), or Muslim law, and yet free from the bigotry or fanaticism that is generally
associated with custodians of Islam, the theologians, or ulama.
➢ The Mughals realised the value of this and needed to maintain a critical distance from
the Naqshbandis, the Central Asian strand of Sufism that came in the wake of the
conquest. Naqshbandis combined their mysticism with aggressive accumulation of
wealth and assertion of uncompromising commitment to Sunni Hanafi
interpretation of Islamic principles.
➢ The struggle between the two strands of Sufism—accommodation and compromises in the
given situation of the Indian environment and extraordinary emphasis on Islamic piety
bordering on Sunni fanaticism—marks the defining feature of Mughal-Sufi relations from
the late 16th century.
➢ The inclusive Mughal imperial culture privileged Indian Rajputs and Iranian Shias, value of
devotional practices of the kind the Chishtis and the Qadiris upheld.
➢ Shaikh Abdur Rahman Chishti (died 1683), the 17th century Sufi scholar belonging to
the Chishti-Sabiri order and hailing from Awadh, articulated the latter position powerfully
in his voluminous writings. A set of his compositions titled Mir’atul Asrar, which is a
huge collection of Sufi biographies shows how it was possible to remain within the fold
of Islam and yet be eclectic like Indian Sufism.
➢ Sufis were not bound by any narrow interpretation of Islam and so they could be free from
the kind of biases betrayed by Sunni theologians and Naqshbandi Sufis.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Abdur Rahman in his writings shows that Sufis have no mazhab, or commitment, to
any juridical school of Sunni Islam, against a rhetorical statement of the leading
Naqshbandi Sufi Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (died 1624), who is also styled and
venerated in some strands of Islamic traditions as Mujaddid Alf-i Sani, or renovator
of Islam, in the second millennium of the Hijri calendar. Sirhindi had remarked that if a
prophet were sent among Muslims of his time, he would have practised the Hanafi
interpretation of Islam.
➢ Sons and grandsons of Sirhindi were able to make considerable inroads to the extent
that they were much privileged by the time Aurangzeb took reins in the middle of the
17th century. It served both—Aurangzeb needed legitimacy for his horrible butchery
inside the imperial household and the Naqshbandis.
➢ Shaikh Muhammad Ma‘sum (died 1669), son and leading successor of Sirhindi in his
Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi order, sought to own responsibility for the execution of the
saintly prince and Shah Jahan’s heir-apparent, Dara Shikoh (died 1656), with his own
hands, with reference to a dream in which he received a sword from God to do away with
the latter.
➢ The more eclectic approach of the kind Sufis of the Chishti and Qadiri orders
proposed and important figures such as Dara Shikoh and his equally accomplished
sister Jahanara (died 1681) adopted as social and political ideologies relevant for the
time have been brought out in interesting detail.
➢ Jahanara begum wrote a biography of Moinuddin Chishti, the founder of the Chishti
Order in India, titled Mu'nis al-Arwāḥ, as well as a biography of Mullah Shah, titled
Risālah-i Ṣāḥibīyah, in which she also described her initiation by him.
➢ Jahanara’s less accomplished sister, Raushanara, had sided with Aurangzeb in the
struggle for power. He pampered her with some independence and creature comforts with
a mansion outside the fort.
➢ Aurangzeb daughter on Zebun Nisa, he exposed her to the best teachers of the time she
was allowed to correspond with was a Naqshbandi old man and grandson of Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi, Shaikh Abdul Ahad Wahdat (died 1713).

Translation of Puranas:
➢ Abdur Rahman also composed a brilliantly imagined text called Mira’tul Makhluqaat, claiming it to be a
translation of an ancient Indian Sanskrit textual genre Puranas.
➢ The translations of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were already known since the time of Akbar.
➢ Abdur Rahman had himself translated the Bhagavad Gita into Persian. These were done with the dual
process of their interpretations, oral or written, in Awadhi and Braj versions of medieval Hindi, before they
were put into writing in Persian.
➢ Mira’tul Makhluqaat is extraordinary in the sense that it showcased how the Brahmanical Hindu mythical time
of ancient Gods were very much part of the Islamic notion of time since the arrival of Adam on earth
➢ Dara Shikoh works with a battery of pundits on a new translation in Persian of Yoga Vasistha. Until the
time of Akbar, the Hindu traditions were beginning to be known through translations in line with the policy of
sulh-i kull , peace with all, by Dara Shikoh’s time in the middle of the 17th century it was possible to imagine
that the powerful Mughal prince could style himself after the ideal Hindu king, Rama of Ayodhya.
➢ This was the aim behind Dara’s preparation of Yoga Vasistha , mentioned in the beginning of the text itself
about the prince seeing a dream in which he was seeking blessings from the sage Vasistha, in front of Rama
who is placed on a higher pedestal and styled as an elder brother.

IAS Exam Congress

Though privileging the puritanical Naqshbandis all his life, Aurangzeb himself was buried at
the Chishti centre of Khuldabad in the Deccan (1707). By then, the Mughal state was in a
terrible crisis, but its foundations were deeply embedded in the country’s composite culture. It
took 150 years to decline and fall with a final and vengeful push from the British in 1857
Link: Book Review: Muzaffar Alam's 'The Mughals and the Sufis' explores the Sufi influence in
Mughal rule - Frontline

9. Persian translation of Mahabharat:

➢ The Razmnama (Book of War), the first-ever Persian translation of the Mahabharata
was commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1582.
➢ His court historian Abdul Qadir Badauni records that it took nearly four years to
compile four lavishly bound volumes of the book.
➢ The Mahabharata was translated into Persian at Akbar's orders, by Faizi and `Abd
al-Qadir Bada'uni and named Razmnama.
➢ The artist of this copy were Basawan, Daswanth and Lal.
➢ It had 168 album bound paintings and 707 folios. Sanskrit scholars and Persian translators
and artisans worked together to produce this sumptuous volume.
➢ It includes translation of about a lakh Sanskrit verses.
➢ Badauni recounts that Akbar chose the Mahabharata because “This is the most famous of the
Hindu books and contains all sorts of stories and moral reflections, and advice, and matters
relating to conduct and manners and religion and science”.
➢ Link: Why are historians and scholars of art worried about a Persian translation of the
Mahabharata? | Art-and-culture News - The Indian Express

10. UNESCO World Heritage Site of Hampi in Vijayanagara:

➢ Context: National president of the BJP J.P. Nadda visited the UNESCO World Heritage Site
of Hampi in Vijayanagara district after participating in the valedictory of the State
Executive Meet.
➢ Hampi, located on banks of Tungabhadra river served as the capital of the
Vijayanagara Empire.
➢ Possibly predating the city of Vijayanagara, the village continues as an important religious
centre, housing the Virupaksha Temple.
➢ The village of Hampi contains several other monuments belonging to the old city. It
extends into some of the old ceremonial streets of Vijayanagara.
➢ Hampi also goes by the name "The City of Ruins."
➢ UNESCO has designated the Vijayanagara ruins as a World Heritage Site within the
Group of Monuments at Hampi title.
➢ Among these, the Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa, Hemakuta group of
temples, Achyutaraya temple complex, Vitthala temple complex, Pattabhirama
temple complex, Lotus Mahal complex, can be highlighted.
➢ The royal centre was located in the south-western part of the settlement. Although
designated as a royal centre, it included over 60 temples
➢ Suburban townships (puras) surrounded the large Dravidian temple complexes containing
subsidiary shrines, bazaars, residential areas and tanks applying the unique hydraulic
technologies and skilfully and harmoniously integrating the town and defence architecture
with surrounding landscape.
IAS Exam Congress
 ➢ The remains unearthed in the site delineate both the extent of the economic prosperity and
political status that once existed indicating a highly developed society.
➢ The Vitthla temple is the most exquisitely ornate structure on the site and represents the
culmination of Vijayanagara temple architecture. It is a fully developed temple with
associated buildings like Kalyana Mandapa and Utsava Mandapa within a cloistered
enclosure pierced with three entrance Gopurams. This complex also has a large Pushkarani
(stepped tank) with a Vasantotsava mandapa (ceremonial pavilion at the centre), wells and
a network of water channels.
➢ Vijayanagara architecture is also known for its adoption of elements of Indo Islamic
Architecture in secular buildings like the Queen’s Bath and the Elephant Stables,
representing a highly evolved multi-religious and multi-ethnic society.
➢ Link: Vijayanagar Empire’s superior knowledge in science and architecture thrills
Nadda - The Hindu

11. Mysuru Dasara:

➢ According to Hindu mythology, Mahishasura, once a ruler of the land now known as
Mysuru, was considered a demon due to his alleged wrongdoings. The legend goes that
Mahishasura challenged the gods, prompting Goddess Durga (Chamundeshwari) to
defeat him with her trident, earning her the title ‘Mahishasuramardhini’ or the
slayer of Mahisha. This mythological account forms the basis of Dasara, which is
celebrated over nine days (Navaratri) and culminates in Vijaya Dashami, the day of
Mahishasura’s defeat. The Chamundeshwari temple on Chamundi Hills in Mysuru is
believed to be the site of his demise.
➢ According to history, Mysuru Dasara has been celebrated by the Vijayanagara Empire
since the 15th century.
➢ The glory of Navaratri has been documented by the medieval travellers such as Domingo
Paes, Abdur Razak, and Fernavo Nuniz who visited Vijayanagar during the 15th and
16th centuries and have described the events in their writings.
➢ Consequent to the fall of the Vijayanagar empire, Raja Wadiyar, a feudatory of the
Vijayanagar rulers, ascended the throne in Srirangapatna in 1610 CE and ordained
that Dasara be celebrated on a grand scale.
➢ This is a tradition being followed since nearly 410 years and in the present times Mysuru
Dasara is a reflection of the culture and tradition of the people of Karnataka and is hence
also known as Naada Habba or State Festival.
This narrative has been contested by Dalits and rationalists in the Mysuru region who say that
Mahishasura was not a demon but a Buddhist king, killed by upper-caste Aryans. They argue that the
demon story was fabricated to tarnish his legacy, claiming that Mahishasura was a historical figure sent by
Maurya emperor Ashoka to promote Buddhism in the region. The proponents of this theory also point
out that Mysuru is named after Mahishooru, suggesting he might not have been a demon.
➢ Link: Continuation of a tradition under the shadow of the pandemic - The Hindu

IAS Exam Congress

 12. Mughal Paintings:
➢ Mughal painting is the style of miniature painting that developed in the northern Indian
subcontinent in the sixteenth century and continued till the mid–nineteenth century.
➢ It is known for its sophisticated techniques and diverse range of subjects and themes.
➢ The Mughal style of miniature painting was responsible for the amalgamation of
indigenous themes and styles along with Persian and later European themes and
styles.
➢ The early paintings from the Mughal court depicting Emperor Babur and his son
Humayun are simple portraits of them sitting on slightly raised platforms or rugs
with manuscripts, pen boxes, some fruits in their front and huge Mughal cushions behind
them.
➢ The paintings from Emperor Akbar and Jehangir show the development of art with
artists like Abd al-Samad, Bichitra, Dasvant and Basavan and others depicting court
scenes, ceremonies, hunts, battles.
➢ The Persian influence in these paintings cannot be denied if one considers the
accompanying text in Persian and the exquisitely finished borders.
➢ The splendour of the Mughal court is defined by the paintings from the period of Shah
Jahan and later emperors because they feature the famed Peacock Throne, which was
carried off to Persia in 1739 by Nadir Shah.
Later Mughal paintings depart from the simplicity of early paintings with gardens serving as backgrounds for
an unmatched splendour with emperors depicted sitting on the Peacock Throne made of gold studded with
precious stones and surrounded by noblemen and courtiers. These paintings show significant improvement in
the skills of artists as they began employing techniques of linear perspective and making
three-dimensional images.
➢ Impact of Mughal Paintings:
➢ The depiction of royal courts across different regions in India was imitation of the Mughal
style of painting.
➢ The Rajasthani painting in the later years of its development evolved from the “Western
Indian manuscript illustration” due to Mughal influence.
➢ The majority of Sikh historical paintings are exact replicas of Mughal miniatures in
nature, style and form because that was the dominant art of the day. They do bring new
elements to the fore like the introduction of dancing girls at the court, which are
missing in the Mughal court paintings that mostly serve as historical evidence of
important occasions like enthronements, birthdays, emperor giving robe of honour to a noble,
etc.
➢ The influence of Mughal paintings reached Europe when Dutch artist Rembrandt
derived inspiration from them and created a series on Mughal emperors, nobles, courtiers
and womenfolk. The artist may have come in contact with Mughal miniatures through
cultural exchange due to the growing trade between the Dutch East India Company and
Mughal India.
➢ When Britishers came to India this was the period when Mughal art began evolving due
to the elements of perspective in depictions, and moved towards realism of European
art. The paintings that serve as a point of reference in this regard were commissioned by
Jehangir between 1615 and 1618.
➢ One of them shows Jehangir sitting on top of an hourglass-shaped throne, presenting
a book to an old, white-bearded Sufi Shaikh (believed to be the caretaker of the dargah at
Ajmer). This painting features an Ottoman sultan, James I of England, one of the leading
IAS Exam Congress
 artists in Jehangir’s atelier, Bichitr, who made the painting, and
some angels wishing a long life to the emperor. The painting shows
that Jehangir favoured spirituality over worldly power as opposed
to the two monarchs.
➢ The richness and exuberance of Mughal miniature made it the
dominant art movement in the country for centuries, which became the
common pictorial language of Indian rulers. The arrival of the
British, who brought new sensibilities to the country, put a halt to
the development of Mughal art and enabled the transition to
Company style, which was more suited to the changing times.
➢ Link: Art from the royal courts of India: Mughal art is an apt
reminder of our composite culture - Lifestyle News | The Financial
Express

Ramayana Paintings:
➢ The earliest illustrated Ramayana manuscripts that have come down are, paradoxically, in Persian
and were commissioned by the Mughal emperor.
➢ Akbar had the Ramayana, along with the Mahabharata, translated into Persian in order to promote
greater awareness of Hindu religion and culture among the empire’s Muslim elites.
➢ Orchha rajas, who reigned in the name of Rama, against the adharmic foreign domination of the
Mughal emperors also commissioned an illustrated Ramayana.
➢ The First Orchha Ramayana is the masterpiece of the Ram Shah period. It is not an illustrated
“manuscript” but rather a picture book containing 150 to 160 pictures that were loosely placed between
covers to form a pothi, the traditional Indian book. The basis for the illustrations is the Rama story as it is
narrated in the Sanskrit Ramayana of Valmiki.
➢ The paintings were produced by the same workshop that made the Rasikapriya and the Gitagovinda
➢ With the same intention, Jagat Singh I, the rana of Mewar, would commission his master painter
Sahibdin fifty years later to create the great Mewar Ramayana of 1649–53.
➢ Link: Earliest Ramayana paintings were in Persian, commissioned by Mughal king Akbar

13. Ancient ports of India:

➢ The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea i.e The Guide to the Red Sea , its title in
translation, is an anonymous Greek merchant’s tale of his voyage from the Greek port
of Piraeus to the ports of the Red Sea, which is the Red Sea itself and all seas beyond
it to the mouth of the Ganges.
➢ It was a journey by sea to Alexandria, by land to Heliopolis (Cairo), by boat 300 miles up the
Nile and then by camel to the ports of Myos Hormos or the much bigger Berenike, then
onwards. Written in 60 AD, it is considered the last word on the ports of India of that
period.
➢ Some of these ports/hinterlands are:
➢ Barbaricum - Karachi ➢ Colchi — Korkai
➢ Barygaza — Bharuch ➢ Camera – Puhar (Poompuhar)
➢ Syrastrene — Saurashtra ➢ Poduca — Puducherry
➢ Suppara — Soppara ➢ Sopatama — Marakkanam
➢ Muziris — Pattanam ➢ Maisolia — Masulipatnam
➢ Dasarna — Orissa.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Two things emerged from the text:
➢ Firstly, the traders from Rome and Greece monopolised trade with the West coast of
India, especially in the Gujarat region with its ports of Bharuch and others in
Saurashtra, and Musiris (Pattanam near Cranganore) in Kerala, considered part of
Damarica (Tamizhagam).
➢ Indian traders did not sail westwards. It was only those from the East coast who went
overseas, sailing from the Coromandel and Kalinga coasts.
➢ The western trade focused on horses and wine one way; pepper, textiles and ivory the
other.
➢ The second statement was that Mamallapuram was not a port as usually claimed;
Marakkanam was the port
➢ Link: The ancient ports of India | Latest News | The Hindu
Ancient Port of Poompuhar:
➢ The present-day Poompuhar in Tamil Nadu’s Mayiladuthurai district was
once a flourishing port city known as Kaveripoompattinam.Poompuhar, also
known Kaveripoompattinam, was submerged by the sea, and there are references
to this in the Tamil epic Manimekalai.
➢ The disappearance of the port city remained a mystery. A major finding, based on
a study of the past sea levels, is that Poompuhar is not just 2,500 years old as
believed widely and might be more than 15,000 years old. It might be one of
the oldest port cities in the world.
➢ For a while it served as the capital of the early Chola kings in Tamilakam.
Puhar is located near the end point of the Kaveri river, aside the sea coast. It is mentioned in the Periplus
of Erythrean sea. The ancient Tamil poem Manimekalai by the poet Seethalai Saathanar is set in the town of
Kaveripattinam.
➢ Ancient ruins of a 4th-5th-century Buddhist monastery, a Buddha statue, and a Buddhapada (footprint of the
Buddha) were found in another section of the ancient city, now at Pallavanesvaram
Ancient Port of Korkai:
➢ Korkai was the capital, principal centre of trade and important port of
the Early Pandyan Kingdom.
➢ At that time, it was located on the banks of the Tamiraparani River and at the
sea coast, forming a natural harbour.
➢ The famous urn burial site, Adichanallur(Megalithic site), is located
about 15 km from Korkai.
➢ In ancient times, Korkai was a well known centre of pearl fishery; it is
mentioned often in the Sangam literature and in classical western literature.
Ancient Port of Muziris:
➢ Around 2,000 years ago, Muziris was one of India’s most important trading ports located in modern
day Kerala
➢ According to the Akananuru, a collection of Tamil poetry from the period, it was “the city where the
beautiful vessels, the masterpieces of the Yavanas [Westerners], stir white foam on the Periyar, river of
Kerala, arriving with gold and departing with pepper.”
➢ Another poem speaks of Muziris (also known as Muciripattanam or Muciri) as “the city where liquor
abounds”, which “bestows wealth to its visitors indiscriminately” with “gold deliveries.
➢ The Roman author Pliny, in his Natural History, called Muziris “the first emporium of India”.
➢ What made it absolutely unique was the considerable amounts of black pepper exported from Muziris.
➢ In addition to pepper, De Romanis says, exports included both local products – ivory, pearls, spices such as
malabathron – and those from other parts of India, including semi-precious stones, silks and the aromatic
root nard

IAS Exam Congress

 14. History of Indo Roman Trade:
➢ Context: The launch of the new India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor
(IMEEC) connecting India with the Gulf and Europe has been seen as a new route but
it is fact that it was the major route used for East and West trade through the Red
Sea for thousands of years.
➢ According to Historian William Dalrymple: "When people think of trade between
Europe and Asia, the first thing that comes to mind is - Silk Road. That (Silk Road) is a
concept of a novel route - a very romantic idea of a camel caravan laden with silk and
spices crossing the Pamirs, and the traditional conception of this is something that links
China with the Roman world in the Mediterranean. But Silk Road is a very modern idea,"
➢ Silk Road was coined in the 19th century by German geographer Ferdinand von
Richthofen and it only came into the English language in the 1930s and really became
popular in the last 20-25 years.
➢ If we look at the classical period in the time of the Romans, the big East-West trade
had nothing to do with China at all, it was with India. It happened not over the land,
but over the Red Sea this was a major world economic route.
Dalrymple said that records were available of Roman geographer and economist Pliny complaining that all the
gold in the Roman world was bucketing out towards India as Indians were exporting a lot. Pliny also
stated that 250 Roman cargo vessels alone were leaving from just one port in a year and sailing to India,
the historian said while referring to the magnitude of the trade. Ships were operating to Bharuch in Gujarat
and Muziris near Cochin in Kerala.

➢ Major Items of Trade:

Exported from India Exported to India
➢ From the cinnamon-like plant called ➢ The flow of goods in the other direction was
malabathrum, whose leaves were pressed to more limited.
create perfume ➢ Roman wine
➢ To ivory, pearls, and precious gemstones. ➢ There was also some trade in olive oil and
➢ A famous ivory figure of a voluptuously Garum(an ancient Roman fermented fish paste,
pouting yakshi fertility spirit, found in the like the Tabasco or garam masala of the day)
ruins of Pompeii, can be dated to this period. evidence of which has been found in Arikamedu
➢ In fact, the city once had a shop which apparently and the sites in Kerala.
sold nothing but ivory products.
➢ There was also demand for “exotic” goods, such as
wild animals like elephants and tigers.
➢ There were spices → India’s biggest export by
far was pepper, large quantities of which have
been found during excavations at Berenike,
often in torpedo-shaped pottery jars, each
weighing more than 10 kg. In fact, by the end of
the first century, Indian pepper became
almost as readily available as it is today.
Around 80 per cent of the 478 recipes included
in the Roman cookbook of Apicius included
pepper

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Muziris Papyrus: The ancient trade invoice:
➢ It's a piece of historical document. Papyrus was dug up in Egypt. It is now kept in a museum in
Vienna. And when they studied it, it was a shipping invoice.
➢ According to the Muziris Papyrus, the import tax paid on the cargo of almost nine
million sesterces(roman coins) was over two million sesterces. Working up from these
figures, and the other receipts that have survived from the period, by the first century CE,
Indian imports into Egypt were worth probably over a billion sesterces per annum, from
which the tax authorities of the Roman Empire were creaming off no less than 270
million.
➢ If the figures given on the Muziris Papyrus were correct — and there are no reasons to doubt
them — then custom taxes raised on the trade coming through the Red Sea would alone
have covered around one-third of the entire revenues that the Roman Empire required
to administer its global conquests and maintain its vast legions, from lowland Scotland to
the borders of Persia, and from the Sahara to the banks of the Rhine and Danube.
➢ The regional ports of Barbaricum (modern Karachi), Sounagoura (central Bangladesh),
Barygaza (Bharuch in Gujarat), Muziris (present day Kodungallur), Korkai, Kaveripattinam
and Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu) on the southern tip of present-day India were the main
centres of this trade, along with Kodumanal, an inland city.
➢ The Periplus Maris Erythraei describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin
clothing, figured linens, topaz, coral, storax, frankincense, vessels of glass, silver and gold
plate, and a little wine" in exchange for "costus, bdellium, lycium, nard, turquoise, lapis
lazuli, Seric skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, and indigo".

➢ Two major trade routes emerged under the Roman Empire that spanned about 4800
kilometres (3000 mi). There was a southern route that went down the Red Sea and then
along the eastern coast of Africa to Rhapta, close to present-day Dar es Salaam, and
another that also went down the Red Sea but then went east across the Indian Ocean
IAS Exam Congress
 to ports in India. The full journey down the coast of Africa from Egypt took about two
years to complete, while that to India and back was closer to a year.
➢ The surviving papyri indicate that much of the shipping coming out of the Egyptian Red
Sea ports seems to have been owned by Alexandrian businessmen — but given that so
many of the sailors working the route were Indian, Indian ownership is not out of the
question.
➢ Link: William Dalrymple Explains | The ancient history behind the maritime trade
route between India and Europe

15. Ancient links between Tamil traders and a Chinese

port city :
➢ Quanzhou, a port city in Fujian province is possibly the only city
in this country with existing evidence that ancient trade links
existed between coastal China and southern India.
➢ Hundreds of sculptures and carvings were excavated in the city and
surrounding areas in the middle of the last century.
➢ The famous Kaiyuan temple – a major tourist destination – in
Quanzhou also has carvings that historians say were influenced by
Hindu/Buddhist styles. Many of these artefacts are now kept at the Quanzhou Maritime
Museum – also called the Museum of Overseas Communication History – which also
houses relics including old ships, which sunk near the coast and inscriptions of Christian
and Islamic origin.
➢ The Hindu Vishnu stone statues are preserved in the Quanzhou Sea Museum,
depicting the god of protection, Vishnu, one of the three Hindu gods. It is a prototype of
Vishnu and is a common form in a Hindu temple.
➢ In the late thirteenth century, a Tamil-speaking community in southern China’s coastal
city of Quanzhou built a temple devoted to the Hindu god Siva. The temple is no longer
intact, but over 300 carvings are still within the city, on display in the collection of the
local museum, and rebuilt into the walls of the city’s main Buddhist temple.
➢ Link: Ancient links between Tamil traders and a Chinese port city | Latest News
India - Hindustan Times

16. Layered world of medieval kingdoms :

➢ Context: Book review of Iqtidar Alam Khan’s two books on medieval kingdom.
➢ He explained how the Turkish invaders sometimes prevailed in battles despite facing
much larger Rajput armies. They did so because they were using ‘‘iron stirrups, concave
saddles as well as iron horseshoes that gave them a distinct military superiority over
their Indian opponents in a situation where mounted archery was increasingly becoming
the main form of armed contestation. The heavily-armed Rajput cavalrymen, more at ease
in close combat involving the use of weapons like sword and spear, were thus often placed
in a situation of military disadvantage.’’.
➢ India was the first place, outside Spain, where the Turkish conquerors faced a
predominantly non-Muslim populace, who did not belong to the Judeo-Christian tradition.
➢ The Arabs who conquered and ruled over large swathes of Sindh and Punjab had
resolved this problem by according Hindus, even though they were idolaters, the
status of Zimmis, protected people. Land, its produce and revenue, was the chief
IAS Exam Congress
 source of income but it was not possible to directly access it, as there were
entrenched intermediaries, the zamindars, variously known as Chaudhuris, Muqaddams,
Khots. In order to rule, therefore, the Turkish Sultanates perforce had to depend on
locals, for military and administrative purposes and out of these processes of
adjustments evolved the peculiar nature of the Indo-Islamic ecumene.
➢ Right from the beginning, there were tensions between those who wished to be more
accommodating to Hindus and those who were more puritanical. The early historian
Ziauddin Barani, who, like the great poet Amir Khusrau, lasted several different
dynasties and Sultans, describes many such debates. In the northwest parts of India
there had already been several centuries of Muslim rule and both Indian Hindus and
Muslims vied for a share in power. Barani was sometimes disgusted by the pre-eminence of
the “Julahas”, his pejorative for low-caste origins of Indian Muslims.
➢ The word julaha, which simply means weavers, as Kabir was, is still used to
denigrate low caste Muslims. But Hindus were powerful enough to be kingmakers, like in
an attempted coup at the end of the 13th century, or even to become the Sultan, like
Khusrau Khan, a Hindu convert who briefly ruled India after Alauddin Khalji’s death.
➢ Local alliances also dictated intermarriage. Ghazi Malik, later the founder of the
Tughlaq dynasty, was keen for his nephew to marry the daughter of a powerful Hindu
Bhatti chief but his initial proposal was met with sneers and “unutterable” insults. He then
goaded the local tax collectors to harass the clansmen of the family and eventually they
succumbed. The marriage produced Firoze Shah Tughlaq, who had the longest reign
among the Delhi Sultans, and whose fort Kotla still remains a thriving station, for its
stadium as well as for the benevolent ghosts who inhabit the Ashokan pillars which he
placed there.
➢ But even before the establishment of the Sultanate Muslims had settled in the
Gangetic doab and even in the south:
➢ A Pandian King of the 11th century had built a mosque for worshippers there.
➢ The Vijayanagar rulers, styled themselves as ‘Suratrans’ or Sultans and employed a Muslim
cavalry contingent.
➢ There were Muslim banduqchis, or gunners, defending Chittor during Akbar’s siege of
1568, and Muslim coppersmiths working at Nagaur in Marwa in the 15th century.
➢ Rana Kumbha of Mewar erected an inscription stating that he was a Hindu sultan while
putting the name of Allah in Arabic characters on the top layers of his Victory Tower.
➢ Even after the Delhi sultanate was overthrown, Muslims survived in Bengal, Malwa and other
places where Hindus were dominant, and increasingly were to remain so until the British
arrived on the scene.
➢ The Chachnama, a chronicle of the Arabic conquest of Sindh mentions the deployment
of Brahmans as tax collectors for the new regime.
➢ Qutubuddin Aibak, the founder of the Sultanate had a contingent of Hindu troops supplied
by the local ‘Takaran’ ie the Thakurs.
➢ One of Prithviraj’s sons was allowed to rule from Ranthambore as a tributary of the Sultan.
➢ Mahmud Ghazni left behind a dynasty which ruled Punjab and Ghazni for 200 years,
before the Ghurid conquest. But Mahmud of Ghazni had established his sway after defeating
the Brahmin Hindushahi dynasty of Kabul, whose rulers Anandpal and Jaypal assisted his
forays into India and Iran.
➢ The famous Sufi saint Abdul Quddus Gangohi of the 15th/16th centuries, famous in Hindi
poetry as Alakh Das, illuminates several contradictions inherent in a plural medieval society. The

IAS Exam Congress

 Sufi Shaikh apparently left his native qasba Rudauli in Awadh, UP, because of the dominance of the
Hindus, which had allowed “pork to be openly sold in the market,” among other things.
Al Beruni, a polymath typical of the era, was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and
natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist and linguist. He wrote
several treatises, even on scientific subjects, and brought a rare objectivity in his study of India and its
knowledge systems. He spent years learning Sanskrit and interacted with hundreds of Indian learned men,
chiefly Brahmins, before presenting his findings. He also carefully recorded oral testimony from persons
representing different centres of Hindu learning.Al Beruni also maintained that, There is very little
disputing about theological topics among Indians At the most they fight with words, but they will never
stake their soul or body or their property on religious controversy.
➢ Link:https://www.hindustantimes.com/books/review-two-books-by-medieval-historian-iqtid
ar-alam-khan-101630674220373-amp.html

17. Sun Temple in Konark, Odisha :

➢ Context: Recently ASI completed the restoration work
of Konark temple.
➢ The thirteenth-century Sun Temple (also known as the
Black Pagoda), built in Orissa red sandstone
(Khandolite) and black granite by King
Narasimhadeva I (AD 1236-1264) of the Ganga
dynasty.
➢ A World Heritage Site, the temple provides an
exceptional look at India's religious heritage.
➢ The Konark Sun Temple had been built as one of the
finest examples of Brahmin architecture and beliefs.
Built to honour the Sun God, Arka, the temple
complex displays the enormous wealth, talent, and spirituality.
➢ Features:
➢ There are two rows of 12 wheels on each side of the Konark sun temple.
➢ Some say the wheels represent the 24 hours in a day and others say the 12 months.
➢ The seven horses are said to symbolise the seven days of the week.
➢ The temple has earned fame for its erotic sculptures, found primarily on the second level
of the porch structure. The viewer quickly notes the frank nature of their subject combined
with an overwhelming tenderness and lyrical movement.
➢ Sailors once called this Sun Temple of Konark, the Black Pagoda because it was supposed
to draw ships into the shore and cause shipwrecks.
➢ Konark is the invaluable link in the history of the diffusion of the cult of Surya, which
originating in Kashmir during the 8th century, finally reached the shores of Eastern India.
➢ The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga School of Indian Temples with characteristic
curvilinear towers mounted by cupolas. In shape, the temple holds faithful to other
shikhara temples of Orissa. The main sanctum stands 229 ft. high, constructed along with
the audience hall lofting 128 ft. high, with elaborate architectural decorations.
➢ The main sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall
survives in its entirely, but only small portions of the Dancing Hall (nata Mandir) and the
Dining Hall (Bhoga-Mandap) have survived the effects of time.

IAS Exam Congress

Kalinga Architecture:
➢ This style broadly comes under the Nagara style.
➢ In Kalinga Architecture, basically a temple is made in two
parts, a tower and a hall.
➢ The tower is called deula and the hall is called
jagmohan.
➢ The walls of both the deula and the jagmohan are lavishly
sculpted with architectural motifs and a profusion of
figures.
➢ The most repeated form is the horseshoe shape
➢ It is the deula which makes three distinct types of temples
in Kalinga Architecture:
➢ Rekha Deula.
➢ Pidha Deula.
➢ Khakhara Deula.
➢ The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly with
Chamunda and Durga temple.

Link:Restoring the Sun temple’s exquisite carvings - The Hindu

18. Bankim Chandra & Vande Mataram:

➢ Vande Mataram or Bande Mataram, as it was originally conceived, was a slogan and a
song that inspired Indians to seek independence from British colonial rule.
➢ It was a mantra from bureaucrat-novelist Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay some time
in the 1870s.
➢ The exact date of composition of the Vande Mataram song is not certain. But it first
appeared in a magazine called Bangadarshan in 1875.
➢ The song became popular after Bankim Chandra serialised his most popular novel,
Anandmath, in the same Bangadarshan magazine in 1881 and published it as a book
in 1882.
Origin of song:
● When the 1857 Revolt took place, Bankim Chandra was in college and deeply influenced by the developments.
After completing his B.A. in 1858, Bankim Chandra followed in his father's footsteps and joined the
British government. He was the deputy collector of the Murshidabad district in 1873 and was posted at
Berhampore, where his tiff with a British military officer called Colonel Duffin became the talk of the town.
● According to these researchers, the idea of Vande Mataram came in the aftermath of physical abuse and
insult meted out to Bankim Chandra on a cricket field in 1873.
● It was the idol of Goddess Kali that struck him and he could relate the deity wearing a garland of
skulls to his motherland suffering misery and becoming a graveyard. It was this
spiritual-intellectual-colonial cocktail that led, according to independent researchers, Bankim
Chandra to the idea of Vande Mataram.
➢ The Vande Mataram song became public 10 years before the birth of the Indian National
Congress that led the fight for freedom against British rule in India. The first rendition of
the song at a Congress session was by Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who
also composed the tune, in 1896.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ The opposition to the song by the Muslim League leaders was based on the
references to goddess Durga in a later stanza of the poem, particularly where it says:
"Thou art Durga, Lady and Queen". Bankim Chandra compared his country to various forms
of womanhood respected and worshipped in India.
➢ It was after Tagore's assurance that the Indian National Congress adopted Vande
Mataram as the national song in 1937. A year later, Jinnah openly refused to accept it.
➢ Interestingly, while Article 51-A(a) calls for respect to be given to the national
anthem, there is no mention of the national song in the Constitution.
➢ Link: 15 August Special | How the arrogance of a British officer made Bankim
Chandra pen Vande Mataram - India Today

19. Jatar Deul Temple:

➢ Context: Jatar Deul- an ancient terracotta temple in West Bengal’s Sundarbans,
which has survived the ravages of time for a millennia, is now facing erosion threat due to
increase in air salinity.
➢ It is a Hindu Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
➢ Located at Kanakan Dighi Village in South 24 Parganas District in West Bengal.
➢ The Temple stands on a small hill in the landscape of the southern Sundarbans
settlements.
➢ A copper plate found near the temple in 1875 suggests that Raja Joychandra
constructed the temple in 975 AD.
➢ The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
➢ Structure:
➢ This temple is facing towards the east and follows the Kalingan style of architecture.
➢ The temple is built over a raised platform.
➢ It has an arched gateway leading to the sanctum.
➢ The sanctum is situated below the ground level.
➢ The sanctum houses Lingas, pictures and idols of various gods & goddesses of Hindu
pantheon.
➢ The walls of the temple were intricately decorated with decorative bricks, but most of it is lost
due to unplanned reconstruction.
➢ Link:https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/sea-winds-eat-away-11t
h-century-sundarbans-temple/article66444082.ece/amp/
What are Monuments of National Importance?
➢ Monuments of National Importance (MNI) are declared by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
➢ Declared under section 4 of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remain Act, 1958.
➢ Criteria: As per the ASMR Act, 1958, ancient monuments or archaeological sites and remains which are of
historical, archaeological or architectural interest and have been in existence for not less than 100
years may be declared by the Central Government as of national importance.
➢ ASI undertakes conservation, preservation and maintenance of MNI throughout the country. In addition, basic
amenities and visitor facilities like pathways, signages, visitor benches, facilities for divyangs, etc. are provided
at monuments.
➢ There are 3697 ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains declared as Monuments of
National Importance in India.
➢ States with highest sites: Uttar Pradesh (745 monuments/sites), Karnataka (506) and Tamil Nadu (413) have
the highest number of ASI-maintained sites.

IAS Exam Congress

 20. Ramappa Temple:
➢ Context: Recently, Rudreswara Temple, (also known
as the Ramappa Temple) at Mulugu district,
Telangana has been inscribed on UNESCO's World
Heritage list.
➢ About the temple:
➢ The Rudreswara temple was constructed in 1213
AD during the reign of the Kakatiya Empire by
Recherla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya king
Ganapati Deva.
➢ The presiding deity here is Ramalingeswara Swamy.
➢ It is also known as the Ramappa temple, after the
sculptor who executed the work in the temple for 40 years.
➢ The temple stands on a 6 feet high star-shaped platform with walls, pillars and ceilings
adorned with intricate carvings that attest to the unique skill of the Kakatiya sculptors.
➢ The foundation is built with the “sandbox technique”, the flooring is granite and the pillars
are basalt.
This is a technique where the foundation pit is filled with a mixture of sand-lime, jaggery and black
myrobalan fruit. This mix acts as a cushion in case of earthquakes.
➢ The lower part of the temple is red sandstone while the white gopuram is built with light
bricks that reportedly float on water.
➢ An inscription dates the temple to 1135 Samvat-Saka on the eight-day of Magha (12th
January, 1214).
➢ The distinct style of Kakatiyas for the gateways to temple complexes, unique only to
this region, confirm the highly evolved proportions of aesthetics in temple and town
gateways in South India.
➢ European merchants and travellers were mesmerised by the beauty of the temple and one
such traveller had remarked that the temple was the "brightest star in the galaxy of
medieval temples of the Deccan".
Another temple of Kakatiya Period:
● 650-year-old Kakatiya-era temple have been turned into a haystack, a garbage dumpyard and truck
parking bay in Suryapet town. Known to the locals as Rapollu Gullu, the machined pillars of the temple are
still a sight but for the residents of the surrounding area, it is a potential site for encroachment
● It is Vaishnavite temple which was built in two stages. “The rangamandapa, which is still intact, shows
a style that evolved during Rudramma Devi’s period and can be dateable to the 13th century. The
collapsed portions show that it was built during 16th century, perhaps during Krishnadevaraya’s
period,”
Link: Ancient temple a sad case of irreverence towards heritage - The Hindu

IAS Exam Congress

 21. Panini’s Ashtadhyayi:
➢ Context: Recently, a Cambridge scholar Dr Rishi
Rajpopat’s has claimed to have solved Sanskrit’s
biggest puzzle—a grammar problem found in the
‘Ashtadhyayi’.
➢ Written more than 2,000 years ago, Ashtadhyayi or
‘Eight Chapters', is an ancient text written by the
scholar Panini towards the end of the 4th century BC.
➢ It is a linguistic text that set the standard for how Sanskrit
was meant to be written and spoken. It delves deep into
the language’s phonetics, syntax and grammar, and also
offers a ‘language machine’, where one can feed in the root and suffix of any
Sanskrit word, and get grammatically correct words and sentences in return.
➢ To ensure this ‘machine’ was accurate, Panini wrote a set of 4,000 rules dictating its
logic. But as scholars studied it, the rules are causing confusion. To resolve this, Panini had
provided a ‘meta-rule’ (a rule governing rules), which had historically been interpreted
as: ‘In the event of a conflict between two rules of equal strength, the rule that
comes later in the serial order of the ‘Ashtadhyayi’ wins’ but there were some
exceptions coming.
➢ In his thesis titled ‘In Panini We Trust’, Dr Rajpopat took a simpler approach, arguing
that the meta-rule has been wrongly interpreted throughout history; what Panini
actually meant, was that for rules applying to the left and right sides of a word,
readers should use the right-hand side rule
➢ Commentaries on Panini’s work:
➢ Mahabhasya of Patanjali (2nd century BC) and
➢ Kasika Vritti of Jayaditya and Vamana (7th century AD)
About Panini:
➢ Panini probably lived in the 4th century BC, the age of the conquests of Alexander and the founding of
the Mauryan Empire, even though he has also been dated to the 6th century BC, the age of The Buddha and
Mahavira.
➢ He likely lived in Salatura (Gandhara), which today would lie in north-west Pakistan, and was probably
associated with the great university at Taksasila, which also produced Kautilya and Charaka, the ancient
Indian masters of statecraft and medicine respectively.
➢ By the time Panini’s great grammar, the ‘Ashtadhyayi’ was composed, Sanskrit had virtually reached its
classical form — and developed little thereafter.
Link:‘Grammar’s greatest puzzle’: What was the Sanskrit problem in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’, now
solved by an Indian student? | Explained News

22. Amar Jiban, the story of a Bengali woman whose desire to read led to a
feminist revolution :
➢ Amar Jiban, published in 1876, is the name of Rassundari Devi's autobiography and
is the first autobiography written by an Indian woman and also the first written by
any Bengali female.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ It tells us about the status of women in the 19th-century Indian society and the excess
amount of inequality and hardship they had to go through. It was the first full-length
autobiography published in the Bengali language.
➢ Rashsundari’s life in effect was that of any ordinary homemaker from an upper caste,
landed family of Bengal. She was born in 1809 at a small village called Potajia.
➢ At the age of 59, Rashsundari was widowed and the following year, in 1897, she finished the
first version of her autobiography. When she was 88, she added a second part to Amar Jiban
and a new version of the book was published.
➢ The first part of the book consists of 16 compositions, and the second part contains
15 compositions. Each composition is preceded by a dedicatory poem. “The tone,
typical of Rassundari’s writing, is one of understatement and restraint, but what emerges is
a clear indictment of the way Bengali society in her time treated women like her.”
➢ Link: Amar Jiban, the story of a Bengali woman whose desire to read led to a
feminist revolution | Research News - The Indian Express

23. Jain Manuscript:

➢ Context: An ancient Jain manuscript considered sacred by the community has been
named as one of the rarest documents in the world by UNESCO, which said the text
was of “lasting value to humankind“.
➢ ’Shantinatha Charitra’, a text written in Sanskrit describing the life of Shantinatha -
the 16th Jain Tirthankara, was included in the ‘World Register of the United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).
➢ The international body said the Indian entry offers a universal message of friendship,
global peace and unity with integrity and “the story is of lasting value to humankind“.
➢ It also describes historical facts and professes high moral and cultural values. The
Illustrations found in this manuscript are oldest specimens of miniature painting,
➢ Another document with an Indian link to make the prestigious list this year originates in
Nepal: “Nisvasattatvasamhita’ manuscript” is one of the oldest and most important
sources of tantrism and is believed to have influenced the shaping of other tantric texts.It
is written in Sanskrit language on palm leaves,
➢ A hand-written journal documenting Vasco da Gama’s first voyage to India, dating
back to 1497-1499 has also found a spot in the ‘Memory of the World Register.’
➢ This year 55 ancient documents have been added to the list.
➢ Last year, the Rigveda -- the oldest among the four Vedas and a literary document
on humankind -- was the highlight addition.
➢ Link: Ancient Jain text is UNESCO world heritage gem - The Hindu BusinessLine

24. Purandaradasa kritis:

➢ Purandara Dāsa (1484 – 1565) of Haridasa movement, was a renowned composer of
Carnatic music, a Vaishnava poet, a saint and a social reformer.
➢ He was a disciple of the Dvaita philosopher-saint Vyasatirtha. His guru, Vyasatirtha,
glorified Purandara Dasa in a song thus: Dāsarendare purandara dāsarayya.
➢ Purandara Dasa was a wealthy merchant of gold, silver and other miscellaneous
jewellery from Karnataka, who gave away all his material riches to become a Haridasa
(literally meaning a servant of Lord Hari or Lord Krishna).

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ As a devotional singer who made the difficult Sanskrit tenets of Srimad Bhagavatam
available to everyone in simple and melodious songs.
➢ He formulated the basic lessons of teaching Carnatic music by structuring graded
exercises known as Svaravalis and Alankaras, and at the same time, he introduced the
raga Mayamalavagowla as the first scale to be learnt by beginners in the field – a
practice that is still followed today.
➢ In honour of his significant contributions to Carnatic music, he is widely referred to as
the "Father(Pitamaha)" of Carnatic music.
➢ Purandara Dasa is noted for composing Dasa Sahitya, as a Bhakti movement vocalist,
and a music scholar.

25. UNESCO’s calls for submission of manuscripts :

➢ The Memory of the World (MoW) programme is a UNESCO initiative based on the
fundamental premise that the world’s documented heritage belongs to all, and should be
identified and preserved.
➢ The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) is the nodal centre for the
programme.
➢ India submitted Nine Documents to the MoW:
➢ Archives of the Dutch East India Company
➢ The Gilgit manuscripts (birch bark documents from the 500 AD, relating to Buddhism,
currently in the Shri Pratap Singh Museum)
➢ Vimalaprabha (texts on astrology, astronomy, Ayurveda etc, in the Asiatic Society,
Kolkata)
➢ Maitreyavyakarana (10th-century Buddhist document; in Asiatic Society, Kolkata)
➢ The Rigveda and Shaiva Agamas (at the Institut Francais de Pondicherry)
➢ Shantinatha Charitra (a Jain text)
➢ Tarikh-e-Khandan-e-Timuriyah (illustrated text from Akbar’s reign, at the Khuda
Baksh Public library)
➢ Tamil medical manuscript (at the Institute of Asian Studies).
➢ Some of text’s which are not included:
➢ Nāṭya Śāstra is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts,the text is attributed to sage
Bharata.
➢ 12th-century Sanskrit treatise by King Someshvara III of the Western Chalukya dynasty,
variously termed the Manasollasa or Abhilashitartha Chintamani.
➢ 13th-century Sangita Ratnakara by Sharngadeva.
Link: UNESCO’s calls for submission of manuscripts - The Hindu

26. Excavations in Keeladi:

➢ Context: Recently, ASI has submitted a detailed report on the findings during the first two
phases of the digging at the Sangam-era site and their significance.
➢ Keeladi is a Tiny hamlet in the Sivaganga district in south Tamil Nadu. It is about 12
km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai river.
➢ The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilisation existed in Tamil Nadu
in the Sangam age on the banks of the Vaigai river.
➢ Keeladi could also provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron
Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE
to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Findings:
➢ Unearthing of heaps of pottery suggest the existence of a pottery making industry,
mostly made of locally available raw materials. Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi
inscriptions have been found.
➢ Spindle whorls, copper needles, terracotta seal, hanging stones of the yarn, terracotta
spheres and earthen vessels to hold liquid suggest various stages of a weaving industry.
➢ There also existed a dyeing industry and a glass bead industry.
➢ Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, shell bangles, ivory bangles and
ivory combs reflect the artistic, culturally rich and prosperous lifestyle of the Keeladi
people.
➢ Agate and carnelian beads suggest import through commercial networks while terracotta
and ivory dice, gamesmen and evidence of hopscotch have been unearthed revealing
their pastime hobbies.
➢ The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of
the Vaigai Valley Civilization. The findings have also invited comparisons with the
Indus Valley Civilization while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1,000 years between the
two places.
➢ A recent ASI report has pushed the Sangam age to 800 BCE based on these
archaeological findings.

Key facts about the Sangam period:

● The word ‘Sangam’ is the Tamil form of the Sanskrit word Sangha which means a group of persons or an
association.
● This sangama was an academy of poets who flourished in three different periods and different places under
the patronage of the Pandyan kings.
● The Sangam literature, which was largely consolidated from the third Sangam, sheds light on people's
living conditions at the start of the Christian era.
● It gives information about the secular matter relating to public and social activities like government, war
charity, trade, worship, agriculture, etc.
● Sangam literature consists of the earliest Tamil works (Tolkappiyam), the ten poems (Pattupattu), the
eight anthologies (Ettutogai) and the eighteen minor works (Padinenkilkanakku), and the three
epics.

Link: Explained | The significance of the findings in Keeladi - The Hindu

27. Khajuraho:
➢ Context: Meeting of the culture working group was organised by the Ministry of
Culture, Government of India in Khajuraho from 22nd to 25th February 2023.
➢ While Khajuraho is internationally recognised for its rich architectural grandeur of
the Western Group of temples that UNESCO recognizes as world heritage, the districts
of Chhatarpur and Panna have lesser-known destinations that can serve as model local
tourist destinations, in line with the Government of India’s programmes.
➢ Additionally, Madhya Pradesh popularly contributes to geo-history through its fossil
and dinosaurs parks – the Ghughwa fossil national park in the Dindori district and
the Bagh dinosaur site –pitching for the UNESCO global geopark status add to the
diversity in tourism that the state offers.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ The 900-year-old ‘Parrot Lady’ of Khajuraho — the sandstone sculpture of a woman
holding a parrot which was brought back to India from Canada in 2017.
➢ Link: At Khajuraho, an exhibition on repatriated artefacts for G-20 delegates - The Hindu

28. Buddhism Stupa architecture:

➢ Context: Recently a stone carving piece removed by ASI officials during their
excavation of a 1,300-year-old Buddhist site at Parbhadi Sukhuapada in Jajpur
district of Odisha.
➢ A Buddhist stupa was mined at Khandolite mining site at Parabhadi in Sukhuapada
hamlet in Jajpur district. Another smaller stupa has been completely destroyed due to
mining at the site. The stupa could be 4.5-metre tall and initial assessment showed it may
belong to the 7th or 8th century
➢ The archaeological asset was found at Parabhadi which is situated near Lalitagiri, a
major Buddhist complex, having a large number of stupas and monasteries. After
discovery of the Buddhist stupa from the mining site, the ASI intervened and asked Odisha
government to stop mining through its Odisha Mining Corporation (OMC). The mining has
since stopped.
➢ Khondalite stones from these area were supplied for the beautification project
around the 12th Century Shree Jagannath Temple in Puri.
➢ Link: ASI stumbles upon 1,300-yr-old Buddhist Stupa at Khondalite stone mining site in
Odisha - The Hindu

29. Buddhist monastery complex at Bharatpur of Bengal:

➢ Context: Recent excavations at Bharatpur in West Bengal’s Paschim Bardhaman district
have revealed the presence of a Buddhist monastery.
➢ The outer wall of the monastery, containing nine layers of brick and a small circular
structure has been revealed.
➢ Buddhism in West Bengal: The region was a bastion of the ancient Buddhist Mauryan
and Pala empires when the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools flourished.
➢ South-Eastern Bengal was ruled by the medieval Buddhist Kingdom of Mrauk U during
the 16th and 17th centuries.
➢ The site was important for two main reasons:
➢ One, because it is an early village settlement on the bank of the river Damodar which
could date to around 2000 BCE and
➢ Two, the Buddhist monastery complex.
➢ So there are two significances to the site: one is secular which is an early village
settlement, and second, religious, which is Buddhist site.
➢ The stupa found is large compared to stupas found from other Buddhist sites in the state
like Karnasubarna in Murshidabad, Moghalamari in Paschim Medinipur, and Jagjivanpur in
Malda where smaller votive stupas were found.
➢ Link: Of a bygone era: excavations reveal Buddhist monastery complex at Bharatpur of
Bengal - The Hindu

IAS Exam Congress

 30. Copper utensils of Chalcolithic Age found in Attappady:
➢ Cist burial sites and shards of black and red pottery were found widely scattered on
both sides of the Kodumkarapallam, a river that borders Kerala and Tamil Nadu in
Attappady.
➢ A.D. Manikandan, a scholar in economics, had found innumerable archaeological remains
from the banks of the Bhavani river, the Siruvani river, and the Kodumkarapallam river
during his postdoctoral studies among the tribes of Attappady.
➢ Among his discoveries were stone tools, caves, menhirs, cists, stone circles, urn burials,
black and red ware pottery, terracotta images, stone carvings, and granite inscriptions.
➢ Link: Copper utensils of Chalcolithic Age found in Attappady - The Hindu

31. Beads:
➢ Beads are a fashion statement in today’s world. They
are beautiful. And they can also tell us the story of a
civilization.
➢ Importance of Beads:
➢ Beads play an important role in helping us understand
the cultures of the past — long-distance trade,
technological features and parameters, provenance,
artistic expression — and very important in
archaeological studies, often from a period where no
written evidence is available.
➢ Even during historical periods, beads were useful to
help us understand archaeological cultures in terms of trade, technology and art.
➢ The long barrel cylindrical beads and decorated carnelian beads found from several
sites in Oman, Iraq and Syria (the last two corresponding to the areas of the
Mesopotamian civilization) clearly indicate their export as elite items from the
Harappan civilization.
➢ The beads from the Harappan civilization — a better and most accepted terminology than
the Indus Valley civilization — are of various materials such as terracotta, shell,
steatite, agate-carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise, faience, jasper, onyx, and others.
Analysis reveals that 41 new raw materials were added during the urban phase of the
Harappan civilization (2600-1900 BCE).
➢ This is a clear indication of the economic prosperity boosted by the integration of
various regional Chalcolithic cultures across the Greater Indus Plains. The integration
of these regional Chalcolithic cultures also enabled the procurement of raw materials from
distant locations.
➢ Often the burials of Harappan sites clearly indicate the social stratification based on
the artefacts, including beads of exotic raw materials, their number and rarity.
➢ Similarly, terracotta male and female figurines clearly indicate the context in which
the beaded necklaces were worn by them.
For example, the long barrel cylindrical beads were worn as girdles across the hip portion of females as
the female terracotta figurines from sites like Mohenjo- daro show. The placing of agate and faience eye
beads across the upper arm from child burials of Sanauli is another clear indication of their usage — may be
to ward off evil elements.
➢ Raw materials found from the natural context, for example:
IAS Exam Congress
 ➢ Shell species of Turbinella pyrum from the Gulf of Kachchh
➢ Agate-carnelian from Khandak near the Harappan site of Surkotada and other locations
in Gujarat
➢ lapis lazuli from the Badakhshan mines of Afghanistan
➢ High quality steatite from northern Rajasthan, and
➢ Turquoise from Central Asia.
➢ The beads in various stages of manufacture from several sites such as Harappa,
Chanhudaro and Dholavira reveal the stages involved in the production of these
beads.
➢ The contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations had similar industries.
However, the Harappans were masters in the manufacture of agate-carnelian and
other hard beads, with the aid of ernestite drill bits.
➢ Links: The Great Bead Story: Beads are a fashion statement and a window to
cultures - The Hindu

32. Women heroes of India’s freedom struggle :

➢ The queen of the princely state of Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai is known for her role in
the First War of India’s Independence in 1857.
➢ Born Manikarnika Tambe in 1835, she married the king of Jhansi.
➢ The couple adopted Damodar Rao as her son before the king’s death, which the
British East India Company refused to accept as the legal heir in accordance
with the Doctrine of lapse and decided to annex Jhansi.
Rani Laxmibai
➢ The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy followed widely by Lord
Dalhousie when he was India's Governor-General from 1848 to 1856.
➢ Refusing to cede her territory, the queen decided to rule on behalf of the heir and later
joined the uprising against the British in 1857.
➢ Under General Hugh Rose, the East India Company’s forces had begun their
counteroffensive in Bundelkhand by January 1858.
➢ She single-handedly fought with the British, riding on a horse, tying Damodar Rao
behind her back.
➢ She conquered the fort of Gwalior with the help of Tatya Tope and Nana Saheb.
➢ Cornered by the British, she escaped from Jhansi fort.
➢ She was wounded in combat near Gwalior’s Phool Bagh, where she later died.

Jhalkari Bai ➢ A soldier in Rani Laxmibai’s women’s army, Durga Dal, rose to become one of
the queen’s most trusted advisers.
➢ She is known for putting her own life at risk to keep the queen out of harm’s way.
➢ Till date, the story of her valour is recalled by the people of Bundelkhand, and she is
often presented as a representative of Bundeli identity.
➢ Many Dalit communities of the region look up to her as an incarnation of God
and also celebrate Jhalkaribai Jayanti every year in her honour.

➢ Durgawati Devi, who was popularly known as Durga Bhabhi, was a revolutionary
who joined the armed struggle against colonial rule.
➢ A member of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, she helped Bhagat Singh escape in
disguise from Lahore after the 1928 killing of British police officer John P
Saunders.
Durga Bhabhi

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ During the train journey that followed, Durgawati and Bhagat Singh posed as a couple
and Rajguru as their servant.
➢ Later, as revenge for the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev, she made an
unsuccessful attempt to kill the former Punjab Governor, Lord Hailey.
➢ Born in Allahabad in 1907 and married to Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association (HSRA) member Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Durgawati, along with other
revolutionaries, also ran a bomb factory in Delhi.
➢ Revolutionary freedom fighter Bhagwati Charan Vohra died on May 28, 1930, as a
result of an explosion while testing a bomb. Vohra was the author of the famous
article titled The Philosophy of Bomb.

➢ Born in 1915 in present-day Manipur, Rani Gaidinliu was a Naga spiritual and
political leader who fought the British.
➢ She joined the Heraka religious movement which later became a movement to drive
out the British.
➢ She rebelled against the Empire and refused to pay taxes, asking people to do the
Rani Gaidinliu
same.
➢ The British launched a manhunt, but she evaded arrest, moving from village to
village.Gaidinliu was finally arrested in 1932 when she was just 16 and later
sentenced for life.She was released in 1947.
➢ Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru described Gaidinliu as the “daughter of the
hills”, and gave her the title of ‘Rani’ for her courage.

➢ After her husband, Nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah was exiled after the 1857
Begum Hazrat revolt, Begum Hazrat Mahal, along with her supporters, took on the British and
Mahal wrested control of Lucknow.
➢ She was forced into a retreat after the colonial rulers recaptured the area.

Basanti Devi ➢ Devi jumped into the freedom struggle in 1921, after the arrest of her husband
(1880 - 1974) Chittaranjan Das. She participated in movements like the Khilafat movement
and the civil disobedience movement.
➢ She was also one of the founding members of the Nari Karma Mandira, a centre
aimed at educating women. She collected gold coins for the Tilak Swaraj Fund and
shortly went to prison for selling Khadi in Kolkata. Her arrest resulted in
nationwide outrage.
➢ She ran the weekly publication, Bangalar Katha, after the arrest of her husband.
She headed the Bengal Provincial Congress as its President and was awarded the
Padma Vibhushan in 1973.

Ashalata Sen ➢ She was born in Noakhali, modern Bangladesh.

(1894 - 1986) ➢ Her first nationalistic poem was published when she was as young as 10 years
old.
➢ She also wrote the books Uchchhvas, Utsa, Vidyut and Chhotoder Chhada.
➢ She was highly inspired by Mahatma Gandhi and the non-cooperation movement.
➢ She founded the Gendariya Mohila Samiti in Dhaka to promote women's
empowerment. Under her leadership, three fly-shuttle Tant machines were set up for
hand-woven khadi production, which attracted village women to the industry
➢ In 1930, Ashalata Sen joined the Civil Disobedience Movement and led a team of
women. On 22nd March of the same year, she and her Satyagrahi Sebika Dal collected
salt water from Noakhali and made salt at the Coronation Park near the Buri Ganga

IAS Exam Congress

 River.

Aruna Asif Ali ➢ She was born to a restaurant owner.

➢ She studied at Lahore’s Sacred Heart Convent.
➢ She married a lawyer by the name of Asaf Ali, who was 23 years her senior and
belonged to a different religion. After she married Asaf Ali, she was rejected by
much of her family.
➢ It was her husband who defended Batukeshwar Dutt and Bhagat Singh in the
Lahore Conspiracy Case.
➢ She was jailed for actively engaging during the salt satyagraha movement and
remained there till 1931. She was jailed several times over the course of her lifetime.
➢ On August 9, she unfurled the Indian flag following which the British
announced a reward to identify her; she had to go underground. She served as
Delhi’s first mayor. In her last days, she was associated with the Communist Party of
India.
➢ She was also awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 1992 and the Bharat Ratna
posthumously in 1997.

➢ She wrote her first piece of work at the age of 12 titled Maher Muneer. S
➢ he helped establish the Women's Indian Association (WIA) with other social reformers
of her age and travelled the length and breadth of the country giving speeches to
invigorate women.
➢ First Indian Woman President of INC: Naidu was elected as the first Indian woman
president of the Indian National Congress(INC) in 1925(Kanpur Session) and
continued to hold this position till 1928.
➢ Naidu took part in the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Gandhi in 1920 and
Sarojini Naidu was arrested several times
➢ In 1930, Naidu was selected by Gandhi to lead the Salt Satyagraha, a nonviolent
protest against the British monopoly on salt production in India. On May 21, Sarojini
Naidu led 2,500 marchers on the Dharasana Salt Works, some 150 miles north of
Bombay.
➢ The famous poems by Sarojini Naidu are In the Bazaars of Hyderabad, The Village
Song and The Pardah Nashin.
➢ Her other works include "The Golden Threshold (1905)", "The Bird of Time
(1912)", and "The Broken Wing (1912)".

➢ Annie Besant, born on October 1, 1847, in Ireland, was a well-known political activist,
freedom fighter, and supporter of the anti-Church movement and women’s rights.
➢ In the 1870s, Besant joined the National Secular Society and the Fabian Society,
both of which advocated for freedom of thought and liberation from the tyranny of the
Catholic Church in England.
➢ Besant travelled to India for the first time in 1893 and later settled there, becoming
involved in the Indian nationalist movement.
➢ She founded the Indian Home Rule League, of which she later became president,
in 1916. She was also a key figure in the Indian National Congress.
Annie Besant ➢ In 1902, Annie Besant wrote that “India was not ruled for its benefit, but rather
(1847 - 1933) for the benefit of its conquerors.”
➢ She promoted national awakening while combating social ills such as caste
discrimination and child marriage. She devoted a lot of time and effort to
improving education in India.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Annie Besant entered politics when she joined the Indian National
Congress. When she first joined, the Congress was merely a debating body
whose members deliberated on which resolutions to pass.
➢ These resolutions were mild in nature, requesting more representation for
middle-class Indians in the British government. It had yet to grow into a mass
movement demanding complete independence.
➢ When World War I broke out in 1914, Britain enlisted the help of its colonies
against its adversaries. But, according to Annie Besant, this was where India’s
opportunities lay.
➢ Annie Besant founded the All India Home Rule League in September,1916
(Tilak home rule league was formed in April 1916). This was India’s first
faction to demand complete independence. The league worked all year to
establish a network of local branches and organise agitations.
➢ The colonial authorities, for their part, placed her under house arrest as a result
of her activities. Other political parties threatened more riots if she was not
released.
➢ As a result, the government was forced to make minor concessions. One of
them was that once the war was over, the possibility of self-rule would be
considered.
➢ In September 1917, Annie Besant was released. In December of that year,
she was elected president of the Indian National Congress for a one-year
term.
➢ She also founded the Central Hindu School in 1898 at varanasi, to promote
education. Later it has became the Banaras Hindu University with the efforts of
Madan Mohan Malaviya in 1916.
➢ She is one of the founders of Women’s Indian Association in 1917 — from which
grew the All-India Women’s Conference in Poona (now Pune) in 1927 and the
Women’s Indian Association at Adyar.

➢ She unfurled the first Indian tricolour on foreign land whilst in Germany. While
residing in London, she became acquainted with Dadabhai Naoroji and joined the
Indian National Congress.
Bhikaji Cama ➢ Fearing deportation, she moved from London to Paris and helped revolutionary
activities from there. She helped publish the newspaper, Bande Mataram, copies of
which were smuggled back into India.
➢ She was imprisoned for three years during the First World War. She was finally allowed
to return to India in 1935. She died after one year of returning back to her homeland.

Lakshmi Sehgal ➢ The young doctor enrolled in the INA and played a key role in convincing
Subhash Chandra Bose to set up an all women regiment. The regiment, called
Rani Lakshmi Bai regiment, was eventually headed by Sahgal.
➢ Later, she married Colonel Prem Sahgal, who was also part of the INA and relocated to
Kanpur, where she set up her medical practice. She worked actively during the
Partition riots, the anti-Sikh riots, the Bhopal gas tragedy and more.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ By the 1970s, Sahgal had joined the CPI(M). She said, “My way of thinking was already
communist, and I never wanted to earn a lot of money, or acquire a lot of property or
wealth.”

33. The Role of Radio Stations in the Indian Freedom Struggle:

➢ Diverse leaders, from Mahatma Gandhi to Bhagat Singh
understood well the importance of propaganda and mass
communication, and in their own ways, used press and printing
technologies to communicate their respective messages.
Pamphlets, posters, and popular artworks were also
circulated in the thousands by Congress volunteers and
activists of other political organisations.
➢ The Radio served as another extremely important mass-media
technology, A culture of public listening was present, where
people would either gather around radio sets or would set up
loudspeakers to broadcast news vital pieces of information to a
larger public audience.
➢ The most prominent example of this was:
➢ The ‘Congress Radio’, established through the efforts of Bhulabhai Khakar and a team of
young Congress volunteers, and voiced by the veteran Gandhian freedom fighter Usha
Mehta, of Surat District in Gujarat. The Congress Radio became an enduring symbol of Indian
defiance of British colonialism and female bravery, especially during the Quit India Movement.
➢ Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was another early adopter of the radio and the phonograph
and recorded a number of speeches that were transmitted to Indian audiences while he was
raising his Indian National Army through the Azad Hind Radio, located in Berlin..
➢ The AHR broadcasted programs in English and multiple Indian languages including
Tamil, Gujarati, and Pashto, targeting the Indian émigrés abroad, as well as those living
within the subcontinent. The broadcasts began with a verse from the last Mughal emperor
Bahadur Shah Zafar.
➢ So effective was the AHR’s propaganda that the BBC was compelled to set up its Eastern
Service to counteract its impact.
➢ The AHR’s headquarters shifted to Singapore, and subsequently to Rangoon (Myanmar)
as the war progressed. However, the INA was defeated in the Battle of Kohima, fought in the
summer of 1944. This marked a major setback to Netaji’s campaigns. Despite this, the
AHR continued broadcasting to India until June 1945.
➢ Role played by Usha Mehta Ji:
➢ Usha Mehta, one of the most important contributors to the Congress Radio project, began
participating in the freedom struggle at the young age of 8.
➢ Her first political experiences were from a public meeting held at her native village of Saras in
Surat to denounce the all-White Simon Commission.
➢ When the Civil Disobedience Movement broke out four years later, she energetically threw
herself into the struggle, defying not just the Salt tax, but also participating in picketing,
protest marches, and spinning the Khadi cloth.
➢ Usha Mehta was also present at the famous A.I.C.C session held at Bombay (Mumbai), on 7th
and 8th August, 1942, when Mahatma Gandhi delivered his powerful ‘Quit India’ Speech.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Roused by his address, Usha Mehta and her friends decided to commit themselves to this
decisive struggle for Indian freedom,they decided to continue and extend their work in the field
of propaganda and mass communication. Thus, the idea for Congress Radio was conceived.
➢ She, along with the businessman Babubhai Thakar, Ravindra A. Mehta, and Vithaldas K.
Jhaveri, among others decided to establish the Congress Radio.
➢ The broadcasts, which began under the name “Bombay Congress Bulletin” and were
later renamed to Congress Radio, would continue for the next 77 days, till 12th
November 1942.

34. Tribal Artwork of MP:

➢ Context: The works of four Padma Shri tribal artistes of Madhya Pradesh were displayed at
Modern Art Gallery of Bharat Bhawan.
➢ Their artworks highlight tribal culture of Gond, Bhil and Baiga tribes. It was part of an
exhibition, Nisarg, organised to mark Bharat Bhawan’s 41st foundation day. Bhil artist
Bhuri Bai, recipient of Padma Shri in 2019, has showcased journey of her life
through 20 acrylic works on canvas and paper. She has painted birthplace and
childhood memories in her traditional works. She also depicts the lifestyle of Bhil tribe
including rituals, weddings and festivals. The acrylic works of Gond artist Durga Bai Vayam
and Baiga artist Jodhaiya Bai who got Padma Shri awards in 2021 and 2022 have also been
displayed.
➢ They mostly painted trees, fishes, cows, elephants, deer, god-goddess etc on canvas
and paper. They try to showcase human relationship with nature and animals.
Around 20 acrylic artwork on paper and canvas of Padmashri Gond artist Bhajju Shyam
have also been exhibited.
➢ Link: Bhopal: Artworks of four Padmashri artist on display

35. National Emblem of India:

➢ The National Emblem of India was adopted from the Lion
Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath on 26 January 1950, the day
India became a republic.
➢ One of the earliest stone sculptures made under the patronage of
the Mauryan king Ashoka, the lion capital at Sarnath, Bihar,
depicts four male Asiatic lions seated on a round abacus with
their backs to each other. The capital is carved from a single
block of highly polished Chunar stone that is separate from the
block used for the pillar shaft, which features the inscribed edicts
of Ashoka. The most elaborately carved of all surviving Ashokan
capitals, the lion capital stands at a height of two metres and is
dated to ca. 250 BCE.
➢ The overall form of the lions is poised, heavily stylised and
compact, similar to the lion images carved in Achaemenid
Persia, which is a known source of influence for Mauryan
architecture.
➢ In addition, the abacus features four animals — an elephant, a
lion, a bull and a horse, carved in high relief and suggesting
that the sculptor(s) may have been familiar with the anatomies of the animals. They

IAS Exam Congress

 appear to be moving in a clockwise direction and are separated by four chakras with
twenty-four spokes each. The abacus rests on an upturned, bell-shaped lotus with
elongated, fluted petals, which are also believed to have been borrowed from the
Achaemenid style of architecture.
➢ Sarnath is the site of the Buddha’s first sermon and the lion capital is believed to
have been built to commemorate the occasion. Therefore, the various icons that appear
on the capital are recurring symbols within Buddhism. The dharmachakra is a solar
symbol with its origin in many faiths and, therefore, has multiple interpretations.
Here, it is believed to represent the Buddha “turning the wheel of the law” with his
first sermon at Sarnath.
➢ Some sources interpret the lions as personifying the Shakyamuni (of the Shakya, or
lion, clan) Buddha who preached his sermons at Sarnath. Their open mouths are
interpreted as spreading the Buddha’s teachings, the Four Noble Truths, far and
wide. An almost identical lion capital with its mouth open is found at the Sanchi pillar,
which is another site where the Buddha is believed to have delivered sermons.
➢ The four animals are associated with the four milestone events in the Buddha’s life:
➢ The elephant, representing his mother Queen Maya’s dream of a white elephant entering her
womb
➢ The bull, representing his birth under the astrological sign Vrishabha
➢ The horse, representing Kantaka, the horse on which Buddha fled his palace to pursue
asceticism; and
➢ The lion, representing the enlightened Buddha and often known as Shakyasimha.

36. Trial of Bhagat Singh:

➢ Bhagat Singh and his companions were subjected to two trials; one for the smoke bomb
incident at the Central Legislative Assembly in April 1929 in Delhi (the bomb case)
and the other for the murder of police probationer John Saunders on December 17,
1928 (Lahore conspiracy case). In the first trial, Bhagat Singh was sentenced to 14
years’ imprisonment and was awarded the death sentence in the Lahore conspiracy
case.
➢ Both trials were marked by breach of all that constituted the “rule of law”. The
accused were not permitted legal representation, not allowed to meet family members,
severely beaten up even in the court, not permitted to cross-examine the prosecution
witnesses.
➢ B.K.Dutt was represented by the nationalist counsel Asaf Ali. Bhagat Singh fought
his own case with the help of a legal adviser.
➢ He wrote letters to family members and friends, jail and court officials, and penned major
articles including Why I am an Atheist , Letter to Young Political Workers , and Jail
Notebook .
➢ Bhagat Singh, who was on hunger strike since June 15 along with Dutt, was brought to the
court on a stretcher. The other accused in the case came to know about this hunger strike
on that day, and almost all of them joined the strike.
➢ This historic hunger strike by Bhagat Singh and his comrades resulted in the
martyrdom of Jitender Das on September 13, 1929. Bhagat Singh and the other
comrades ended their hunger strike on September 2 after receiving assurances from a
Congress party team and British officials on the acceptance of their demands, but they

IAS Exam Congress

 resumed it on September 4 as the British officials went back on their word. It finally ended
on October 4 after 112 days, though the status of “political prisoner” was still not
given; some other demands were acceded to.
➢ The letters reveal another hunger strike by Bhagat Singh from July 28, 1930, on which he
himself informed the High Court it was against the jail rules. He was joined in the hunger
strike by Kundan Lal, Prem Dutt Verma, Sukhdev and Bejoy Kumar Sinha. This
hunger strike continued till at least August 22. With this, the total period of hunger
strikes observed during his nearly two-year incarceration becomes about five
months. Probably this is more than the total period of Mahatma Gandhi's hunger strikes
during his prolonged political career starting from South Africa.
➢ Link: Rare documents on Bhagat Singh's trial and life in jail - The Hindu

37. Manifesto of HSRA:

➢ The Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), previously known as the
Hindustan Republican Army/Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was a
revolutionary group founded during the freedom movement in India. Its members
consisted of revolutionaries such as Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, and
Sachindra Nath Bakshi. They believed that India could gain independence only by force.
The group engaged in violent methods to achieve their objective, which was criticised by
Gandhiji.
➢ In 1929, the group used a room in Lahore to make bombs. One of the members Bhagwati
Charan Vohra attacked Viceroy Lord Irwin by planting a bomb on a railway line in
Delhi. Gandhi ji criticised the group for this act in his article titled The Cult of
Bomb. In the article, he referred to HRSA’s actions as cowardly. Philosophy of the Bomb
was written by Vohra as a response to Gandhi’s criticism. In it, HSRA defended their
methods by saying that these violent methods were as important as Gandhi ji’s non-violent
methods.
➢ The Manifesto also urged the youth to join them in their journey to achieve freedom for
India.
➢ The manifesto of HSRA, issued by it's president, Kartar Singh, was found pasted on the
wall of Hare School building, situated within the campus of Presidency College (now
Presidency University).
➢ Manifesto of HSRA, written in Bengali. It reminds the youth about the martyrdom of
Benoy Bose, Badal Gupta, Dinesh Gupta, Bhagat Singh, Chandrasekhar Azad and the
massacre at the Hijli Camp, calls them for their participation and take revenge of these
deaths. The manifesto also upholds the aims of the organisation, which are as follows: 1)
Down with Imperialism, 2) Life for Life and 3) Blood for Blood.
➢ Link: Manifesto of Hindustan Socialistic Republican Army, 1931 — Google Arts &
Culture

38. Abanindranath Bharat Mata painting:

➢ Bharat Mata, a painting by Abanindranath Tagore, is a depiction of Mother India
and was created in 1905. The artwork shows a saffron-clad woman holding various
symbolic items that represent the different regions of India.
➢ In the year 1905, the then Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, decided to divide Bengal
into two parts under his notorious Divide and Rule policy. The eastern part would be
IAS Exam Congress
 for Muslims, and the western part for Hindus. This policy would create
tension among the two religions, who would forget about fighting the
British to fight among themselves. Rabindranath was strongly opposed
to this and led the movement against the Partition of Bengal, taking to
the street to tie rakhis on Muslims. Abanindranath’s painting came
at this time as part of the movement to reinforce the idea of a
united Indian nation.
➢ The painting drew its inspiration from the beautiful lyrics
describing the motherland in Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s
1882 novel Anandamath. We all know those lyrics today as our
National Song, the ‘Bande Mataram’. Bande Mataram was the
slogan of the freedom fighters.
➢ She is depicted as a four-armed goddess wearing saffron-coloured
robes, holding a book, sheaves of rice, a jaap mala or beads, and a
white cloth. There is a halo around her head and white lotuses blooming below her feet.
She looks very calm and peaceful. Abanindranath wanted to show both strength and love,
virtues of all mothers, and with the song, the novel and the recent upheavals working in his
mind, he expressed his emotions in this immortal painting.
➢ The effect of Bharat Mata on posters was so powerful that within 4 years of its creation,
it was indeed a household image and an inspiration of all freedom fighters.
➢ Link: The story behind Abanindranath Tagore’s Bharat Mata painting - HT School

39. Vaikom Satyagraha:

➢ The Vaikom Satyagraha (March 30, 1924-November 23, 1925) occupies a crucial
position in the social history of Kerala in particular and south India in general, as one of
the leading social reform movements that had questioned the authority of caste system in
the region, setting out to seek equal rights for oppressed Hindus and becoming a testing
ground for the Gandhian way of struggle.
➢ The Vaikom Satyagraha was launched on March 30, 1924, against the ban imposed
on members of marginalised communities on the four streets surrounding the
Vaikom Mahadevar Temple. However, the satyagraha is considered as the first-ever
organised struggle in Kerala demanding the right to use public roads for people of
all castes and communities.
➢ The protest was started under the leadership of T K Madhavan, K P Kesava Menon
and George Joseph with the blessings of the All India Congress Committee (AICC)
and Mahatma Gandhi after T K Madhavan raised the injustice being faced by the lower
caste people, in the Kakinada meet of the Congress party in 1923.
➢ The 603-day-long struggle witnessed several ups and downs. While frontline leaders were
arrested within two weeks of the strike, Periyar E V Ramasamy was brought in from
Tamil Nadu, who gave a fresh lease of life to the agitation. When Mahatma Gandhi
himself arrived in Vaikom, leaders like Chattampi Swamikal, Sree Narayana Guru and
Mannath Padmanabhan extended unfaltering support to the movement, which
boosted the persistence and resolve of the satyagrahis. Support flowed in from people
across the country with even Akalis of Punjab setting up a camp at Vaikom for
preparing food for the satyagrahis.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ As a mark of appreciation, the editor of Tamil journal Navasakthi and scholar, Thiru.
Vi. Kalyanasundaram, or Thiru.Vi.Ka. conferred the title Vaikom Veerar (Hero of
Vaikom) on Periyar.
➢ Tamil Nadu played a pivotal role in Vaikom Satyagraha, which symbolised a struggle
by the “untouchables”.
➢ Periyar and Kovai Ayyamuthu, a firebrand leader, worked in tandem with leaders in Kerala.
But they faced repressive action. There was a rally by the upper castes from Vaikom led by
Mannathu Padmanabhan in favour of the protesters and another rally in the south, in
support of temple entry, led by Emperumal Naidu from Nagercoil.
➢ The sanchara resolution that was taken up for voting in the Assembly in February
1925, was defeated by a single vote. Mahatma Gandhi, who was in Kerala, held talks
with the Queen of Travancore, social reformer Narayana Guru, traditionalists and
police commissioner W.H. Pitt. On November 17, the satyagrahis announced their
decision to withdraw their protest. On November 23, the government of the
Travancore princely state declared that people could enter three of the four streets
around Vaikom temple, thus bringing the protest to an end. There was a victory
celebration on November 29, 1925, presided over by Periyar.
➢ Link: Vaikom, a satyagraha, and the fight for social justice - The Hindu, Vaikom satyagraha
— the epic movement enters its 100th year

40. E.V. Ramasamy Periyar:

➢ Born in 1879, E V Ramasamy ‘Periyar’ is remembered for the Self Respect Movement
to redeem the identity and self-respect of Tamils.
➢ Periyar started his political career as a Congress worker. He quarrelled with Gandhi over the
question of separate dining for Brahmin and non-Brahmin students.
➢ In 1919, Periyar joined the Congress under the influence of his close friend C.
Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) and went on to head the Congress Committee of Madras
Presidency. But he left soon after his demand for communal representation in the party
was defeated during the Tirupur session.
➢ In the Congress, he actively participated in movements relating to khadi, liquor prohibition
and abolition of untouchability. He was also jailed for participating in the
non-cooperation movement. In his initial days in politics, he held various positions
in the Erode municipality.
➢ He resigned from the party in 1925, and associated himself with the Justice Party
and the Self Respect Movement, which opposed the dominance of Brahmins in social
life, especially the bureaucracy.
➢ Periyar’s fame spread beyond the Tamil region during the Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924, a
mass movement to demand that lower caste persons be given the right to use a
public path in front of the famous Vaikom temple. He would later be referred to as
Vaikom Veerar (Hero of Vaikom).
➢ In the 1940s, Periyar launched a political party, Dravidar Kazhagam (DK), which
espoused an independent Dravida Nadu comprising Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, and
Kannada speakers.
➢ As a social reformer, he focused on social, cultural and gender inequalities, and his reform
agenda questioned matters of faith, gender and tradition.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Periyar died in 1973 at the age of 94. Over the years, Periyar is revered as Thanthai Periyar,
the father figure of modern Tamil Nadu.

Self Respect Movement:

Self-Respect Movement was a dynamic social movement aimed at destroying the contemporary Hindu social order
in its totality and creating a new, rational society without caste, religion and god. Self-Respect Movement was
started by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Tamil Nadu in 1925. It was an egalitarian movement that
propagated the ideologies of breaking down of the Brahminical hegemony, equal rights for the backward
classes and women in the society and revitalization of the Dravidian languages like Telugu, Tamil,
Kannada, and Malayalam.The objectives of the Self-Respect Movement have been outlined and stated in two
pamphlets “Namathu Kurikkol” and “Tiravitakkalaka Lateiyam”. It led to the promotion of inter-caste and
inter-religious marriages and legalisation of marriages without Brahman priest. Post independence, Tamil
Nadu passed a law and became the first state to legalise Hindu marriage without Brahmin priest. The system of
allotting separate places for Harijan members in the Municipal Councils was also discontinued. Due to relentless
fight of supporters of the movement, the name boards of the hotels were changed from “Brahmins Hotel”
to “Vegetarian Hotel”. People started taking pride in giving up their caste name. However, the movement failed
to liberate women as well as the lower caste and secured equal rights for them

41. Rajatarangini:
➢ Context: Translation of a 12th century Sanskrit classic, Rajatarangini in Malayalam It is by
late Vidwan T.K. Raman Menon
➢ The Rajatarangini (literally, River of Kings) is an epic poem (mahakavya/prabandha)
composed in the classical language, Sanskrit, in 1148-50 CE in Kashmir. It was
composed by a Kashmiri Pandit, named Kalhana. He is said to have been the son of a
former minister by the name of Champaka in the court of a Kashmiri king, Harsha (r.
1089-1101 CE). Kalhana himself, however, does not seem to have worked for any king.
➢ Running into nearly 8000 verses that are unequally distributed among eight books
or sections, the Rajatarangini is an account of the royal dynasties that ruled the
kingdom of Kashmir from its putative origins to the poet’s own time. In other words,
it narrates nearly two millennia of the ancient and early medieval history of the
Kashmir Valley.
➢ Significantly, Kalhana gives a continuous chronology for the region, using traditional
Indian calendars or eras, such as kaliyuga and shaka samvat, to assign dates to the
ascension and end of the reign of every king or queen of every dynasty that ruled kashmir.
➢ These dynasties included the:
➢ Gonandiyas (5th-6th century CE)
➢ The Karkotas (7th-9th century CE)
➢ The Utpalas (9th century CE) and
➢ The Loharas (10th century-12th century CE).
➢ Some of the important rulers of Kashmir whom we know about because of the
Rajatarangini are the:
➢ Mauryan king Ashoka (4th century BCE), who also presided over an empire that
spanned nearly the entire Indian subcontinent
➢ The Kushana king Kanishka (2nd century CE) and
➢ The Huna kings Toramana and Mihirakula (6th century CE) all of whom also ruled
over, and would seem to have integrated Kashmir into, transregional Indian kingdoms.

IAS Exam Congress

 Hordes of gold, silver, copper and alloyed coins found in the Valley attest to the
presence of these rulers in Kashmir.
➢ The Rajatarangini also documents some more local but nonetheless powerful Kashmiri
kings chief among whom was:
➢ Lalitaditya Muktapida (8th century CE) who reportedly undertook extensive conquests
and raids, reaching into eastern India on the one hand, and central and western Asia
(Sinkiang, Iran), on the other.
➢ We also hear of King Avantivarman (9th century CE), famous for undertaking effective
measures to control floods in the Valley, and
➢ Didda (10th century CE), one of the few strong female rulers we get in the ancient world.
➢ Rajatarangini ’s first translation into a foreign language was as long ago as in the first
decade of the 13th century, by Haidar Malik into Persian. After that, the English
translation appeared under the aegis of the Asiatic Society in 1835 and the French
translation in 1852.
➢ The Malayalam translation called Rajatharangini by Rama Menon promises to arouse
a great deal of interest among readers. It joins a long catalogue of such translations from
Sanskrit beginning with that of Kautilya’s Arthashastra , one of the first in the history of
Malayalam literature.
➢ Link:'Rajatharangini' review: A Sanskrit classic from Kashmir revisited in
Malayalam

42. B.R Ambedkar tourist Circuit:

➢ The ‘Bharat Gaurav Tourist train’ is being operated
under the ‘Dekho Apna Desh’ initiative which is
aimed at promoting domestic tourism, and is a joint
collaboration between the Ministries of Tourism and
Railways. “The Bharat Gaurav Tourist train aims
to give glimpses of life of Bharat Ratna Baba
Saheb Ambedkar to all the passengers” G. Kishan
Reddy Union Minister for Culture and Tourism.
➢ The five cities in the tourist circuit as announced by
the government are Mhow (his birthplace),
London (where he resided and studied), Nagpur
(also studied here), Delhi (where he passed
away) and finally Mumbai (where he was
cremated).
➢ These sites are already visited by Dalits as pilgrimage spots;
the idea is to attract members of the public from outside
the Dalit community, a senior official of the Ministry of
Tourism said.
➢ Link: ‘Ambedkar tourist circuit only aids nationalistic
narrative’ - The Hindu

IAS Exam Congress

 43. Who coined Jai Hind:
➢ Many believe that Subhash Chandra Bose coined the slogan 'Jai Hind' but a book on
legends and anecdotes of Hyderabad says it was first used by a man from that city who gave
up his engineering studies in Germany to become Netaji's secretary and interpreter.
➢ In his book "Lengendotes of Hyderabad", former civil servant Narendra Luther presents a
number of interesting articles, based on documentary evidence, interviews and personal
experiences, on the city that is much celebrated for its romantic origin and composite
culture.
➢ One interesting titbit is on the origin of the slogan 'Jai Hind'. According to the
author, it was coined by Zain-ul Abideen Hasan, son of a collector from Hyderabad,
who went to Germany to study engineering.
➢ During World War II, Netaji had escaped to Germany to canvass support for an armed
struggle to liberate India, Luther says. "He addressed meetings of Indian prisoners of war
and other Indians exhorting them to join him in his struggle. Hasan met him and inspired
by his patriotism and spirit of sacrifice, he told him that he would join him after finishing
his studies. "Netaji taunted him that if he was worried about small things like these, he
could not take up big causes. Stung by that rebuke, Hasan gave up his studies and became
Netaji's secretary and interpreter,"
➢ Hasan became a major in the INA and participated in the march from Burma (now
Myanmar) across the Indian frontier. The army reached Imphal. It was severely
handicapped in supplies and armaments and so had to retreat.
➢ Link: Who coined 'Jai Hind'?

44. Delhi Durbars:

➢ The Delhi Durbar was a spectacular public event held in India to commemorate the
accession of a new British monarch to the title Empress or Emperor of India.
➢ Three Delhi Durbars were held: 1877, 1903, and 1911. The event involved military
processions, elephants, and magnificent carriages, as well as a host of rulers of the
Indian princely states paying homage to the British Crown in recognition of its
sovereignty over large parts of the subcontinent.
Delhi Durbar 1877 In 1876, Queen Victoria in addition to her title of 'Queen of Great Britain and
Ireland' assumed the title of ‘Empress of India’. The Viceroy, Lord Lytton was
asked to proclaim this on her behalf throughout India. He decided to hold an Imperial
Assemblage at Delhi on 1st January 1877 for this purpose. All the Governors, Lt
Governors, Heads of Administrations, Ruling Chiefs, Princes and Nobles were
invited for this historic ceremony. The magnificence of this event can be
understood from the fact that the number of people who attended this ceremony
were greater than what the Viceroy had anticipated.
The Proclamation was read out in English and in Urdu at the Assemblage and
this was followed by a salute of 101 salvos of artillery. The Viceroy then
addressed the gathering and conferred each chief with a Gold Medal and a Banner in
the name of the Queen.
Two significant decisions taken at this Durbar were:
● The creation of the Privy Council
● The number of guns salutes the Viceroy and other chiefs were entitled
to.

IAS Exam Congress

 In British India, the Salute for Her Majesty the Queen and Empress was hundred and
one guns, for the Viceroy of India was thirty-one guns. Other important chiefs of
India were given 21, 19, 17, 15, 11 and 9 gun salutes depending on their
relationship with the British.

Delhi Durbar 1903 This durbar was organised on 1 January 1903 to mark the accession to the
throne of Edward VII, the eldest son of Queen Victoria, and so the first
Emperor of India. Again, the monarch did not attend in person, probably because
Edward was then 62. The emperor was officially represented by Viceroy Lord
Curzon (in office 1899-1905). Curzon was a great believer in the power of
pageantry, and so this durbar was even more spectacular than its predecessor.On the
orders of King Edward VII, it was attended by the Duke of Connaught. This
week-long celebration which also included polo and football tournaments had to be
well planned and organised for which a Durbar Committee was set up.

Delhi Durbar 1911 This durbar was held on 12 December 1911 and was even more spectacular
than its predecessors since, for the first time, the emperor was present in
person. King George V and Queen Mary of Teck's presence did create something of a
problem for the organisers.
This Durbar was historic for two reasons:
● One it was the only one attended by the Emperor himself and second
● This was where the reversal of the controversial policy to partition Bengal
and shifting of the Imperial Capital from Calcutta to Delhi was announced.
There was one hiccup, and it involved Sayagi Rao, the Gaikwar of Baroda. This ruler
had not been given a knighthood in the recent honours list, most likely because of his
outspoken views on Indian independence. The gaikwar was, though, loyal to the
emperor and had just donated a massive 35,000 rupees to the British Raj. The rather
peeved gaikwar decided to show his disaffection by approaching the royal platform
and bowing only once before the emperor

45. India Gate:

➢ The foundation stone of the All India War Memorial Arch
in Delhi or India Gate as it is known today was laid on
February 10 in 1921 by British royal Duke of Connaught
during his visit to the country, according to old records.
➢ Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, was an uncle
of King George V, the then reigning monarch of the British
Empire who had held a grand durbar in Delhi in 1911, where he
had also announced the shifting of the imperial capital from
Calcutta to Delhi.
➢ The India Gate, a prominent tourist attraction today, is a
solemn memorial to the soldiers from India who died in action
and was originally called the All India War Memorial Arch.
➢ The 42-metre-high All India War Memorial Arch was built
to honour the soldiers who died in the First World War
(1914-1918) and the Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919). The landmark has the names
of the soldiers inscribed on its surface.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Over 80,000 Indians laid their lives in those campaigns and the India Gate bears the names
of 13,516 etched over its surface.
➢ The Amar Jawan Jyoti was built to commemorate India’s victory in the Indo-Pak War of
1971, an Army official had said earlier.The Amar Jawan Jyoti is a memorial symbolised by
an inverted bayonet and a soldier’s helmet over it with an eternal flame burning beside it. It
was built in 1972 underneath the India Gate arch to commemorate the soldiers who lost
their lives in the Indo-Pak War of 1971.
➢ Link: Archway to history: India Gate foundation stone laid 100 years ago by Duke of
Connaught | National News - The Hindu

46. Quit India Movement:

➢ With World War II raging, the beleaguered British government needed the cooperation of
its colonial subjects. With this in mind, in March 1942, a mission led by Sir Stafford
Cripps arrived in India to meet leaders of the Congress and the Muslim League. The
idea was to secure India’s whole-hearted support in the war, and the return offer to Indians
was the promise of self-governance.Cripps only offered dominion status, not freedom.
Also, there was a provision for the partition of India, which was not acceptable to
the Congress. The failure of the Cripps Mission made Gandhi realise that freedom would
come only if Indians fought tooth and nail for it.
➢ At the Working Committee meeting in Wardha in July 1942, it was decided the time
had come for the movement to move into an active phase.
➢ On August 8, 1942, Gandhi addressed the people in the Gowalia Tank maidan in
Bombay (Mumbai). he said. “The mantra is: ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or
die trying; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery,” Gandhi said.
Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the Tricolour on the ground. The Quit India movement had
been officially announced.
➢ The government cracked down immediately, and by August 9, Gandhi and all other senior
Congress leaders had been jailed. Gandhi was taken to the Aga Khan Palace in Poona
(Pune), and later to Yerwada jail. It was during this time that Kasturba Gandhi died at the
Aga Khan Palace.
➢ Incidents:
➢ The following day (August 10), protests erupted in Delhi, UP, and Bihar.
➢ There were strikes, demonstrations and people’s marches in defiance of prohibitory
orders in Kanpur, Patna, Varanasi, and Allahabad.
➢ The protests spread rapidly into smaller towns and villages.
➢ Till mid-September, police stations, courts, post offices, and other symbols of
government authority came under repeated attack. Railway tracks were blocked,
students went on strike in schools and colleges across India, and distributed illegal
nationalist literature.
➢ Mill and factory workers in Bombay, Ahmedabad, Poona, Ahmednagar, and
Jamshedpur stayed away for weeks.
➢ In some places, the protests were violent. Bridges were blown up, telegraph wires were
cut, and railway lines were taken apart.
➢ Parallel governments: The movement also saw the emergence of parallel governments
in certain parts of India.
➢ The movement witnessed the central role played by the Congress Socialist Party’s
leaders, such as JP Narayan and Ram Manohar Lohia.

IAS Exam Congress

Region Associated leader Significant activities

Ballia (August 1942) Chittu Pandey Released many Congress leaders

Tamluk (1942 -1944) Satish Chandra ● Jatiya Sarkar undertook cyclone relief work.
Samanta ● Sanctioned grants to schools.
● The rich supplied paddy to the poor.
● Organised Vidyut Vahinis (electricity units).

Satara (1943 to 1945) Y.B. Chavan, Nana ● Named "Prati Sarkar" (Parallel Government).
Patil, etc. ● Organised village libraries and Nyayadan Mandals (justice
forums).
● Carried out prohibition campaigns.
● Organised "Gandhi marriages" (marriages following
Gandhi's principles).

➢ The Quit India movement was violently suppressed by the British — people were shot and
lathicharged, villages were burnt, and backbreaking fines were imposed. In the five months
up to December 1942, an estimated 60,000 people had been thrown into jail.
While Gandhi gave the clarion call of Quit India, the slogan was coined by Yusuf Meherally, a
socialist and trade unionist who also served as Mayor of Bombay. A few years ago, in 1928, it was
Meherally who had coined the slogan “Simon Go Back”.
Link: Explained: Recalling ‘Quit India’, when ordinary Indians took to the streets with a
vow to ‘Do or Die’

47. Mutasaddi:
➢ Mutasaddi (governor or administrator of the Mughal port)

IAS Exam Congress

48. Act X of 1859:
➢ Almost all Peasant movements of 1850s, 1860s had their causes inherent in this
legislation.
➢ It defined the rights and obligations of different categories of interests in land. The
permanent settlement, though defined the rights of zamindars and other
proprietors, remained silent about the rights of raiyats(Peasants).
➢ Regulation 1 of 1793 had vaguely recognised the customary rights of raiyats but no
clear definition was given about those rights. When disputes arose in individual cases,
the zamindars claimed absolute rights over land, whereas raiyats also claimed customary
rights. Courts were also not sure as to the rights of landed interests below the zamindar
class, and consequently they passed conflicting decrees with far reaching consequences on
the relations between zamindars and raiyats.
➢ The most common cause of friction was the zamindari attempts to enhance rent. While
raiyat resisting them,resulting into deterioration of law and order.
➢ In the 1840s and '50s many indigo planters bought benami raiyati rights for indigo
cultivation and they put pressure on the government to define the rights of raiyats. Thus a
bill was introduced in the Legislative Council which was passed into a law as Act X, 1859.
➢ It defined rights and liabilities of raiyats,Act classified them into three groups:
● Raiyats paying rent at fixed rate;
● Raiyats having rights of occupancy, but not holding at fixed rate of rent; and
● Raiyats having acquired no occupancy right and paying rent at a competitive
rate.
➢ The first category of raiyats was defacto peasant proprietors. Their rights were confirmed
by custom and by law. Their rent could not be enhanced by the superior proprietors under
any pretext. socially known as mirasi or permanent raiyats. The former khudkasta
raiyats holding land for more than twelve years continuously were declared as
occupancy raiyats of the second category. Their rent could be enhanced, but no attempt
for revision of rent could ignore the pargana rate.
➢ The third category or non-occupancy raiyats, who were once known as paikasta raiyats,
were declared as raiyats having uncertain rights in land and the superior proprietors
were free to enhance their rents according to market competition. The Act could not
satisfy the raiyats, especially the third category of raiyats who constituted the large
majority of rural society. However, this Act paved the way for a larger reform in agrarian
relations effected by the bengal tenancy act of 1885.

49. Assam’s Charaideo Moidams:

➢ Context: The Centre has decided to nominate the Charaideo Maidams in Assam for the
UNESCO World Heritage Centre this year.
➢ Charaideo commonly known as ‘Pyramids of Assam’ was the original capital of the Ahom
Kings. Charaideo remained the symbolic centre of Ahom Kingdom even though the capital
of the kingdom moved many times. It was built by Chaolung Sukapha the founder of
the dynasty in about 1229 CE.
➢ There is currently no World Heritage Site in the category of cultural heritage in Northeast
India.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Why is Charaideo known as ‘Pyramids
of Assam’?
➢ It contains sacred burial grounds of
Ahom kings and queens and is also
the place of the ancestral Gods of
the Ahoms.
➢ Some 42 tombs (Maidams) of Ahom
kings and queens are present at
Charaideo hillocks.
➢ Architecture: It comprises a massive
underground vault with one or more
chambers having domical
superstructure and covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a
hemispherical mound.
➢ Link: Assam’s Charaideo Moidams: India’s latest nominee to UNESCO’s World
Heritage Sites | Explained News - The Indian Express

50. Ahom Kingdom:

➢ Sukapha was a 13th-century ruler who
founded the Ahom kingdom that ruled
Assam for six centuries. Contemporary
scholars trace his roots to Burma.
➢ “Sukapha was a leader of the Ahoms. He
reached Brahmaputra valley in Assam
from upper Burma in the 13th century
with around 9,000 followers,” said Arup
Kumar Dutta, author of the book The
Ahoms.
➢ Sukapha and his people settled in
Charaideo in upper Assam after
wandering about for years, defeating
those who protested his advance, and
temporarily staying at different locations. It
was in Charaideo that Sukapha established
his first small principality, sowing the seeds
of further expansion of the Ahom kingdom.
➢ The founders of the Ahom kingdom had their own language and followed their own
religion. Over the centuries, the Ahoms accepted the Hindu religion and the Assamese
language, scholars say.
➢ Sukapha developed very amiable relationships with the tribal communities living here —
especially the Sutias, the Morans and the Kacharis. Intermarriage also increased
assimilation processes.
➢ Sukapha’s significance — especially in today’s Assam — lies in his successful efforts
towards assimilation of different communities and tribes. He is widely referred to as the
architect of “Bor Asom” or “greater Assam”.
➢ To commemorate Sukapha and his rule, Assam celebrates “Asom Divas” on
December 2 every year.
IAS Exam Congress
51. Lachit Borphukan:
➢ Lachit Borphukan was a commander and
councillor in the Ahom Kingdom.
➢ The Ahom Kingdom resisted the invasion of the
Mughal Empire several times and reigned in
present-day Assam for over 600 years.
➢ Born on 24th November, 1622, Borphukan
was known for his leadership in the Battle of
Saraighat, 1671 in which an attempt by
Mughal forces to capture Assam was
thwarted. The battle of Saraighat was fought on
the banks of the Brahmaputra in Guwahati in 1671.
➢ It is considered as one of the greatest naval battles on a river which resulted in the victory
of Ahoms over the Mughals.
➢ He was the inspiration behind strengthening India’s naval force and revitalising inland
water transport and creating infrastructure associated with it due to his great naval
strategies. The Lachit Borphukan gold medal is awarded to the best cadet from the
National Defence Academy. The medal was instituted in 1999 to inspire defence
personnel to emulate Borphukan’s heroism and sacrifices.
➢ Few important forts: Chamdhara, Saraighat, Simlagarh, Kaliabar, Kajali and Pandu.
➢ They also learnt the technique of constructing boat bridges in the Brahmaputra.
➢ Recently Prime Minister Narendra Modi unveiled a 125-foot bronze statue of Ahom
general Lachit Borphukan in Jorhat, Assam. The statue, called the 'Statue of Valour',
was unveiled at the Lachit Barphukan Maidam Development Project. Modi
participated in an Ahom ritual and was accompanied by Chief Minister Himanta Biswa
Sarma.
➢ Link: The rise of Lachit Borphukan as ‘Hindu warrior’ and ‘Assam’s Shivaji’ | Political
Pulse News - The Indian Express, PM Modi unveils 125-foot statue of Lachit Borphukan in
Assam's Jorhat - The Economic Times

52. M.G. Ranade:

➢ Mahadev Govind Ranade, popularly
referred to as Justice Ranade, was born in
Niphad, Nashik, in Maharashtra on
January 18, 1842.
➢ He was an Indian scholar, social
reformer, judge, author and one of the
founding members of the Indian
National Congress.
➢ Ranade was a social reformer and thinker,
who advocated against child marriage
and the caste system and promoted
widow remarriage and education for women.
➢ He was one of the leading founders of reform societies like the Prarthana Samaj, the
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and the Vaktruttvottejak Sabha.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ National Social Conference was also founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao. It
was virtually the social reform cell of the Indian National Congress.
➢ Towards bringing a social and religious reform, He edited an Anglo-Marathi daily paper,
the Induprakash.
➢ Ranade, along with Vaman Abaji Modak and Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar, established the
Maharashtra Girls Education Society and the oldest Girls’ High School at Huzurpaga
in Pune, Maharashtra.
➢ He also participated in the formation of the Indian National Congress due to his belief
in attaining freedom from colonial rule through constitutional means.
➢ He taught his wife Ramabai, who became a doctor, and helped create Seva Sadan, a
group for women’s rights.
➢ He opened schools to provide education.
➢ Mahadev Govind Ranade was part of the Social Conference movement and worked
against child marriage, the high cost of weddings, caste restrictions, and more.
➢ In 1861, he aided start the Widow Marriage Association.
➢ He wrote books about Indian economics and Maratha history.
➢ He believed that heavy industry and Western education were important for India’s
progress.
➢ Many leaders, including Gopal Krishna Gokhale, were influenced by him.
➢ Link: Mumbai Art Street: 110-year-old statue of M G Ranade and rise of Swadeshi
movement in memorial sculptural art

53. Raja Ramohan Roy:

➢ Context: The 2023 marked the quarter-millennial anniversary of the birth of Raja
Rammohun Roy (1772 – 1833).
➢ Akbar II gave the title of Raja to Ram Mohan Roy. Akbar II was Mughal Emperor from
1806-1837.
➢ Rammohun Roy happens to be the first person who translated the Upanishads into a
modern Indian language. Between 1816 and 1819, he brought out in print his
path-breaking translations of five principal Upanishads – Kena, Isha, Katha, Mandukya,
and Mundaka (in that order) – along with his commentaries on each, prepared in
accordance with those by Adi Shankara’s, in lucid Bengali prose.
➢ Moreover, in 1815, Raja had produced a Bengali prose translation of the
Brahma-Sutras of Badarayana Vyasa. This was yet another first-of-its-kind work of
translation, the earliest in any modern Indian language.
➢ What strikes as interesting is the attempt by Raja to establish the worship of
Para-Brahma as the essential or defining feature of the Hindu religion, and left no
stone unturned to defend this mode of worship and this interpretation of Hinduism
through his original and translated tracts in both Bengali and English languages. Raja’s
painstaking endeavours in this regard become explicable when we notice that he was
operating at a time when the Christian missionaries-led condemnations of
Hinduism as an ‘idolatrous and superstitious religion’ were at their severest.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s first published work Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhiddin (a gift to
deists) published in 1803 exposed irrational religious beliefs and corrupt
practices of the Hindus as the belief in revelations, prophets, miracles etc.
➢ In 1814, he founded Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta to campaign against idolatry, caste
rigidities, meaningless rituals and other social ills.
➢ He criticised the ritualism of Christianity and rejected Christ as the incarnation of God.
➢ In Precepts of Jesus (1820), he tried to separate the moral and philosophical message
of the New Testament
➢ Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded Brahmo Sabha in 1828, which was later renamed
as Brahmo Samaj.
Religious Reforms ➢ 20 August 1828, was the date when the doors of the first Brahmo Samaj were opened
and Social by Raja Rammohun Roy with his friend Tarachand Chakravarty as its first
Reforms secretary.
➢ Its chief aim was the worship of the eternal God.
➢ It was against priesthood, rituals and sacrifices. It focused on prayers, meditation
and reading of the scriptures.
➢ It believed in the unity of all religions.
➢ It was the first intellectual reform movement in modern India.
➢ It was the forerunner of all social, religious and political movements of modern
India. It split into two in 1866, namely Brahmo Samaj of India led by Keshub
Chandra Sen and Adi Brahmo Samaj led by Debendranath Tagore.
➢ Prominent Leaders: Debendranath Tagore, Keshub Chandra Sen, Pt. Sivnath Shastri,
and Rabindranath Tagore

Educational ➢ He supported David Hare’s efforts to find the Hindu College in 1817, while Roy’s
Reforms English school taught mechanics and Voltaire’s philosophy.
➢ In 1825, he established Vedanta college where courses in both Indian learning
and Western social and physical sciences were offered

Economic and ➢ When press censorship was relaxed by Lord Hastings in 1819, Ram Mohan found three
Political Reforms journals- The Brahmanical Magazine (1821); The Bengali weekly, Samvad
Kaumudi (1821); and the Persian weekly, Mirat-ul-Akbar
➢ Indianisation of superior services and separation of the executive from judiciary.
He demanded equality between Indians and European
➢ Link: Yearlong celebration for Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s 250th birth anniversary begin |
Latest News India - Hindustan Times

54. Pandurang Khankhoje :

➢ Context: Speaker Om Birla visited Mexico which is part of the
government’s efforts to honour lesser-known Indian-origin
leaders outside India
➢ Born in Wardha, Maharashtra, in the late 19th century, Pandurang
Khankhoje came in contact with other revolutionaries early on.
➢ As a student, Khankhoje was an ardent admirer of the French
Revolution and of the American War of Independence. Closer to
home, the Hindu reformer Swami Dayanand and his Arya Samaj
movement, which called for a spirit of reform and social change,
became the hero to a young student group led by Khankhoje.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ He Decided to go abroad for further training in revolutionary methods and militaristic
strategy.
➢ At this time, the British government’s suspicions of him were also growing due to his
anti-government activities. Before leaving, he visited Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by whom he was
inspired. Tilak advised him to go to Japan, which was itself a strong, anti-West Asian
imperialistic force then.
➢ Khankhoje was one of the founding members of the Ghadar Party, established by
Indians living abroad in 1914, mostly belonging to Punjab. Its aim was to lead a
revolutionary fight against the British in India. While in the US, Khankhoje met Lala
Har Dayal, an Indian intellectual teaching at Stanford University. “Har Dayal had
begun a propaganda campaign, publishing a newspaper that featured patriotic songs and
articles in the vernacular languages of India. This was the seed from which the Ghadar
Party would emerge.
➢ At the military academy, Khankhoje met many people from Mexico. The Mexican
Revolution of 1910 had led to the overthrow of the dictatorial regime, and this inspired
Khankhoje.
➢ He also reached out to Indians working on farms in the US with the aim of discussing the
idea of Indian independence with them. There, he met with Mexican workers as well.
➢ Along with the Indian workers, militant action was planned by Khankhoje in India, but
the outbreak of the First World War halted these plans. He then reached out to
Bhikaji Cama in Paris, and met with Vladimir Lenin in Russia among other leaders,
seeking support for the Indian cause. However, as he was facing possible deportation
from Europe and could not go to India, he sought shelter in Mexico.
➢ Soon, in part due to his prior friendship with Mexican revolutionaries, he was appointed a
professor at the National School of Agriculture in Chapingo, near Mexico City. He
researched corn, wheat, pulses and rubber, developing frost and drought-resistant
varieties, and was part of efforts to bring in the Green Revolution in Mexico.
➢ Later on, the American agronomist Dr Norman Borlaug, called the Father of the Green
Revolution in India, brought the Mexican wheat variety to Punjab.
➢ Khankhoje was revered as an agricultural scientist in Mexico. The renowned Mexican
artist Diego Rivera painted murals that featured Khankhoje, including one titled ‘Our
Daily Bread’ that prominently depicted him breaking bread with people seated
around a table.
➢ Link: Explained: Who was Pandurang Khankhoje, Ghadarite revolutionary and a
hero of Mexico?

55. Bengal’s women revolutionaries:

➢ Book published by author Madhurima Sen(book-Women in the War of Freedom
Unveiled, Bengal — 1919–1947); throws light on some of the many women
revolutionaries of India. They are; Bela Roy, Hashyabala Debi, Lilawati Verma, Halima
Khatun & Razia Khatun, Jobeda Khatun Jayanab Rahim, Sudhangshubala Sircar,
Dukhoribala Devi, Lila Nag, Bina Das, Kalpana Dutta, Bina Das, Pirtilata
Wadder/Waddedar, Santi and Suniti.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Contributions and acts:
➢ Halima Khatun and Razia Khatun,Jobeda Khatun and Jayanab Rahim were connected
with the revolutionary/nationalist organisations of their time.
➢ Sudhangshubala Sircar is associated with the infamous Alipore Bombing Case(1908).
➢ Dukhoribala Devi-first women to be convicted of revolutionary activities
➢ Lila Nag- first women to be recruited as member of a revolutionary organisation(Dacca
Shree Sangha).
➢ Bina Das- A revolutionary, she attempted to assassinate Stanley Jackson, the Bengal
Governor, in the convocation hall of Calcutta University in 1932.She also participated in
the Quit India Movement (1942).
➢ Regions of activities included: Eastern and Western part of Bengal, more activity in
Kolkata and adjoining areas of 24 Parganas(North and South), Howrah, Hooghly, Bankura
and Minapore. The Bethune College had become centre of radical feminist agitation.
➢ Link:https://www.thehindu.com/books/200-convictions-900-suspects-book-throws-new-li
ght-on-bengals-women-revolutionaries/article65845397.ece/amp/

56. Cachar Swadeshi Sabha, 1907:

➢ The Partition of Bengal which was proclaimed and announced by Lord Curzon in 1905 had
produced immense ramifications amongst the populace of Bengal as well as in Assam.
➢ In Assam, there were several protest demonstrations and meetings which were staged in
various regions.
➢ In the Barak Valley which was located in the southern part of Assam, the district of
Cachar had formed an active centre of anti-partition movement and Swadeshi
movement. One of the personalities who played an important role in the Movement
and took a lead role in it was Kamini Kumar Chanda.
➢ The Cachar Swadeshi Sabha which was formed in 1905 played a significant role in
spearheading the anti-partition movement.
➢ The president of the organisation was Kamini Kumar Chanda and the secretary was
Abanti Nath Dutta. Members of the organisation primarily belonged to the Silchar Bar
Association.
➢ The organisation played a pivotal role in spreading political consciousness and
enhancing the spirit of nationalism amongst the people. The Cachar Swadeshi Sabha
had organised several protest meetings and events of burning foreign clothes as a part of
their anti-partition movement.
➢ Link: Cachar Swadeshi Sabha, 1907

57. 50 years of Pin Code:

➢ India Post introduced a six-digit Postal Index Number (PIN) code on August 15,
1972. The idea was to give a unique identity to all physical addresses of the country in
terms of the delivery jurisdiction of the post offices.
➢ The PIN is made up of six digits. The first number indicates the postal region —
Northern, Eastern, Western, Southern; and the number 9, which signifies the Army
Postal Service. The second number denotes a sub-region, and the third represents
the sorting district. The remaining numbers narrow the geography further to the
specific post office making the delivery.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ The person behind the initiative was Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, an additional
secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications and a senior member of the
Posts and Telegraphs Board.
Shriram Velankar was also a Sanskrit poet of eminence who had been conferred the President’s Award for
Sanskrit in 1996. One of his most important books of his was Viloma Kavya which is considered a literary
masterpiece because it comprises verses in praise of Lord Rama when read from one side and, when read
backwards, it transformed into verses dedicated to Lord Krishna.
➢ With more than 1,55,000 post offices, the DoP has the most widely distributed postal
network in the world.
➢ Link: PIN code @50 years | Latest News | The Hindu

58. Hakki Pikki Tribe:

➢ ‘Hakki-Pikki’ is one of the major
tribal communities in Karnataka. In
Kannada, the word ‘Hakki’ stands for
‘bird’ and ‘Pikki’ stands for the verb
‘to catch’.
➢ Therefore, the community is known as
the ‘bird catcher,’ which is their
traditional occupation. The
community migrated from Northern
India – mainly Gujarat and Rajasthan to
Karnataka. According to the 2011
census, the Hakki Pikki population in
Karnataka is 11,892.
➢ Despite being surrounded by Dravidian
languages and living in southern India,
the community speaks an Indo-Aryan
language. Their mother tongue was
designated ‘Vaagri’ by scholars. –
UNESCO has listed ‘Vaagri’ as one of
the endangered languages.
➢ They follow Hindu traditions and
celebrate all Hindu festivals. They are
non-vegetarians. The eldest son in a
family is not supposed to cut his hair so that he can be identified easily.
➢ They tribe prefers cross-cousin marriages. The society is matriarchal, where the
groom gives dowry to the bride’s family
➢ They are known for their indigenous medicines. The community resided in the dense
jungles for a long time and created its own plant and herb-based medicine systems.
➢ Their herbal oil business took off, and now the tribe members go to many places across the
globe to sell their products.
➢ Link: Healers and seasoned travellers, Karnataka’s Hakki Pikki await rescue from Sudan |
India News - The Indian Express

IAS Exam Congress

 59. Four Tribal Revolts addressed by President:
➢ Context: President Murmu addressed the nation after being sworn in, she invoked four
tribal revolutions that she said had strengthened tribal contribution to the freedom
struggle.
➢ In the tribal heartland of what was then known as the Bengal Presidency, the
Santhal uprising began as a reaction against the British East India Company's
Santhal Revolt revenue system, usury practices, and the zamindari system in India.
➢ It was a revolution against colonial tyranny, which was enforced by local zamindars,
police, and the British East India Company's judicial system through a twisted
revenue system.
➢ The Santhals were forest dwellers who relied on them for survival. The British East
India Company established the Damin-i-koh area in modern-day Jharkhand in 1832
and welcomed Santhals to reside there.
➢ Many Santals have fallen prey to unethical money lending. They were given loans at
astronomical interest rates.
➢ Their farms were forcibly confiscated and they were forced into bonded labor when
they were unable to repay the loan.
➢ Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, two brothers who commanded the Santals
throughout the insurrection, were the catalysts for the rebellion.
➢ Over time, the Santhals discovered that they were losing control of the land they had
worked so hard to cultivate.
➢ The agriculturists were devastated by the Permanent Settlement Act in 1793. The
Santhals were compelled to revolt against the zamindars and moneylenders by the
1850s. The uprising quickly morphed into a movement against the British colonial
government.
➢ The insurrection was dubbed "hul" by the Santhals, which means "liberation
movement."
➢ The Santhals declared an end to Company control and declared the territory
between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal independent under the leadership of two
brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu.
➢ Sidhu and Kanhu's sisters, Phulo and Jhano Murmu, took part in the revolt and
are claimed to have penetrated the opposing camp under cover and slain
numerous soldiers before dying.
➢ By 1856, the British had put down the revolt with a harsh force, burning towns
down or wrecking them with elephants, and murdering hundreds of Santhals. Sidhu
and Kanhu were both assassinated.

Paika Rebellion ➢ The Paikas were a class of military retainers who had been recruited since the
16th century by kings in Odisha from a variety of social groups to render martial
services in return for hereditary rent-free land (nish-kar jagirs) and titles.
➢ The Paikas lost their estates when the new colonial establishments and land
revenue settlements of the British came into force. They lost their traditional
position in the society and their lands were taken away.
➢ The Paika Bidroha (Paika Rebellion) of 1817 took place nearly 40 years before
the first sepoy mutiny. Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar Mohapatra Bharamarbar
Rai, the highest-ranking military general of Mukund Dev II, and erstwhile holder
of the lucrative Rodanga estate, led an army of Paikas to join the uprising of the
Kondhs.They confronted the British on 2nd April 1817.
➢ Over the next few months, the revolt continued but was eventually overpowered by

IAS Exam Congress

 the British army. Bidyadhar was imprisoned in 1825 and died while still in jail
four years later.

Kol Rebellion ➢ The Kols, tribal people from the Chhota Nagpur area, rose in revolt against the
British in 1831.
➢ The trigger here too was gradual takeover of tribal land and property by
non-tribal settlers who were aided by new land laws.
➢ The simmering discontent over economic exploitation of the original inhabitants, led
to an uprising led by Buddhu Bhagat, Joa Bhagat and Madara Mahato among
others. The Kols were joined by other tribes like the Hos, Mundas and Oraons.
➢ The tribals fought with traditional weapons taking the battle to colonial forces who
finally overpowered them with modern weaponry.
➢ The uprising, which spread to areas like Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Palamau, Manbhum and
continued for almost two years before being snuffed out, mainly targeted colonial
officials and private money-lenders.

Bhil Rebellion ➢ The Khandesh Bhil Rebellion was a valiant uprising of the Bhil community
against the oppressive British colonial rule, which sparked a spirit of resistance in
the Khandesh region of the present-day Dhule district of Maharashtra.
➢ The rebellion started in 1818 under the leadership of Bhil leaders such as Kazi
Singh and Bhima Naik, as the British authorities deprived the tribes of their
traditional rights over forest resources and land.
➢ During the rebellion, the Bhils caused significant damage to the British
administrative apparatus, including attacking their forces and looting their
treasuries.
➢ Notably, the loot of Sindwa Ghat treasury on 17th November 1857, was one of their
most significant plunder.
➢ According to British records, around 500 Bhils participated in the raid, led by
Kazi Singh (or Kajee Naik), and they emptied the treasury of silver bars and
rupees. Similar plunders and disturbances in the Khandesh region lasted till 1860.
➢ Bhils sought to take advantage of reverses being suffered by the British in the
first Anglo-Burmese war.
➢ The Khandesh Bhil Rebellion was a noteworthy instance of the struggles of
India's tribal communities against colonial oppression, paving the way for the
country's eventual freedom struggle.
Koi Rebellion:
➢ In 1859, the British government granted a logging contract to traders from Hyderabad(Company
of Nizam), allowing them to cut down the forests in South Bastar. This decision stirred
dissatisfaction among the local landlords and some tribal communities, as the contractual practice
brought about an atmosphere of arbitrariness.
➢ At that time, King Bhairamdev ruled over the princely state of Bastar and the British government
had set its sights on the abundant forest wealth found there. Bastar, known as the "island of sal
forests," held great importance.
➢ In response to this encroachment, Nagul Dorla, the landlord of Potekela, united with the tribal
communities and revolted against the British and the contractors. Rambhoi, the landlord of
Bhopalpatnam and Jagga Raju, the landlord of Bhejji, also lent their support to the rebellion.
Led by Nagul Dorla, they collectively decided to prevent any further tree-cutting in Bastar, rallying
behind the slogan "a man's head behind a sal tree."
➢ Upon learning of the rebellion, the British authorities dispatched soldiers armed with guns.
Eventually, the British government abolished the contract system in response to the uprising
IAS Exam Congress
 60. History of Indigo:
Use of Indigo as Dye:
Indigo dye is extracted from the small, green leaves of the Indigofera plant. Leaves are harvested before
the flowers of the plant bloom and then soaked in water and churned until they release a navy blue froth.
The upper portion of the mixture is drained out and used for irrigation, while the leaves are reused as fertiliser.
The water and fine sediment at the bottom of the tank are allowed to settle for a day, after which the liquid is
separated from the sediment. This deep blue paste is filtered for dirt and other impurities, pressed into cakes and
dried for a few days, after which the indigo is ready to be used as a dye. The extraction process may be augmented
with the addition of lime (Ca(OH)₂) to the first mixture of water and leaves and by dissolving various natural
sugars into the paste.
Indigo powder is insoluble in water, acidic or alkaline solutions. The
conventional dyeing method is to add a reducing agent such as zinc or ammonia to the hot dye bath in
order to make indigo soluble — a state known as “white indigo” — before the cloth is dipped into
it.Fragments of fourteenth-century block-printed cloth from Gujarat found in Fustat, Egypt, as well as
some later examples from the eighteenth century show that indigo was sometimes used for printing,
although the method is unclear.
The earliest material evidence of indigo dye are traces found in textiles preserved in Egyptian tombs dating to the
late Bronze Age. The earliest literary mention occurs in the Atharvaveda at the start of the first
millennium BCE. It appears later in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a navigational text from the first century CE.
➢ The indigo trade flourished further after the consolidation of the Abbasid Caliphate
in West Asia in the eighth century CE and the resulting growth in Indian Ocean
commerce. The genizah documents — a set of over four hundred thousand papers found in
Fustat, Egypt, containing commercial and administrative records from the ninth to
nineteenth centuries suggest a thriving indigo trade in the early medieval period.
➢ The documents even used the Sanskrit word for indigo, nili, as a suffix for the names
of some Arab merchants who traded the dye.
➢ Sanjan, a port in Gujarat that exported indigo, was a key junction in early medieval
trade networks. By the late medieval period, Kabul, Afghanistan, Aleppo, Syria and Jeddah
had also emerged as major nodes, distributing indigo to Central Asia and Persia, Ottoman
Turkey and the eastern African coast, respectively.
➢ For most of the medieval period, parts of present-day Gujarat, Rajasthan and coastal
Pakistan produced the bulk of indigo from the subcontinent. From the sixteenth
century onwards, mercantile ventures by the Portuguese Estado da India and the
British and Dutch East India Companies traded indigo from these regions. Production
later shifted to Bengal as the British East India Company emerged as a ruling power
in the region.
➢ British policies in Bengal, such as the Tinkathia system, made it mandatory for
landowners to grow indigo in at least three kathas (a unit of land measurement) in
each bigha (1 bigha = 20 kathas) of their land.
➢ These landowners (or indigo planters, as they were then known) enlisted the services of
agricultural workers who were often made to cultivate Indigofera instead of food crops.
➢ While indigo planters and British traders made considerable profits by exporting
indigo to Europe and Britain, workers were compensated poorly and forced into
debt, sometimes even starvation.
➢ Indigo plantations were also set up in other colonies using similar policies, particularly the
West Indies.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ During the Indigo Revolt of 1859, farmers from Chaugacha and other parts of Bengal
staged a violent uprising against planters and zamindars. The human toll of indigo
cultivation, especially in Bengal, has since been remembered as a symbol of colonial
exploitation.
➢ Link: ‘Grow indigo in 3 kathas of each bigha’ –How the British forced Indians into
debt, starvation
Indigo Revolt of 1859:
Indigo was being cultivated in Bengal since the end of the 18th century. It was practised mainly in two forms, the
Nij-abad and the Ryoti . In the Nij or ‘own’ system, the planter produced indigo on lands that he directly
controlled. In the Ryoti cultivation, the ryots cultivated indigo on their own lands as part of a contract
with the planters. The system of indigo cultivation was inherently exploitative. Emerging in 1859 in the Nadia
district, the Bidroha spread to in different districts of Bengal in the 1860s. The peasants attacked indigo factories
with spears and swords. Planters who demanded rent were beaten. Even women participated by fighting with pots
and pans. It was especially powerful in the Pabna district where the ryots vehemently refused to sow
indigo. The Neel Bidroha inspired literature, music and films. Dinabandhu Mitra’s play Nil Darpan or the
‘Mirror of Indigo’ remains a classic because it was written during the movement in 1859. It narrated the
sufferings, oppression and struggle of indigo cultivators. It was allegedly translated by Michael Madhusudan
Dutta and published by Reverend James Long, for which he was sentenced to prison and charged with
sedition. It was in light of the general unrest surrounding indigo cultivation that a Commission was set up in
March 1860 to inquire into the ills of the system. The Indigo Commission, as it came to be called was
constituted of 5 members. In conclusion, the Commission declared that the relation between the planter
and the ryot was in ‘unsatisfactory’ condition. The farmers were led by the Biswas brothers of Nadia,
Rafiq Mondal of Malda and Kader Molla of Pabna. The revolt also received support from many zamindars
notably Ramrattan Mullick of Narail. By the end of 1860, indigo cultivation was literally washed away from Bengal
since the planters closed their factories and left for good.

61. History of Shiva Nataraja Form:

➢ Context: The Nataraja statue made of
Ashtadhatu is installed at the Bharat
Mandapam. The 27 feet tall,
18-ton-weight statue is the tallest
statue made of Ashtadhatu and is sculpted
by the renowned sculptor Radhakrishnan
Sthapaty of Swami Malai in Tamil Nadu.
➢ The design draws inspiration from three
revered Nataraja idols — the Thillai
Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram, the
Uma Maheswarar Temple in
Konerirajapuram, and the
Brihadeeswara (Big) Temple, a UNESCO
World Heritage Site, in Thanjavur.
➢ All three temples the Bharat Mandapam
Nataraja statue is inspired from were
originally constructed by the Cholas,
who at their peak around the 9th-11th
centuries AD, ruled over much of

IAS Exam Congress

 peninsular India. The Cholas were great patrons of art and high culture
➢ The Cholas were devout Shaivites, building elaborate Shiva temples (like the one in
Thanjavur) across their territories. “Among icons which form the most important part of
Chola sculpture, Shaiva figures predominate…although very fine Vaishnava and Jain
images are not unknown,”
➢ Although Shiva was first portrayed in sculpture as Nataraja in the fifth century AD,
its present, world-famous form evolved under the Cholas.
➢ Shiva as the Lord of Dance:
➢ Shiva, as he is worshipped today, evolved from the Vedic deity
Rudra. In many ways, he is the most complex god of the Puranic
pantheon.
➢ “He is death and time (Mahakala) which destroys all things. But he is
also a great ascetic and the patron of ascetics generally,” the great
Indologist A L Basham wrote in his classic ‘The Wonder that was
India’ (1954).
➢ Shiva is also the ‘Lord of Dance’ or Nataraja, who is said to have
“invented no less than 108 different dances, some calm and
gentle, others fierce, orgiastic and terrible,” Basham wrote.
➢ Shiva embodies those perfect physical qualities as he is frozen
in the moment of his dance within the cosmic circle of fire that
is the simultaneous and continuous creation and destruction of the
universe.
➢ In his upper right hand he holds the damaru, the drum whose beats syncopate the act of
creation and the passage of time.
➢ His lower right hand with his palm raised and facing the viewer is lifted in the gesture of
the abhaya mudra, which says to the supplicant, “Be not afraid, for those who follow the path
of righteousness will have my blessing.”
➢ Shiva’s lower left hand stretches diagonally across his chest with his palm facing down
towards his raised left foot, which signifies spiritual grace and fulfilment through
meditation and mastery over one’s baser appetites.
➢ In his upper left hand he holds the agni (image left), the flame of destruction that
annihilates all that the sound of the damaru has drummed into existence.
➢ Shiva’s right foot stands upon the huddled dwarf, the demon Apasmara, the embodiment
of ignorance.
➢ Shiva’s hair, the long hair of the yogi, streams out across the space within the halo of fire
that constitutes the universe.
Lost wax technique:
➢ The sculptors who created the 27-foot-tall Bharat Mandapam Nataraja trace their lineage 34 generations
back to the Cholas. The crafting process adopted was the traditional ‘lost-wax’ casting method,
indigenous to the Chola era
➢ The lost-wax method can be dated back to at least 6,000 years back ,a copper amulet crafted using
this method at a neolithic site in Mehrgarh, Balochistan (present day Pakistan) is dated to 4000 BC
➢ The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo Daro was also crafted using this technique.
➢ For millennia, the lost wax method was the foremost technique to produce elaborate metallic sculptures.
➢ In this method, first, a detailed wax model is made. This is then covered with a paste made of alluvial soil
found on the banks of the Cauvery river that runs through the heart of what was Chola country. After this
coating, applied multiple times, has dried, the figure is be exposed to high heat, causing the wax to burn
away, leaving a hollow, intricately carved mould. This is ultimately filled by molten metal to produce the
sculpture.

IAS Exam Congress

 Link: The Lord of Dance: History and symbolism of Shiva’s Nataraja form | Explained News - The
Indian Express

62. Ashoka Era Mine in Andhra:

➢ Context: In a rock edict, the emperor Ashoka declared all the gold and gemstones
found at Jonnagiri were his. Now, a private company ‘Geomysore’ is gearing up to start
gold mining at the ancient site again.
➢ The ancients called it Suvarnagiri (Gold mountain). With time the name changed to
Sonnagiri and then Jonnagiri.
➢ Jonnagiri in Andhra Pradesh’s Kurnool district is just a village now, but in the days of
Ashoka The Great it was the headquarters of the southern part of his empire.
➢ Some of his famous 3rd century BCE rock edicts have been found here.
➢ A huge rock-cut well near a temple is probably a relic of an ancient gold rush. Hundreds of
years later, the Cholas were masters of Jonnagiri’s gold. In the colonial period the
British tried but weren’t very successful so they moved on to Kolar, about 300 km away in
Karnataka.

63. Warkaris:
➢ Tens of thousands of pilgrims called “warkaris” undertake on foot the journey to
honour the deity Vitthal, also known as Vithoba, at Pandharpur in Maharashtra
every year. The pilgrimage that can span 21 days is known as Dindi. The pilgrimage
culminates on Ashadhi Ekadashi.
➢ The tradition goes back 700 to 800 years. Though the origin of the pilgrimage is not
clear, various theories credit its growth to Viththalpant Kulkarni (father of Saint
Dnyaneshwar), Saint Dnyaneshwar, Saint Tukaram and Narayan Maharaj (youngest
son of saint Tukaram).
➢ The word warkari is explained as a combination of two words. War is an abbreviation of
wari, which means pilgrimage, and kari is the one who performs the pilgrimage.
➢ The pilgrimages that originate from the shrines of saints Dnyaneshwar and Tukaram
are the most famous, particularly because they have the largest number of participants.
The pilgrims walk a distance of about 250 km in three weeks covering the districts of Pune,
Satara and Solapur.
➢ Along the way, they chant the Lord’s name ( nam japa), sing holy songs ( abhang) and
read sacred texts ( haripath). The warkaris, bearing palanquins carrying footprints of the
saints, must ensure that they reach Pandharpur on the sacred day of Ashadhi Ekadashi. On
reaching the temple town, warkaris pray and complete their journey with a sacred
dip in the river Chandrabhaga.
Tukaram (1608-1650):
➢ Tukaram was born in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Tukaram Bolhoba Ambile was his full name.
➢ His master was Saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu of the Bhakti movement.
➢ A 17th-century poet-saint who lived with Maratha ruler Shivaji Maharaj and saints such as Eknath
and Ramdas.
➢ His poetry was dedicated to Vithoba or Vitthala, an avatar of Vishnu, the Hindu God.
➢ He is most known for his Marathi Abangas (dohas), which are a rich inheritance of Gatha – devotional
poetry

IAS Exam Congress

➢ He emphasised community-based worship through spiritual melodies known as Kirtans. He promoted the
virtues of piety, forgiveness, and inner tranquillity.
➢ He was a vocal critic of caste and gender injustice.
➢ Tukaram is considered to be the pinnacle of the Bhagawat tradition, which began with Namdev.

In Frames | Spiritual sojourn | Latest News | The Hindu

64. Indian Ascetics:

➢ The naked ascetic in India is euphemistically referred to as digambara or sky-clad.
These are men who have rejected the material world totally: not just relationships
and property, but also clothes. The earliest images are found in Mathura’s Kankali Tila
and are about 2,000 years old. They belong to the Jain faith.
➢ The idea of naked ascetics is an old one, familiar to the Buddha who forbade monks from
wandering in the nude. So the idea of nude ascetics is at least 2,500 years old, if not older.
The Greeks who accompanied Alexander, 2,300 years ago, encountered them and
referred to them as gymnosophists or naked philosophers.
➢ As per Jain lore, Mahavira’s parents were followers of a hermit, Parsva, who lived
2,800 years ago in the current Bihar region. Parsva was the first hermit in history who
probably spoke of karma and destiny. This idea of rebirth is missing in earlier layers of the
Veda but appears in the later Vedic texts, and early Upanishads, dated back to the same
time as Parsva. Parsva did not practise nudity, as per the tradition of Shwetambara or
white-robed Jains. The more conservative Digambara Jains disagree; for them, male
nudity is integral to Jain monasticism.
➢ The Tamil epic Manimekalai, which is about 1,500 years old, refers to two types of
naked ascetics: the Ajivika and the Nigrantha. Ajivika means those who endure life.
Nigrantha refers to those who consciously untie all knots of life. Both were yogis,
seeking to do yoga to uncrumple the crumpled mind and break free from the limitations of
the body.
➢ Manimekalai was written by Seethalai Saathanar or Chithalai Chathanar. The author
in this Epic of Tamil Literature compared buddhism with other religions prevailing in South
India. The story is about daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi who became Buddhist.
➢ Ajivikas:
➢ Our understanding of Ajivika can be flawed as all information about them comes from
Buddhists and Jains who were rival monastic orders. Most scholars agree that the Ajivika
believed that humans have no free will, while Nigrantha believed humans have free
will. The reasons they both chose nudity is very different.
➢ According to Shwetambara texts, Mahavir gave away all that he possessed except one
robe to cover his body. He gave even half of that to a needy man. The other half of
Mahavir’s robe got caught in a thorny thicket of bushes. Mahavir did not untangle it as
that would mean attachment. This choice of not clinging to the cloth led to Mahavir
becoming sky-clad.
➢ Buddhist texts suggest that Gosala, the eventual founder of Ajivika sect, was born to a
poor family in a cowshed. His father carried images of gods on his head. In poverty, he
was enslaved. When he ran away from slavery, his master tried to catch him and caught his
clothes instead, disrobing him. Gosala saw his disrobing as an act of fate, and accepted nudity.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ As per Jain lore, Gosala was a companion of Mahavira. Gosala argued that humans
cannot change their destiny; they have to accept whatever comes their way, and
endure suffering.
➢ Feeling the futility of seeking food, Gosala promoted the practice of fasting to death. He
came up with the doctrine of eight finalities: the last drink, dance, song, storm,
solicitation, fortune, war, and breath. He probably refused to participate in the Jain
practice of gochari or grazing, when monks seek minimum food to sustain themselves.
He probably valourised death by starvation, speeding up the inevitable.
➢ Some of the earliest man-made caves in India, the Barabar caves of Bihar, now called
Lomasa caves, linked to Ashoka’s and dated 2,200 years ago, were meant to be places
where hermits would take shelter during the rainy season, and even fast to death. These
caves are located near Gaya, a site associated with Hindu funeral rituals even today.
➢ The next set of man-made caves are found in Odisha. These Udaygiri caves were
carved by King Kharavela, who attacked Magadh. They were for Jain monks, for their
residence during rainy seasons, and perhaps for the practice of fasting to death
(sallekhana). Unlike Ajivikas, the Jains believed fasting to death was a choice.
➢ While Ajivika believed that circumstances cannot be changed, and life has to be endured,
Mahavir was clear that our response to circumstances can be controlled. We can choose not
to debate, not to be angry, not to react. That is free will.
➢ Link: The naked philosophers: the reason some Indian ascetics renounced their
robes

65. Buddhism in Gujarat:

➢ In small town of Shamlaji in Gujarat is a reservoir that was created after the
construction of the Meshvo dam in the late 1960s,a Buddhist flag is hoisted in the
middle of this man-made reservoir, commemorating the location where holy relics
were unearthed in 1962.
➢ Organic remains wrapped in silk cloth and precious artefacts were discovered in an
inscribed casket from a stupa uncovered during excavations at an archaeological site
in what was formerly the village of Devnimori. After deciphering the writings on the
casket, archaeologists agreed that these were probably the sacred remains of Gautama
Buddha.
➢ In contrast to Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, where archaeological relics were saved
and transported, Devnimori on the western side of the country was completely
submerged, leaving behind an extensive archaeological account of the digging.
➢ Aside from the sacred relics, the site provides a visual indication of (early historic)
economic and cultural connections with Gandhara. The convergence of regional
styles with Mathura and Gandharan schools of art—in terms of iconography, raw
material and external influences—during 3rd-4th CE tells us about possible trade
links or networks of interregional connections.
➢ This puts Devnimori (and Gujarat) on par with other ancient Buddhist sites such as
Sanchi, Nagarjunakonda, and Amravati.
➢ Link: How Gujarat spread Buddhism—Devnimori dig gives us a mahastupa, inscribed
casket, coins

IAS Exam Congress

66. Ashoka edicts silent on caste order:
➢ Two categories,throw some light on Ashokan society: slaves and servants.
➢ The terms used here, in Sanskrit ‘dāsa’ and ‘bhṛtaka’, point to two servile classes.
➢ The latter refers to workers who were paid for their services, but were technically
free individuals, although it is impossible to say how truly free they were.
➢ Slaves, on the other hand, were owned by the individuals who are the target of
Ashoka’s dharma instructions.
➢ Slavery was thus a legally recognized and socially sanctioned institution in Ashokan
society, as it was in many other ancient societies
➢ Ashoka in Rock Edict XIII dealing with the Kalinga war lists among the enormous
number of war casualties the 150,000 people who were ‘carried away’.
➢ The word used is ‘apavaha’ (Sanskrit: apavāha), which has the connotation of not
simply deportation, as often translated, but of carrying away by someone, clearly
pointing to people being in some way enslaved. These two classes of people probably
formed part of the household of the person owning or employing them. They were
housed, clothed and fed by the householder. The servants, thus, were not simply
self-employed workers who went home in the evening. The legal treatise of Apastamba,
belonging roughly to the same period as Ashoka, points out the obligation to feed
slaves and servants, using the term ‘karmakara’, ‘worker’: ‘If he wants, he may deprive
himself, his wife, or his son, but never a slave or worker.’
➢ The most instructive aspect of Ashoka’s statements about society, however, is what he does
not say. His silence says a great deal, especially with respect to ancient Indian social
structures. For example, he makes no mention of the social divisions and roles we
have been trained to assume existed in ancient India.
➢ The very term ‘varna’ or any of the names of the three varnas, Kshatriya, Vaisya and
Sudra, are completely absent in Ashoka’s vocabulary. His extensive discussion of social
relationships in the context of the practise of dharma takes no account of the varna system.
The only member of that system mentioned by Ashoka is the Brahmin, but he is
mentioned in the context of religious organisations called Pasandas and not as a
social and demographic group.
➢ Link: Ashoka edicts silent on caste order. Runs counter to what we're taught about
varna history

67. Maski Inscriptions of Ashoka:

➢ Devanampiye and Piyadasi (meaning ‘Devanampriya’ and ‘Priyadarshi’ in Sanskrit
and ‘beloved of the gods’ and ‘one with a benevolent gaze’ in English) were the two names
that were widely referred to, either separately or together, in the ancient
inscriptions and Buddhist literature found across South Asia.
➢ Minor rock edict found at Maski town in Raichur district in 1915, The eight-line Pali
inscription etched in Brahmi script on a mid-size rock lying at a cave in the middle
of an Inselberg convincingly declared that Devanampiye was none other than
Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.
➢ The inscription that starts with Devanampiye Asoka, is the first discovered edict of
Emperor Ashoka to have his name as Asoka in contrast to all other inscriptions
discovered earlier that had either Devanampiye or Piyadasi or both to refer to him.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ Another rock edict found at Gujarra in Madhya Pradesh also mentions Ashoka by his
name and titles.
➢ It is believed that Hutti goldmine, which is just 35 km away from Maski, is one of the
oldest gold mines in the world. There are historical records to indicate that the mine was
extensively and intensively explored and mined even during the pre-Ashokan era. The
carbon dating test of a timber piece recovered from the bottom of the Hutti mine
convincingly indicated the mining activity in the mine about 1,900 years ago.
➢ Pre-Historic Links:
➢ Maski also provides with a wonderful site for historical research and investigation into
human life dating back to the prehistoric period extending from 12,000 BCE to 2200
BC.
➢ The excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) conducted in Maski in the 1950s
have also found the human settlements attributable to the Neolithic period between
3000 BCE and 1200 BCE. Historians also found the connections between the cities in
the Indus Valley civilisation and the settlements in Maski by the fact that the stones
extracted from Maski quarries were found in the form of artefacts in Harappan cities.
➢ Till today, one can find thousands of prehistoric rock art depicting different animals on the
rocks spread across hills around Maski.
➢ Chola Inscriptions:
➢ There is an inscription engraved on a rock which gives you an authentic insight into
the bloody battle between the heavy armies Chola and Western Chalukya Empires.
➢ Historians say that the Chola Emperor Rajendra Chola led a massive army of around
9,00,000 soldiers and defeated Chalukya Emperor Jayasimha II in Maski 1019 – 1020
CE. As a mark of his significant victory that gave him unquestionable dominance over vast
areas of Deccan, the Chola Emperor left behind a Sanskrit inscription scripted in Tamil on a
rock in Maski. The inscription also included the royal slogan and official emblem of the Chola
Empire. It is said that this is the farthest Chola inscription in the north.
➢ Sannati (an archaeological site on the bank of Bhima River in Chittapur taluk of
Kalaburagi district where ancient Buddhist Stupa built over 2000 years ago and the
stone image of Emperor Ashoka were retrieved in the excavations) and Maski, if put in
the Buddhist Circuit of the country and given adequate publicity at the international level,
could attract a large number of tourists from across the world, especially from the
countries inhabited by Buddhists.
➢ Link: Maski that unmasked the mysterious Devanampiye and established him as
Emperor Ashoka - The Hindu

68. Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar (fondly called Thakkar Bapa):

➢ Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar, also known as Thakkar Bapa, was born on 29 November 1869 in
the Bhavnagar district of Gujarat.
➢ Since his younger days, Thakkar Bapa was involved in activities that would free the
marginalized communities of social evils.
➢ He founded a school for the children of sweepers and implemented a scheme for
making them debt-free. In 1915, Thakkar Bapa was introduced to Gandhiji, who
convinced him to join the Indian Independence Movement.
➢ He was arrested by the British government for leading a group of volunteers who were
participating in the picketing of liquor shops. He also played a crucial role during the
negotiations of the Poona Pact.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ At Gandhi's request, he became one of the General Secretaries of the Harijan Sevak
Sang, an organisation founded by Gandhiji that focused on the rights of the
marginalized sections of society.
➢ He became a member of the Servants of India Society in 1914 founded by Gopal
Krishna Gokhale in 1905.
➢ In 1918, Thakkar Bapa played a crucial role in presenting the Compulsory Primary
Education Bill to the Bombay Legislative Council.
➢ In 1922, he founded the Bhil Seva Mandal.
➢ Thakkar Bapa authored the book, Tribes of India, published in 1950. He spent his
entire life working towards the upliftment of the marginalized.
➢ Link: The Gandhian Bapa who toured Madras for the uplift of Dalits - The Hindu

69. Sapinda Marriage:

➢ A sapinda marriage is one between individuals who are related to each other within
a certain degree of closeness. Sapinda relationships for the purposes of the HMA are
defined in Section 3 of the Act.
➢ “Two persons are said to be sapindas of each other if one is a lineal ascendant of the
other within the limits of sapinda relationship, or if they have a common lineal
ascendant who is within the limits of sapinda relationship with reference to each of
them,” Section 3(f)(ii) says.
➢ Under the provisions of the HMA, on the mother’s side, a Hindu individual cannot marry
anyone who is within three generations of them in the “line of ascent”. On the father’s
side, this prohibition applies to anyone within five generations of the individual.
➢ If a marriage is found to violate Section 5(v) for being a sapinda marriage, and there
is no established custom that allows such a practice, it will be declared void.
➢ Sole exception can be found within the same provision. As noted above, it arises when
the customs of each individual permits sapinda marriages. The definition of the word
“custom” is provided in Section 3(a) of the HMA.
➢ In 2007, a sapinda marriage was declared void, prompting the woman to appeal the
ruling in the Delhi HC, which was dismissed in 2023. She then challenged the
constitutional validity of Section 5(v) of the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 (HMA),
arguing it violates the Right to equality under Article 14. However, the Delhi HC rejected
her arguments. The court emphasised the need for stringent proof of an established
custom and upheld the regulation of partner choice in marriage.
➢ Status in other countries:
France Abolished the crime of incest under the Penal Code of 1810, allowing marriages between consenting
adults.

Portugal It does not criminalise incest.

Italy Incest is only considered a crime if it causes a “public scandal.”

Belgium Adopted similar laws under the influence of the French code.

Ireland Laws on incest have not been updated post the recognition of same-sex marriages in 2015.

USA Incestuous marriages are banned in all states except New Jersey and Rhode Island.

IAS Exam Congress

What are incestuous ‘sapinda’ marriages, and why has Delhi High Court reaffirmed the ban on
them? | Explained News - The Indian Express

70. Badami Caves:

➢ Previously known as Vatapi (or Vatapipuri), Badami
was a Chalukya capital, citadel, and cosmopolitan
centre, nestled in a valley between two branches of the
Kaladgi basin.
➢ The cave temples were carved into the cliff face of
the southern branch of this basin, facing the
Agasthya Teertha artificial lake, constructed around
the same time.
➢ Group of four rock-cut sandstone Shaivite,
Vaishnavite and Jain shrines, the Badami cave
temples are located in and named after the town of
Badami in the Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka. Dating to the second half of the
sixth century CE, they are among the earliest surviving monuments of the Early
Western Chalukyas.
➢ The Badami cave temples are also characterised by the presence of early Nagara and
Dravida architectural forms, which would be further developed in the architecture of
the Pattadakal temple group.
➢ The caves are numbered according to their position and elevation on the cliff
formation and their distance from the town, with Cave 1 being the lowest and closest to
the town and Cave 4 being the highest and furthest away. Due to variations in style
and structure, some scholars have suggested that this arrangement corresponds to the
sequence in which the caves were excavated and carved.
➢ The first three caves are dedicated to Hindu deities, while the last is to Jinas and
associated figures. A small, grotto-like space was found during early investigations of
the temple group and considered a separate cave, but it has since been excluded
from the grouping.
➢ Details of Diff Caves:
➢ In Cave 1, among various sculptures of Hindu divinities and themes, a prominent carving is
of the dancing Shiva as Nataraja.
➢ Cave 2 is mostly similar to Cave 1 in terms of its layout and dimensions, featuring Hindu
subjects of which the Hari Hara, Ardhanari shiva, Mahishamardini, Dwi Bahu Ganesha
and Skanda in a separate antichamber on extended cave at western side-next to great
Nataraja sculpture. Cave-II has premier images of relief of Vishnu as Trivikrama is the
largest.
➢ The largest cave is Cave 3, featuring Vishnu- as Ananta seated on coiled serpent,
Varaha with Bhudevi, Harihara, Narasimha in standing posture, great image of
Trivikrama and Virata Vishnu. The cave has fine carvings exhibiting matured stage of
Karnataka ancient art.
➢ Cave 4 is dedicated to revered figures of Jainism.
➢ Around the lake, Badami has additional caves of which one may be a Buddhist caves
➢ At the entrance of Cave 1 the visitor is treated to a unique 18-handed Nataraja, the
tandava Shiva. Some say that this signifies the 81 dance movements of Bharatanatyam,
while others call it the cosmic wheel. Adjoining the Nataraja, the wall showcases
IAS Exam Congress
 Goddess Parvati, in the form of Mahishasuramardini, the destroyer of the demon
Mahishasura.
➢ The two fusion forms of Shiva are significant harmony symbols, one as Harihara,
half-himself and half-Vishnu, signifying the coming together of two religious sects,
and the other of Ardhanarishwara, a surgical union of the male and female halves.
The perfect union results in a new, harmonised generation
represented by playful children all around, sleeping, crawling,
tossing and turning.
➢ The Vishnu cave has lesser sculptures but are more impactful
because they seem to be in motion. The patron God of the
Chalukyas seems to have been cast in a manner mimicking their
courtly demeanour. So, there is Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu),
holding Bhudevi (Mother Earth) aloft in one hand, his feet
stomping the netherworld, the fury so apparent that it would
appear that the mural would crack from side to side.
➢ In another unconventional representation, the main figure of
Vishnu is seen sitting upright on Sheshnag, not reclining or
sleeping, perhaps to endow him with a regal character.
➢ The last cave is dedicated to the Jain tirthankaras. It is the
smallest amongst the four. It is stated to be unfinished and follows
the format of other caves. The veranda walls are adorned with sculptures of Lord
Gomateshwara in penance and Lord Parshvanatha. On the rear wall of the sanctuary is
the sculpture of Lord Mahavira delivering a sermon. There are several figures of other
tirthankaras.
➢ Readmore: What makes the Badami Cave Temples symbols of shared thought and
learning | Eye News - The Indian Express

71. Jevoha’s Witness:

➢ Jehovah’s Witnesses are a Christian sect, but do not believe in the Holy Trinity (the
doctrine that God exists in three equal persons of the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ)
and the Holy Spirit).
➢ They worship Jehovah as “the one true and Almighty God, the Creator”, who is “the
God of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus”.
➢ They believe Jesus Christ to be the “King of God’s Kingdom in heaven”, but not as the
Almighty God.
➢ They base their beliefs only on the text of the Bible, which they see as the word of God.
➢ They don’t celebrate Christmas or Easter, because they believe such festivals to be
inspired by Pagan traditions.
➢ Jehovah’s Witnesses are known for their evangelical work, for which they go door to
door, to spread “The Truth”.
➢ They believe the end of the world is near, and the “Kingdom of God” will “replace human
governments and accomplish God’s purpose for the earth.”
➢ The origins of the sect lie in a Bible Student movement started in the 1870s by
American pastor Charles Taze Russell. Today, the Governing Body of Jehovah’s
Witnesses is located in Warwick, New York.

IAS Exam Congress

A landmark case involving the sect in India was Bijoe Emmanuel & Ors vs State Of Kerala &
Ors. The Supreme Court, in its 1986 verdict, granted protection to three children belonging to the
sect, who did not join in the singing of the National Anthem at their school. The court held
that forcing them to sing the Anthem violated their fundamental right to religion under
Article 25 of the Constitution.
Jehovah’s Witnesses: Christian group with no-war stand - The Hindu

72. Paruveta Utsavam:

➢ Context: The Indian National Trust For Art And Cultural Heritage (INTACH) is
making UNESCO to declare the annual ‘Paruveta’ (mock hunting festival), as an
‘intangible cultural heritage’.
➢ It is an annual mock hunting festival celebrated at the Sri Narasimha Swamy temple
in Ahobilam, Andhra Pradesh.
➢ The temple, under the governance of the 600-year-old Ahobila Mutt through the
'Guru Parampara', has promoted Srivaishnavism among tribal communities, as
evidenced by the Sanskrit drama Vasanthika Parinayam authored by the Mutt's 7th Jeeyar
(pontiff) .
➢ This festival symbolises communal harmony, during which the deity from the temple's
sanctum sanctorum is taken to the 32 Chenchu tribal hamlets around Ahobilam for 40
days (a Mandala).
➢ The spiritual journey commences with tribal individuals aiming their bows and
shooting two arrows at the palanquin, symbolising reverence and their protective
watch over the deity.
➢ In folklore, it's said that Lord Vishnu, in his Narasimha incarnation, wedded Maha Lakshmi,
incarnated as a tribal girl named Chenchulakshmi in Ahobilam, where Chenchu tribes
honoured Narasimha as their brother-in-law and invited him home for Makara Sankranti.
➢ Chenchu tribes are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTGs) of Andhra Pradesh
and Telangana.
➢ The Pancharatra Agama (doctrine of temple worship) refers to Paruveta as
'Mrugayotsava' and provides guidelines for its conduct, emphasising its significance in
temple worship.
Other Intangible Cultural Heritage:
2023 Garba of Gujarat

2021 Durga Puja of Kolkata

2017 Kumbh Mela

2016 Nowruz,Yoga

2014 Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala
Guru, Punjab, India

2013 Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur

2012 Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the trans-Himalayan

IAS Exam Congress

 Ladakh region

2010 Chhau dance, Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan

2009 Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas, India

2008 Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre,Tradition of Vedic chanting, Ramlila, the traditional

performance of the Ramayana

Efforts on to get UNESCO tag for ‘Paruveta’ festival of Ahobilam - The Hindu

73. Artwork on the Constitution:

➢ The Indian Constitution, renowned as the world’s lengthiest written Constitution also
features intricate hand-painted images and elaborate borders across all its 22 parts, making
it the most visually appealing Constitution globally.
➢ Nandalal Bose, a renowned artist and close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, was
entrusted with the task of illustrating the Constitution in October 1949, just before
the final session of the Constituent Assembly.
➢ While the Constitution itself was handwritten by calligrapher Prem Behari Narain
Raizada in a flowing italic style, the Hindi version’s calligraphy was masterfully
crafted by Vasant Krishan Vaidya.
➢ Some Paintings:
➢ The Bull Seal, excavated from the Indus Valley region, is the first pictorial
representation in the Constitution, appearing in ‘Part I: The Union and its Territory’.
➢ Part II: Citizenship’ features a hermitage scene with male ascetic figures offering prayers
in a meditative environment.
➢ In another scene of hermitage that appears in Part V, Buddha is the central figure,
surrounded by disciples, animals, and birds in a serene setting
➢ The only female figure illustrated prominently in the Constitution, Rani Lakshmibai of
Jhansi, is sketched in her armour as she shares the page with Tipu Sultan, the king of Mysore,
in Part XVI of the Constitution. Chhatrapati Shivaji and Guru Gobind Singh are featured in Part
XV.
➢ Emperor Ashoka is seen seated on an elephant, propagating Buddhism, in Part VII of the
Constitution, Part IX has a scene from King Vikramaditya’s court with musicians and dancers,
representing him as a patron of art.
➢ Gandhi appears twice, leading the Dandi March and visiting riot-hit Noakhali in
Bangladesh. He is being welcomed by women with an aarti thali and Muslim peasants wearing
kufi caps.
➢ In Part XIX, Subhas Chandra Bose is seen against a mountainous backdrop, saluting the flag,
with members of Azad Hind Fauj marching ahead.
➢ Nehru was also supposed to be included, but was eventually omitted. Siva Kumar said
three landscapes in the Constitution are a homage to Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore and
the National Anthem he composed, which also celebrates the diverse geographical landscapes
of India.
From Ram to Akbar to Gandhi: Artwork on the Constitution, who painted them | Explained News -
The Indian Express

IAS Exam Congress

74. Kozhikode and Gwalior in UNESCO Creative Cities Network:
➢ Context: Recently UNESCO announced the addition of 55 new cities to its Creative Cities
Network (UCCN). Among the new entrants, two Indian cities made their mark:
Kozhikode in Kerala as the ‘City of Literature’ and Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh as the
‘City of Music’.
➢ Kozhikode is the first city in India to receive the prestigious title of ‘City of
Literature’ by UNESCO.
➢ The city has a long history of hosting various literary events, such as the Kerala
Literature Festival, which is one of the largest literary gatherings in Asia.
○ This acknowledgement reinforces the city's role as a hub for intellectual exchange
Kozhikode
and literary discussions.
○ Kozhikode carried the distinction of being home to over 500 libraries.
➢ The city is also home to many renowned writers, including S. K. Pottekkatt (the
most celebrated writer of the city), Thikkodiyan and P. Valsala Sanjayan, along
with poets, scholars, and publishers who have contributed to the diversity and vibrancy
of Malayalam literature and culture.

➢ Gwalior is the third city in India to be designated as the ‘City of Music’ by

UNESCO, after Varanasi and Chennai
➢ The city is widely regarded as the birthplace of Tansen, one of the greatest
musicians and composers in Indian history, who was also one of the ‘Navratnas’
(nine jewels) in the court of Emperor Akbar.
➢ The city is also the origin of the Gwalior Gharana, the oldest and most influential
Gwalior
school of Hindustani classical music.
➢ Before Hindustani classical music was divided into various gharanas, Gwalior emerged
as the first proper gharana of music. Hence, the Gwalior gharana is considered the
most ancient and ‘Gangotri’ (meaning origin) of Khyal raga.
➢ The city hosts one of the biggest annual music festivals in India, the Tansen
Sangeet Samaroh, which attracts thousands of music lovers and artists from across the
country and abroad.
➢ Some Imp names: Raja Dungrendra Sing Tomar,Raja Man Singh,Tansen,Baiju Bawra
➢ Other Indian cities in the UCCN include Jaipur: Crafts and Folk Arts (2015), Varanasi:
Creative City of Music (2015), Chennai: Creative City of Music (2017), Mumbai: Film
(2019), Hyderabad: Gastronomy (2019), and Srinagar: Crafts and Folk Art (2021).
➢ Gwalior, Kozhikode join UNESCO Creative Cities Network | India News - The Indian
Express

75. Shantiniketan:
➢ Santiniketan, which is a town located in Birbhum district of West Bengal, was
included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage List( 41st India WHS).
➢ Historical Significance: In 1862, Rabindranath Tagore's father, Debendranath Tagore,
spotted this scenic landscape and decided to establish an ashram, building a house
called Santiniketan, meaning "abode of peace".
➢ Educational Legacy: In 1901, Rabindranath Tagore chose a significant portion of land
and established a school based on the Brahmacharya Ashram model. This school later
evolved into Visva Bharati University.
IAS Exam Congress
 ➢ The Ministry of Culture proposed Santiniketan for inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage
List, emphasising its importance in human values, architecture, arts, town planning, and
landscape design.
➢ Santiniketan finds a place on UNESCO’s World Heritage list - The Hindu

76. Hoysala temples on UNESCO heritage list:

➢ The Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebid, and Somanathapur
in Karnataka were declared as 42nd Indian UNESCO World
Heritage Sites.
➢ The Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu is believed to be the
largest Shiva temple built by the Hoysalas, and is dated to the
12th century.
➢ The three temples include the Chennakeshava temple in
Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple in Halebidu, and the
Keshava Temple in Somnathpur.
➢ The Hoysalas held power in Karnataka from the 10th century to
the 14th century. The dynasty began as provincial governors
under the Western Chalukyas, but as the two dominant
empires of the South, the Western Chalukyas and the
Cholas, crumbled, the Hoysalas established themselves as
rulers.
➢ One notable feature of Hoysala architecture is the use of soapstone, a malleable
stone that is easy to carve →reason behind the abundance of intricate sculptures one can
see on the temple walls.
➢ The temples are generally built on stellate (star-shaped) platforms, and have several
structures inside the complex.
➢ The sculptures include animals, scenes of daily life, as well as depictions from the
epics and the Puranas. The jewellery, headgear, clothes, etc. of the detailed sculptures
give an idea of the society of the times.
➢ The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Lord Shiva or to Lord Vishnu (two of
the major Hindu gods) but they occasionally chose a different deity.
➢ Records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by building as many temples
dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.
➢ Most of those temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their
sculptures. That appears in the famous Chennakeshava temple at Belur dedicated to
Vishnu and in the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu dedicated to Shiva. The Keshava
temple at Somanathapura uses unique ornamentation, strictly Vaishnavan.
➢ Depending on the number of shrines (and hence number of towers), the temples
classify as ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four) and
panchakuta (five). Most Hoysala temples belong to the ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta
classifications. Sometimes a trikuta may have less than three towers as only the
central shrine has a tower.
➢ The political dimension to this is the various military expeditions that the Hoysalas
undertook, which led them to different regions from where they brought back
masons, sculptors, architects who could visualise and actualise such temples.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ An interesting feature of Hoysala temples is that they are ‘signed’ — the sculptors,
masons leave behind their names, and sometimes a few more details.
➢ These Vaishnava and Shaiva shrines were built at the time Jainism was prominent in
the region, and thus mark a turn towards Hinduism.
➢ Hoysala architecture is an amalgamation of three distinctive styles— the mainstream
Dravidian architecture as represented in the Pallava and Chola temples; the Vesara style,
the variant of the Dravida style that emerged in the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta temples;
and then the North Indian Nagara style.

Chennakesava Temple Hoysaleshwara Temple, Kesava Temple

Halebidu

Dedicated to Ekakuta (temple with one Dvikuta (temple with two Trikuta Temple
shrine) and is dedicated to shrines) and is dedicated to dedicated to Lord
Vaishnavism. Shiva Krishna in three forms –
Janardhana, Keshava and
Venugopala.

Built By King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 King Vishnuvardhana. Built under King

CE. A stepped pond called Narasimha III
Vasudev Tirtha was
constructed by Veer Ballala II

Built on banks of Yagachi Originally Halebidu was Built on the banks of

River in Belur. called Dwarasamudra which River Kaver
refers to a large water
reservoir

Hoysala temples on UNESCO heritage list: What sets the ‘Sacred Ensembles’ apart, what stories
they tell | Explained News - The Indian Express

77. Statue of Adi Shankaracharya:

➢ Context: Recently Madhya Pradesh CM unveiled
the Adi Shankaracharya statue at Omkareshwar.
➢ The 108-feet-tall statue of Hindu saint Adi
Shankaracharya, named ‘Ekatmata Ki
Pratima’ (Statue of Oneness),conceptualised
around six years ago, depicts Shankaracharya
as a 12- year-old child when he is said to have
visited Omkareshwar, which has one of the
twelve Jyotirlinga shrines — said to be the most
sacred abodes of Shiva.
➢ The multi-metal Adi Shankaracharya statue is installed atop Mandhata Parvat hill,
facing southwards towards the Narmada river. This statue stands atop a 54-feet pedestal,
supported by a 27-feet lotus petal base which is made of red stone.
➢ Weighing 100 tonnes, the statue was conceptualised by an Indian team of artists, a sculptor
and engineers.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ The design for the statue was conceptualised by painter Vasudeo Kamath, who found
inspiration in Raja Ravi Verma’s depiction of Shankaracharya.
➢ The Mandhata island, nestled on the Narmada River, is home to two of the 12
Jyotirlingas – Omkareshwara (located on the south side of the island) and
Amareshwara. The area is close to Mahakaleshwara Jyotirlinga at Ujjain, located 110
km to the northwest.
Adi Shankaracharya: Adi Shankara, who is believed to have lived between 788 and 820 AD, was born in Kerela’s
Kaladi, situated on the bank of the Periyar River. He became a sanyasi at an early age and left his Brahmin
household, where he is said to have made his way to Omkareshwar. Here, he studied under his guru Govinda
Bhagavatpada and soon became a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, challenging prevailing philosophical
traditions – including Buddhism and Jainism.
● In his lifespan of 32 years, he is said to have visited all the important spiritual centres of the time — from
Kanchi (Kancheepuram in Tamil Nadu) to Kamrup (Assam), and Kashmir and the Kedar and Badri dhams,
as well as Sringeri, Ujjain, Kashi, Puri, and Joshimath. He is said to have authored 116 works.
● The most notable among them are the commentaries on the 10 Upanishads, the Brahma Sutra and
the Gita
About Advaita Vedanta (Non-Dualism):
➢ According to it, Brahman (Atman) is the Paramartha or absolute reality which doesn’t change. It is
metaphysically true and ontologically (study of concepts such as existence, reality etc.) accurate.
➢ Individual soul is identical to it and the world has no separate existence apart from Brahman.
➢ The surroundings or physical environment is the ever-changing vyavahara or empirical (pragmatic) reality
created by illusion or māyā.
➢ Pratibhasika or deceptive reality is another level of reality constructed through imagination. •
➢ Because of errors in judgments (mithya) and ignorance (avidya), individuals see plurality or being
different from Brahman.
➢ Knowledge helps individual to reach absolute reality to liberate from the cycle of transmigration
and worldly bondage, described in three words by Vedanta as: “sat-chit-ananda”, i.e. Truth,
consciousness and Bliss.
➢ According to it, Atman is the only ‘sat’ or absolute truth. A person attains bliss or happiness by gaining
consciousness or knowledge of absolute truth
➢ His Brahman was Nirguna in Nature
➢ His critics referred him “Hidden Buddhist”. This is because his treatment of the world as illusion struck
them as rather similar to ideas of Mahayana school.
➢ Idea of Mayavada.
➢ Founded Dashanami sect, supposed to set up few (4/5) monasteries known as Amanaya Mathas.
Madhya Pradesh CM unveils Adi Shankaracharya statue at Omkareshwar: Its story,
significance | Explained News - The Indian Express

78. Odhuvars:
➢ Context: Recently, Tamil Nadu government handed over appointment orders to 15
Odhuvars (among them five are women), who were assigned to Shaivite temples in
the Chennai region as they serve the deities by singing the hymns and praise.
➢ Odhuvars sing devotional hymns in Tamil Nadu’s Hindu temples but are not priests.
They are in the service of Lord Shiva by singing his praise from Thirumurai in
Saivite temples.
➢ They sing devotional hymns but do not enter the sanctum sanctorum.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ The tradition of Odhuvars can be traced back to ancient times, with its roots firmly
embedded in the Bhakti movement, which flourished between the 6th and 9th centuries
in Tamil Nadu.
➢ During this period, several saint-poets known as Alwars and Nayanars composed
devotional hymns in praise of Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva, respectively. The
Odhuvars emerged as custodians of this rich musical and devotional heritage.

79. Sengol in New Parliament:

➢ The Sengol is profound in meaning, derived from the Tamil word “Semmai”, it
means “Righteousness”. It was made of gold or silver and was often decorated with
precious stones.
➢ It is a symbol of transfer of power. The sceptre is five feet in length and has a Nandi,
Lord Shiva’s sacred bull, on the top, symbolising justice.
➢ It is associated with Chola dynasty and was handed over from one king to another as a
mark of succession or legitimacy

➢ The Sengol held a special place in the history of India’s independence. In 1947, it was
used in a ceremony to symbolise the transfer of power from the British to the first
Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru. The act signified the beginning of
self-governance and the transfer of power to the people of India.
➢ Link: Inspired by the Cholas, handed over to Nehru: historic ‘Sengol’ to be installed
in new Parliament building - The Hindu
IAS Exam Congress
 80. Ram Mandir Architecture:
➢ A new landmark of India - both structural
and spiritual - rises on Ayodhya's horizon as
a new-age architectural marvel of elegant
sandstones, diligently carved by
craftspeople with dedication and devotion
to Lord Ram.
➢ This is a 3-storey temple, built in the
traditional Nagara style.
➢ The idol of five-year-old Ram Lalla,
crafted by Mysuru sculptor Arun Yogiraj,
stands at 51 inches and was consecrated in a special ceremony.

Architectural Style. Constructed in the traditional Nagara style

Dimension The Ram Janmabhoomi Mandir has a length (east-west) of 380 feet, a width of 250 feet,
and a height of 161 feet.

Material used 1. The main temple structure features Bansi Paharpur Pink Sandstone sourced
from Rajasthan’s Bharatpur district.
2. Granite stones are utilised in the plinths, providing a durable and resilient foundation
for the temple.
3. White Makrana marble and coloured marble are intricately used for inlay work.
4.No iron has been used in the temple's construction, designed to endure for at
least a millennium.

Boundary walls A 732-metre-long surrounding wall, influenced by Dravida style temples gives a hybrid
characteristic.

Mandapas There are 5 mandapas Nritya Mandap, Rang Mandap, Sabha Mandap, Prathana
Mandap and Kirtan Mandap

Unique approach The construction of the Ram Mandir in Ayodhya takes a unique approach by avoiding
the use of steel or iron. Instead, the project uses traditional construction methods by
giving due attention to the principle of sustainability.

Other structures At the four corners of the compound, there are four Mandirs – dedicated to Surya
Dev, Devi Bhagwati, Ganesh Bhagwan and Bhagwan Shiv. In the northern arm is a
Mandir of Maa Annapurna and in the southern arm is Mandir of Hanuman ji.

Shaligram Stone:
Shaligram Stones were gifted by Nepal to India but they were not used for Ram lalla Idol
The stone is a fossilised ammonite, a type of mollusc that lived millions of years ago. It is found in rivers
of the Himalayas, which are considered sacred in Hindu mythology,have been bought from the Kali Gandaki
waterfall in Nepal .

IAS Exam Congress

Ram Lala Idol:
➢ Arun Yogiraj, a renowned sculptor from Mysore district, Karnataka, played a vital role in crafting the 200 kg
idol of Ram Lalla
➢ The intricately carved masterpiece, made from Krishna Shila stone, portrays the deity as a five-year-old
boy with a gentle smile, holding significant importance to all.
➢ Due to its chemical composition, Krishnashila stone is resistant to acid, heat, and harsh weather
conditions. During Abishekam with milk, the stone remains unreactive, allowing devotees to consume it
as Prashad without affecting gut health. Initially soft and malleable when quarried, Krishnashila
later hardens significantly. Remarkably durable, this stone can endure over 1000 years without a scratch.
➢ Geographically, the supreme-quality Krishnashila is found only in specific locations worldwide, such as
HD Kote near Mysore and Karkala in Uttar Kannada district. This rarity establishes Mysore as a central
hub for the sculpting world. The stone earns its name, Krishnashila, due to its distinctive black colour.

Nagara architecture, 392 pillars, 5 mandaps: The key features of Ram Mandir

81. Ramayana outside India:

➢ The Ramayana travelled from India to the rest of Asia in “the early centuries of the
Christian era” along three routes:
➢ By land, the northern route took the story from the Punjab and Kashmir into China, Tibet,
and East Turkestan
➢ By sea, the southern route carried the story from Gujarat and South India into Java, Sumatra,
and Malaya; and again
➢ By land, the eastern route delivered the story from Bengal into Burma, Thailand, and Laos.
Vietnam and Cambodia obtained their stories partly from Java and partly from India via the
eastern route
➢ Mainly for trade, in spices, gold, and aromatic wood. Many stayed back there, either
because they married local women or got jobs.
➢ They were also accompanied by Brahmin priests, Buddhist monks, scholars and
adventurers and all of them played an important role in the transmission of Indian culture
to the natives of Southeast Asia.
➢ In Thailand, the Ayutthaya kingdom (1351 to 767) is believed to have been based on
the Ayodhya of the Ramayana. A UNESCO article on the the city of Ayutthaya says,
“When the capital of the restored kingdom was moved downstream and a new city built at
Bangkok, there was a conscious attempt to recreate the urban template and
architectural form of Ayutthaya…to emulate the perfection of the mythical city of
Ayodhaya.”
➢ In Cambodia, the Angkor Wat temple complex, built in the 12th century, features
murals from the Ramayana, and was originally a temple dedicated to Vishnu.
➢ The Ramakien, a version of the Ramayana, is Thailand’s national epic. In Laos too,
the story of Phra Ram is the national epic.
➢ A major current that took the Ramayana to Africa, the Caribbean, etc. was the
girmitiya migration outside India in the 19th century. Indians as indentured labourers
to countries like Fiji, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, etc. The word
‘girmitiya’ comes from ‘agreement’, which these people signed (or were made to
sign) to work in the plantations.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ The word ‘girmitiya’ is etymologically derived from ‘girmit’, meaning ‘agreement’.
Indians then pronounced ‘agreement’ as ‘girmit’, so indentured labourers who were
transported to work in places like Fiji and Mauritius, became known as ‘girmitiyas’.
However, the agreements weren’t all that fair.
➢ Though girmitiyas were not technically slaves in the eyes of the law, they were
subjected to a practice known as “blackbirding”, which involved deceiving or
tricking people to work as slaves or poorly paid labourers in countries far away from
their native land.
➢ Today, in many of these countries, the folk theatre of Ramleela is still popular. In
2017, on Ram Navmi, India gave Mauritian Rupee 8,376,000 to expand and renovate the
Ramayana Centre complex in Mauritius. In Fiji, the Ramayana has been translated into the
indigenous iTaukei language.
➢ How Ramayana became popular outside India, from east Asia to the Caribbean

82. Kamba Ramayana:

➢ The Ramavataram, popularly referred to as Kamba Ramayanam, is a Tamil epic that
was written by the Tamil poet Kambar during the 12th century. Based on Valmiki's
Ramayana, the story describes the legend of King Rama of Ayodhya.
➢ Kamban, born in the ninth century, was attracted by the Rama cult, but he faced a
dilemma. Kamban had a critical question before him. Should he show Rama as man
following in the footsteps of the original story of Valmiki or portray him as God
because of the fact that Rama was worshipped in temples by then. Kamban, being a
born poet and a creative artiste, adopted a mid-way – an amicable solution for both
sects — those who considered Ramayana as legend and those who worshipped Rama.
That is where Kamban emerged as an emperor of poets (Kavi Chakravarti). In his
Tamil epic Ramaavatar, Rama was born as a man and became a God by his exemplary
qualities.
➢ For Kamban, Rama was an incarnation and Avatar, because he wrote his epic only
after the concept of incarnation had been well-established. That is why he named his
epic Ramaavatara but embellished the protagonist with many human qualities. He showed
how a human being could elevate his stature to Godhood.
➢ Rama does not reveal himself as an Avatar anywhere in the epic. Right from Devas
such as Brahma and Indira, Gandharvas including Viradha and Kavandha, sages
Sarabangan and Sabari, Garuda — all praise Rama as an incarnation in front of Him
but Rama neither responds nor reacts. He stands still listening as a witness
(Sakshibootham).
➢ Kamban — the first to glorify Rama Nama - The Hindu

83. Ayya Vaikundar:

➢ Ayya Vaikundar, born in 1809, is revered as a social reformer and the founder of the
Ayyavazhi sect, primarily in southern Tamil Nadu. His teachings focused on equality,
fraternity, and the eradication of caste-based discrimination, challenging the
established religious and social hierarchies of the time.
➢ When lower castes were not allowed to fetch water from wells used by upper caste Hindus,
Vaikundar initiated the digging of common wells, called Muthirikinarus.

IAS Exam Congress

 ➢ At a time when priests threw vibhuti and sandal paste at devotees from a distance to
avoid touching them — a practice that still exists — and lower castes were not allowed to
enter temples at all, Vaikundar introduced Thottu Namam, in which he inspired
priests to apply the sacred paste on devotees’ forehead, irrespective of their caste.
➢ Vaikundar also encouraged all devotees to wear turbans and dhotis, promoting equality. He
initiated the Thuvayal Panthy programme, teaching vegetarianism and discipline to
followers, who spread these teachings across Tamil Nadu. He established Nizhal
Thangals as community worship spaces, which did not have any idol or deity, and
only Tamil was used for worship. These community worship centres also had community
kitchens and even basic schools.
➢ Who was Ayya Vaikundar, and why TN Governor calling him ‘Sanatan Dharma saviour’
sparked a row | Explained News - The Indian Express

84. India,Bharat Controversy:

➢ Context: Recently, the current government
under Prime Minister Narendra Modi has used
the term "President of Bharat" instead of
"President of India" on an invitation card
for the recent G-20 Summit.
➢ On India Historian Herodotus has plenty to
say, use of the word ‘Indians’ (‘Indon’ in
Greek) on page 187 is the first reference to
us by that name in a text, many centuries
before we called our land India.
➢ The roots of “Bharat”, “Bharata”, or
“Bharatvarsha” are traced back to Puranic
literature, and to the epic Mahabharata.
The Puranas describe Bharata as the land between the “sea in the south and the abode of
snow in the north”.
➢ The name Hindustan is thought to have derived from ‘Hindu’, the Persian cognate
form of the Sanskrit ‘Sindhu’ (Indus), which came into currency with the
Achaemenid Persian conquest of the Indus valley (northwestern parts of the
subcontinent) that begin in the 6th century BC
➢ By the time of the early Mughals (16th century), the name ‘Hindustan’ was used to describe
the entire Indo-Gangetic plains.
➢ From the late 18th century onwards, British maps increasingly began to use the name
‘India’, and ‘Hindustan’ started to lose its association with all of South Asia
➢ In his monumental ‘Discovery of India’, Nehru referred to “India”, “Bharata” and
“Hindustan”: “Often, as I wandered from meeting to meeting, I spoke to my audiences of
this India of ours, of Hindustan and of Bharata, the old Sanskrit name derived from the
mythical founders of the race.”
➢ During the Constituent Assembly debates the “Name and territory of the Union” was taken
up for discussion on September 17, 1949. Right from the time the first article was read out
as “India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States”, a division arose among the members.
➢ Article 1(1): Article 1(1) of the Constitution defines the name and character of the
country. In the English version, it states "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of
IAS Exam Congress
 States," emphasising "India" as the primary name. In the Hindi version, it reads "Bharat
artharth India, rajyon ka sangh hoga," with "Bharat" given prominence.
➢ India, that is Bharat: A short history of the nation's names, from the Rig Veda to the
Constitution of India

85. Kalingattuparani:
➢ Kalingattuparani is a 12th-century Tamil poem and a war song by Jayamkondar,
celebrating the victory of Kulottunga Chola I over the Kalinga king, Anantavarman
Chodaganga in the Chola-Kalinga war.
➢ Parani is a type of literature that is written on a king (or a general) who kills a thousand
elephants in a war. It is customary to name the poem on the one who was defeated.
➢ Chola war poem Kalingathu Parani celebrates the dynasty’s exploits against the Kalinga
kingdom - The Hindu

This document is prepared by @littichokaa and @Archerog for IASEC

Best Wishes.! :)

IAS Exam Congress