INDEX

Exp Exp Date of

Name of the experiment Mark Sign
No Date submission
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

Torque – Current Speed – Current Performance Characteristic

Experiment No: Date:

LOAD TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR

AIM:

To conduct the load test on a given DC shunt motor and to draw its performance characteristic curves.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Ammeter (0 - 20)A MC 1

2 Voltmeter (0 - 300)V MC 1

3 Rheostat 400 , 1.1A - 1

5 Connecting Wires - - few

THEORY:

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The working
principle of a DC motor is: "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left-hand rule and its
magnitude is given by F = BIL. Where,

B = magnetic flux density

I = current
L = length of the conductor
.
Armature conductors under N-pole are assumed to carry current downwards and those under S-poles,
to carry current upwards. It will be seen that each conductor experiences a force F which tends to rotate the
armature in anticlockwise direction. These forces collectively produce a driving torque which sets the
armature rotating. As soon as armature rotates, the conductors also cuts the magnetic flux lines and hence
according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an EMF is induced in the armature conductors.

The direction of this induced EMF as found by Fleming’s Right-hand Rule, is outwards i.e., in direct
opposition to the applied voltage. This induced EMF is called back EMF. The applied voltage has to force
current through the armature against this back EMF. This electric work done in overcoming this opposition
is converted into mechanical energy.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Spring Balance
Input Input Output Input
Speed Readings Torque Efficiency
Voltage Current Power Power
Sl.No N T
VL IL
(RPM) S1 S2 S1 ~ S2 (NM)
POUT PIN %η
(V) (A) (W) (W)
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg)

MODEL CALCULATION:
FORMULA USED:

i. Torque (T) = 9.81× (S1 ~ S2) × RN-M.

S1, S2  Spring balance readings in Kg
R  Radius of brake drum in meter
9.81  Constant to convert Kg to Newton
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
ii. Output Power (POUT) = Watts
60
N  Speed of the motor in RPM
iii. Input Power (PIN) = VL × IL Watts
𝑃𝑂𝑈𝑇
iv. % Efficiency = ( ) × 100
𝑃𝐼𝑁

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The DPST switch must be kept at open position.

2. Make sure that the starter handle is in OFF position.
3. The motor field rheostat should be kept at minimum resistance position at the time of starting.
4. At the time of starting, there should not be any load connected to motor.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The DPST switch is closed and the starter handle is slowly moved from OFF to ON position.
3. The machine is brought up to rated speed by adjusting the field rheostat after which its position
is not changed.
4. The no load speed, no load current and no-load voltage of the motor are noted.
5. The motor is gradually loaded by tightening the belt on the brake drum.
6. The motor is loaded in steps such that in each step, the load current is increased by 1 Amps.
7. In each step, all the meter readings and belt tensions are noted. Also, speed is measured using
tachometer.
8. The motor is loaded up to 80% of full load current.
9. After completion of the experiment, the load on the motor is released by loosening the belt on
the brake drum.
10. The motor is stopped by opening the DPST switch.

RESULT:

Thus, the load test on DC shunt motor has been conducted and the performance characteristic curves
were drawn.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

Load Characteristics
Experiment No: Date:

LOAD TEST ON DC SHUNT GENERATOR

AIM:

To conduct the load test on a given self-excited DC shunt generator and to draw its load characteristic
curves.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

(0 - 20)A
1 Ammeter MC 1 each
(0 - 2)A
2 Voltmeter (0 - 300)V MC 1
500 , 1.1A
3 Rheostat - 1 each
1000 , 0.8A
5 Connecting Wires - - few

THEORY:

An electric generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
working principle of a DC generator is: "whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field or a
moving conductor is placed in a magnetic field, an emf is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current
is induced which is called induced current". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's right-hand rule.
.
Imagine the coil to be rotating in clock-wise direction. As the coil assumes successive positions in
the field, the flux linked with it changes. When the coil is at right angles to lines of flux, then flux linked
with the coil is maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum. Hence, there is no induced e.m.f.
in the coil. As the coil continues rotating further, the emf increases, till θ = 90º. Here, the coil plane is
horizontal i.e. parallel to the lines of flux. As seen, the rate of change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence,
maximum e.m.f. is induced in the coil. In the next quarter revolution i.e. from 90º to 180º, the flux linked
with the coil gradually increases but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Hence, the induced e.m.f.
decreases gradually and reduced to zero value.
In the next half revolution i.e. from 180º to 360º, the variations in the e.m.f. are similar to those in the first
half revolution. But it will be found that the direction of the induced current is reversed. Therefore, we find
that the current reverses its direction after every half revolution and is known as alternating current. For
making the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the split-rings (commutator) are used. It is
only due to the rectifying action of the split-rings that it becomes unidirectional in the external circuit.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Armatu Generated
Termial Load Field
re EMF
Voltage Current Current
Sl.No Current Voltage
Vt IL IF
IA Eg
(V) (A) (A)
(A) (V)

MODEL CALCULATION:
FORMULA USED:

i. Armature Current Ia = IL + IF
ii. Generated EMF Eg = Vt + IaRa Volts.
Eg  Generated EMF in volts
Ia  Armature current in amps
Ra  Armature resistance in ohms
Vt  Terminal voltage in volts

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The DPST switch must be kept at open position.

2. Make sure that the starter handle is in OFF position.
3. The motor field rheostat should be kept at minimum resistance position at the time of starting.
4. The generator field rheostat should be kept at maximum resistance position at the time of
starting.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Precautions are checked before starting the experiment.
3. The DPST switch 1 is closed and the starter handle is slowly moved from OFF to ON position.
4. The machine is brought up to rated speed by adjusting the field rheostat of the motor, after which
its position is not changed.
5. By varying the generator field rheostat gradually, the rated voltage [Eg] is obtained.
6. The ammeter and voltmeter readings are observed at no load condition.
7. The ammeter and voltmeter readings are observed for different loads up to the rated current by
closing the DPST switch 2.
8. After tabulating all the readings, the load is brought to its initial position and the DPST switch 2
is opened.
9. The motor is switched off by using DPST switch 1 after bringing all the rheostats to initial
position.

RESULT:

Thus, the load test on self-excited DC shunt generator has been conducted and the corresponding
characteristic curve was drawn.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

Performance Characteristic
Experiment No: Date:

LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

AIM:

To conduct the load test on a given single phase transformer and to draw its performance
characteristic curves.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

(0 - 10)A
1 Ammeter MI 1 each
(0 - 5)A
(0 - 300)V
2 Voltmeter MI 1 each
(0 - 150)V
300 V, 10A
3 Wattmeter UPF 1 each
150 V, 10A
4 Auto Transformer (0 - 300)V - 1

5 Connecting Wires - - few

6 Load 5 KW

THEORY:

A transformer is one of the most common devices found in electrical system that links the circuits
which are operating at different voltages. These are commonly used in applications where there is a need of
AC voltage conversion from one voltage level to another.
.
It is a static electrical machine which transforms AC electrical power from one circuit to another
circuit, without changing the frequency. Transformer can increase or decrease the voltage with
corresponding decrease or increase in current.
When a transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the
primary, it is called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary
winding with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
The operation of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction between two coils or
winding which are linked by a common magnetic flux.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Primary Primary Input Secondary Secondary Output

Regulation Power
Voltage Current Power Voltage Current Power Efficiency
Sl.No % Reg Factor
V1 I1 Win V2 I2 Wout %η
Cos Φ
(V) (A) (W) (V) (A) (W)

MODEL CALCULATION:
FORMULA USED:

i. Load current (A) = (KVA × 1000) / Secondary voltage A.

𝑃
ii. % Efficiency (η)= ( 𝑃𝑂𝑈𝑇 ) × 100
𝐼𝑁
iii. % Regulation = (E2 – V2) / V2
Where
E2 → Voltage under no load condition in volts
V2 → Voltage under full load condition in volts
iv. Power Factor (cosΦ) = W2 / (V2 × I2)
Where
W2 →Secondary output power
V2 → Secondary voltage
I2 → Secondary current

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the switches are kept open initially.

2. Before giving supply, the auto transformer knob is kept at zero voltage.
3. Initially no load should be connected on the secondary side of the transformer.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. A 230 V single phase AC supply is given to the primary side of the transformer using auto
transformer.
3. By adjusting the auto transformer knob, set the rated voltage in the primary voltmeter and note
down the no load readings.
4. Load is gradually increased in steps and corresponding meter readings are noted.
5. The above procedure is repeated up to rated secondary current.
6. After the experiment is completed, the load is decreased to its minimum, the auto transformer is
brought back to its original position and then the main supply is switched OFF.

RESULT:

Thus, the load test on a given single phase transformer has been conducted and the performance
characteristic curves were drawn.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

Performance Characteristic
Experiment No: Date:

LOAD TEST ON SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

AIM:

To conduct the load test on a single-phase induction motor and to draw its performance characteristic
curves.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Ammeter (0 - 10)A MI 1

2 Voltmeter (0 - 300)V MI 1

3 Wattmeter 300 V, 10A UPF 1

4 Tachometer - - 1

5 Connecting Wires - - few

THEORY:

Induction motor is one of the most important machines, which is used in industrial and domestic
applications. These induction motors are classified into different types namely squirrel cage induction motor
and slip ring induction motor. Where the first one is most preferable because of its rugged construction and
its performance characteristics.
This motor has normal starting torque and adjustable speed so that speed control can be achieved
easily. It’s starting torque increases with increase in the value of rotor resistance. However maximum torque
remains constant and it is independent of the rotor resistance. But slip varies at above said condition.
Normally DOL, star-delta and autotransformer starter are used to start the motor. This motor may sometime
show a tendency to run at very low speed usually one seventh of its normal speed. This is because of presence
of the harmonics in the sinusoidal flux wave produced by the stator mmf it is called by the name of crawling.
This motor may exhibit a peculiar behavior in starting for certain relationship between the numbers
of stator slots equal to an integral multiple of rotor slots. The variations of reluctance as a function of space
will be introduced. This in turn creates as aligning torque stronger than the accelerating torque with
consequent failure of motor start. This phenomenon is known as cogging.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Spring Balance
Input Input Input Output
Speed Readings Torque Power
Voltage Current Power Power Efficiency Slip
N T Factor
VL IL S1 ~ PIN POUT %η %S
(RPM) S1 S2 (NM) cosφ
(V) (A) S2 (W) (W)
(Kg) (Kg)
(Kg)

MODEL CALCULATION:
FORMULA USED:

i. Torque (T) = 9.81× (S1 ~ S2) × R

N-M.
S1, S2  Spring balance readings in Kg
R  Radius of brake drum in meter
9.81  Constant to convert Kg to Newton
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
ii. Output Power (POUT) = Watts
60
N  Speed of the motor in RPM
iii. Input Power (PIN) = Actual reading of wattmeter * Multiplication factor Watts
𝑃𝑂𝑈𝑇
iv. % Efficiency = ( )× 100
𝑃𝐼𝑁
PIN
v. Power factor =
VL ×IL
𝑁𝑆 −𝑁
vi. % Slip = ( )×100
𝑁𝑆

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the switches are kept open initially.

2. At the time of starting, there should not be any load connected to motor.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The DPST switch is closed and the motor is started by using star – delta starter.
3. The no load speed, no load current, no load voltage and wattmeter of the motor are noted.
4. The motor is gradually loaded by tightening the belt on the brake drum.
5. The motor is loaded in steps such that in each step, the load current is increased by 1 Amps.
6. In each step, all the meter readings and belt tensions are noted. Also, speed is measured using
tachometer.
7. The motor is loaded up to 80% of full load current.
8. Load is then completely removed before the supply is switched OFF.

RESULT:

Thus, the load test on a given single phase induction motor has been conducted and the performance
characteristic curves were drawn.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
Experiment No: Date:

VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW

AIM:
To verify ohm’s law for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V - 1

2 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1

3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MC 1

4 Resistors 1KΩ - 1
Required
5 Connecting wires - -
number
6 Bread Board - - 1

THEORY:

OHM’S LAW:

The potential difference across any two ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing between the two ends provided the temperature of the conductor remains constant.

V∞I
⸫ V = RI

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Initially keep the RPS output voltage knob in zero-volt position.
2. Set the ammeter pointer at zero position
TABULAR COLUMN:

Voltage Current
S.No
(V) (mA)
PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram. All connections must be neat and tight.
2. Vary the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say 30V) in steps, and note down the
current and voltage through the load for each step (voltmeter & ammeter reading).
3. Take at least six sets of readings by adjusting the regulated power supply gradually.
4. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
5. Plot a graph with V along x-axis and I along y-axis.
6. The graph will be a straight line which verifies Ohm's law.

RESULT:

Thus, the ohm’s law has been verified for the given circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

KCL

KVL
Experiment No: Date:

Verification of Kirchoff’s Law

AIM:
To verify Kirchoff’s current law and Kirchoff’s voltage law theoretically and practically for the given
circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Regulated Power Supply (0-30)V - 2

2 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 3

3 Voltmeter (0-20)V MC 3

4 Resistors 470Ω,330Ω,1KΩ - 1 each

5 Connecting wires - - -

6 Bread Board - - 1

THEORY:

KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW(KVL):

It states that the algebraic sum of voltages in any closed path of network that is traversed in a single
direction is zero.

Σ IR + Σ EMF = 0

KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW(KVL):

It states that the algebraic sum of currents meeting at any node of a circuit is equal to zero.

Σi=0
TABULAR COLUMN:

Theoretical Values Practical Values

Resistor Resistor Resistor Resistor Resistor Resistor

330 Ω 470 Ω 1K Ω 330 Ω 470 Ω 1K Ω

Current (mA)

Voltage (V)

THEORETICAL CALCULATION:
PROCEDURE:

1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power supply and set the required input voltages in RPS.
3. Note the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4. Reduce the input voltage to zero. Then switch off the supply.
5. Remove the connections.
6. Compare the theoretical and practical values.

RESULT:

Thus, the Kirchhoff’s Current law and Voltage law has been studied and the theoretical values
were compared with the practical values.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
Experiment No: Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

AIM:
To study and plot the VI characteristics of PN Junction Diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Diode - 1N4007 1

2 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1

3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MC 1

4 Bread Board - - 1

5 Resistor 1KΩ - 1

6 R.P.S (0-30)V 1

THEORY:

A PN junction diode is formed by a layer of P type and layer of N type Semiconductors. Once formed
the free electrons in the N region diffuse across the junction and combine with holes in P region and so a
depletion Layer is developed. The depletion layer consists of ions, which acts like a barrier for diffusion of
charged beyond a certain limit. The difference of potential across the depletion layer is called the barrier
potential. At 2.5degree the barrier potential approximately equal 0.7v for silicon diode and 0.3v for
germanium diode.

Under no voltage or unbiased condition, the p-n junction diode does not allow the electric current.
Hence to make the diode conduct, an external voltage is applied. The process of applying the external voltage
to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called biasing. External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied
in any of the two methods: forward biasing or reverse biasing

When the junction is forward bias, the majority carrier acquired sufficient energy to overcome the
barrier and the diode conducts. When the junction is reverse biased the depletion layer widens and the barrier
potential increases. Hence the Majority carrier cannot cross the junction and the diode does not conduct. But
there will be a leakage current due to minority carrier.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl.No VAK IA Sl.No VAK IA

(V) (mA) (V) (mA)
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.
3. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the Diode for
each and every step of the input voltage.
4. Tabulate the readings of voltage and current.
5. Plot the graph VAK Vs IA in a graph sheet.

RESULT:

Thus, the VI characteristic of PN Junction Diode has been studied.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
Experiment No: Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:

To study and plot the VI characteristics of Zener Diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 Zener Diode - 1N4742A 1

2 Ammeter (0-100)mA MC 1

3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MC 1

4 Bread Board - - 1

5 Resistor 1KΩ - 1

6 R.P.S (0-30)V 1

THEORY:

A zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device designed to operate in the reverse breakdown
region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is carefully set by controlling the doping level during
manufacture. A Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it has very thin
depletion region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more electric current than the normal p-n junction diodes.
Zener diode is designed to operate in reverse bias and not in forward bias

In the reverse direction, the operation of a Zener diode is quite different to an ordinary diode. For
low voltages the diodes do not conduct as would be expected. However, If the external reverse voltage is
increased the positive terminal will attract the electrons present in the n region and negative terminal will
attract the holes present in p region. But the depletion region can’t penetrate into the semiconductor because
of its strong electric field due to heavily doped semiconductor.

If the reverse biased voltage applied is further increased, the strong electric field break down the
covalent bond and release large number of electrons – hole pair. However, once a certain voltage is reached
the diode "breaks down" and current flows. Here the voltage is almost constant regardless of the current
carried. This means that a Zener diode provides a stable and known reference voltage. Hence, they are used
as Voltage regulators.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl.No VAK IA Sl.No VAK IA

(V) (mA) (V) (mA)
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.
3. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the Diode for
each and every step of the input voltage.
4. Tabulate the readings of voltage and current.
5. Plot the graph VAK Vs IA in a graph sheet.

RESULT:

Thus, the VI characteristic of Zener Diode has been studied.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
Experiment No: Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

AIM:
To study and plot the VI characteristics of SCR.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 PEC16M1A Kit- 1

2 Ammeter (0-250)mA MC 2

3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MC 1

4 Patch chords

THEORY:

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is a four-layer three junction p-n-p-n semiconductor device
consisting of three p-n junctions. It has three basic terminals, namely the anode, cathode and the gate. It
functions as an electrical switch for high power operations.

When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased
and junction J2 is reverse-biased. The SCR is then said to be in the forward blocking state or in the forward
mode or off state. During this mode only a leakage current will flow through the device.

When the SCR is in forward mode, it does not conduct unless the forward voltage exceeds certain
value, called the forward break over voltage. If a positive gate current is supplied, the SCR can become
conducting at a voltage much lesser than forward break-over voltage. The larger the gate current, lower the
break-over voltage. This mode is called forward conduction state and device acts as a closed switch.

When the cathode is made positive with respect to the anode, junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased,
and J2 is forward biased. The SCR is then said to be in the reverse blocking state or in reverse mode. During
this mode only a leakage current will flow through the device. But if the reverse voltage is increased beyond
a certain value, called the reverse break over voltage, avalanche break down takes place.
TABULAR COLUMN:

IG1 =

Sl.No
VAK IA
(V) (mA)
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Remove all connections before starting a new experiment.

2. All voltage control knob of RPS should be kept in minimum position
3. All SPST switches of the RPS should be in OFF position.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the 230V AC supply through two pin power chord.
3. Now vary the pot1 and set the gate current (IG) in the range of 4mA to 5mA.
4. Now slowly increase the anode-cathode voltage (VAK) by varying the pot 2 till the thyristor get
turned on, note down the ammeter (IA), Voltmeter (VAK) readings.
5. Now find out Breakover voltage(VBR) and latching current (IL).
6. Further increase the anode- cathode voltage (VAK) and note the anode current (IA).
7. Now reduces the anode-cathode voltage (VAK) till the thyristor turn off and measure the holding
current(IH).
8. For various gate current take the reading and tabulate in table.
9. Plot the graph VAK Vs IA in a graph sheet.

RESULT:

Thus, the VI characteristic of SCR has been studied.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

Experiment No: Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET
AIM:
To study and plot the VI characteristics of MOSFET.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 PEC16M1A Kit- 1

2 Ammeter (0-250)mA MC 1

3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MC 2

4 Patch chords

THEORY:

MOSFET is a voltage- c o n t r o l l e d device (i.e) applied gate voltage controls the

drain current. It is a unipolar device (i.e) the current flow is due to only majority charge carriers.
It is a three terminal (Gate, Drain and Source) four layer (n+, p, n-, n+) device.

Drain Characteristics can be obtained by considering drain current ID as a function of

Drain- source voltage VDS at constant Gate-Source voltage VGS. When VGS is below the threshold
voltage VGS(th), MOSFET operates in Cut – OFF region. Drain current ID remains in zero
irrespective of Drain-Source voltage VDS. Hence the device acts as a open switch in OFF mode.
When VGS is increased beyond VGS(th)and also for small value of VDS (VDS< VGS - VGS(th)), the
device acts as a resistor and follows ohms law. ID increases in proportional to VDS and hence
this mode is called ohmic mode. Here the device acts as a switch in conduction mode. For higher
values of VDS (VDS> VGS - VGS(th)), the ID – VDS characteristics deviates from the linear relationship.
For a given VGS, ID tends to saturate with increase in VDS. This is due to the fact that at higher
drain current, voltage drop across the channel tends to decrease the channel width at drift layer
end. As a result the drain current ID becomes independent of VDS and hence remains constant.
This mode is called active region.
.
Transfer characteristics show the variation of drain current as a function of gate to source
voltage VGS. When VGS = 0, there is no drain current ID because of the absence of channel. When
VGS is increased beyond VGS(th), a channel is formed between Drain – Source region. Therefore at
VG = VGS(th) the drain current shoots up linearly.
.
TABULAR COLUMN:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

VGS =
S.No
VDS (mV) ID(mA)

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

V DS =
S.No

VGS (mV) ID(mA)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Remove all connections before starting a new experiment.

2. All voltage control knob of RPS should be kept in minimum position
3. All SPST switches of the RPS should be in OFF position.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the 230V AC supply through two pin power chord.
To obtain Output Characteristics
3. Set a particular value of gate voltage VGS by increasing the POT 1.
4. Now, slowly increase the drain to source voltage by increasing the POT 2and note
down the voltmeter and corresponding ammeter readings. This gives V DS and ID.
5. Repeat the above steps for another set of VGS.
To obtain Transfer Characteristics
6. Adjust the POT 2 and set a particular value of VDS.
7. Vary the POT 1and note down the ammeter I D and voltmeter VGS readings.
8. Use the readings and plot the output and transfer characteristics.

RESULT:

Thus, the VI characteristic of MOSFET has been studied.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
Experiment No: Date:

MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:
To study half wave rectifier and measure its ripple factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Transformer 230 / 12 V 1

2 Resistor 1 KΩ 1

3 Bread Board - 1

4 Diode IN4007 1

5 CRO - 1

6 Connecting wires - few

FORMULA USED:
𝑉𝑚
Average Voltage Vdc = V.
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
RMS Voltage Vrms = V.
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Ripple Factor γ = √ ( 𝑉 )2 −1
𝑑𝑐
THEORY:

The process of converting alternating voltage and current to direct voltage and current is
called rectification. An electronic device that offers a low resistance to current in one direction and
a high resistance in the other direction is capable of converting a sinusoidal waveform into a
unidirectional waveform. Diodes have this characteristic, which makes it a useful component in
the design of rectifiers. Diodes are used in a rectifier circuit to convert AC into DC. When only
one half of the AC cycle is rectified, it is known as half-wave rectification.

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and conducts for all voltages
greater than the offset voltage of the semiconductor material used. The voltage produced across
the load resistor has same shape as that of the positive input half cycle of alternating input voltage.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse bias and it does not conduct. So there is no
output voltage across the load resistor.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Input Output

Amplitude (V)

Time period (mS)

MODEL CALCULATION:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Apply AC input using transformer.
3. Measure the amplitude and time period for the input and output waveforms.
4. Plot the input and output waveforms in the graph.
5. Calculate the ripple factor using the formula given.

RESULT:

Thus, the half wave rectifier was studied and the ripple factor is given as,

Ripple Factor γ = .
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
Experiment No: Date:

MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM:
To study full wave rectifier and measure its ripple factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Range Quantity

1 Transformer 230 / 12 V 1

2 Resistor 1 KΩ 1

3 Bread Board - 1

4 Diode IN4007 1

5 CRO - 1

6 Connecting wires - few

FORMULA USED:
2𝑉𝑚
Average Voltage Vdc = V
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
RMS Voltage Vrms = V
√2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
Ripple Factor γ = √( 𝑉 ) −1
𝑑𝑐
THEORY:

The process of converting alternating voltage and current to direct voltage and current is
called rectification. An electronic device that offers a low resistance to current in one direction and
a high resistance in the other direction is capable of converting a sinusoidal waveform into a
unidirectional waveform. Diodes have this characteristic, which makes it a useful component in
the design of rectifiers. Diodes are used in a rectifier circuit to convert AC into DC. When both
the half cycle is rectified, it is known as full-wave rectification.

During the positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased, D2 is reverse biased and
hence D1 conducts. The voltage produced across the load resistor has same shape as that of the
positive input half cycle of alternating input voltage. During the negative half cycle, the diode D 1
is reverse biased, D2 is forward biased and hence D2 conducts. The net result is both the positive
half cycle and negative half cycle of the input voltage appears at the output.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Input Output

Amplitude (V)

Time period (mS)

MODEL CALCULATION:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Apply AC input using transformer.
3. Measure the amplitude and time period for the input and output waveforms.
4. Plot the input and output waveforms in the graph.
5. Calculate the ripple factor using the formula given.

RESULT:

Thus, the full wave rectifier was studied and the ripple factor is given as,

Ripple Factor γ = .
MODEL GRAPH:
Experiment No: Date:

MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING DSO

AIM:
To measure the maximum value, RMS value, period and frequency of the given AC signal.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Quantity

1 Function Generator 1

2 DSO 1

3 Probe 2

FORMULA USED:
𝑉𝑀𝐴𝑋
i. R.M.S Voltage VRMS = V.
√2
1
ii. Frequency f = 𝑇 Hz.
THEORY:

Time Period (T):

The time taken by an alternating voltage to complete one cycle is called its time period.

Frequency (f):

The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency of the alternating
voltage. Its unit is Hertz.

Peak Voltage (VP):

The maximum value, positive or negative of the alternating quantity is known as its peak
voltage. It is also called maximum value or amplitude of the alternating quantity.
.
Peak to Peak Voltage (VPP):

The total voltage measured from negative peak to positive peak is called the Peak to Peak
voltage.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Root Mean
Maximum Voltage Time Period Frequency
Square Voltage
Sl.No VMAX T f
VRMS
(V) (ms) (Hz)
(V)

MODEL CALCULATION:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Turn on the power supply switch on both function generator and DSO.
3. Select the sine function button in the function generator.
4. Set the changeover switch to Vpp mode and set the required voltage by adjusting the
level fine knob.
5. After setting the voltage reset the changeover switch to frequency mode and set the
required frequency by adjusting the frequency knob.
6. Observe the output waveform from the DSO and measure the time period and peak
voltage.
7. Measure the number of divisions for a single cycle on the time axis and multiply it by
the value indicated by the Times/Div knob on the DSO. This gives the time period of
the alternating voltage.
8. Measure the number of divisions on the voltage axis and multiply it by the value
indicated by the Volts/Div knob on the DSO. This gives the peak voltage.
9. From the measured readings calculate RMS voltage and frequency by using the given
formulas.
10. Repeat the experiment for various amplitude and frequency.

RESULT:

Thus, the maximum value, RMS value, time period and frequency of the given AC signal
were measured.
AND GATE

OR GATE

NOT GATE
Experiment No: Date:

STUDY AND VERIFICATION OF LOGIC GATES

AIM:
To study and verify the truth tables of AND, OR, NOT and EX-OR gate.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Quantity

1 IC 7408 1

2 IC 7432 1

3 IC 7404 1

4 IC 7486 1

5 Trainer Kit 1

6 Connecting Wires few

THEORY:

Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output signal
in order to perform a particular logical function. Gates are digital circuits because the input and
output signals are either low or high voltages. Gates are often called logic circuits because they
can be analyzed using Boolean algebra.

AND gate:

An AND gate is the physical realization of logical multiplication operation. It is an

electronic circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ only if all the input signals are ‘1’.

OR gate:

An OR gate is the physical realization of the logical addition operation. It is an electronic

circuit which generates an output signal of ‘1’ if any of the input signals is ‘1’.

NOT gate:

A NOT gate is the physical realization of the complementation operation. It is an electronic

circuit which generates an output signal which is the reverse of the input signal. A NOT gate is
also known as an inverter because it inverts the input.
EX-OR GATE
EX-OR gate:

An Ex-OR gate performs the following Boolean function, A B = ( A . B’ ) + ( A’ . B ). It is similar to

OR gate but excludes the combination of both A and B being equal to one. The exclusive OR is a function that
give an output signal ‘0’ when the two input signals are equal either ‘0’ or ‘1’.

PROCEDURE:

1. Place the logic gate IC horizontally on the bread board in such a manner short circuit
does not occur.
2. Connect +5V and Ground terminals to the corresponding +VCC and Ground pins of
gate IC.
3. Connect the level output terminals to the corresponding input pins of gate IC.
4. Finally connect the output pin of the IC to the level monitor terminal of digital trainer
kit.
5. Switch ON the supply of trainer kit and verify the truth table.
6. Repeat the experiment for various logic gate IC’s.

RESULT:

Thus, the logic gates IC’s has been studied and its corresponding truth table were verified.