Basic Electronics Lecture 4

CSCS 105
Basic Electronics
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 are in series as shown in the figure
below. Since the same current i flows in both of them.
Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,
we obtain
If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the

clockwise direction)
Combining both equations, we obtain:

OR
v = i(R1 + R2)
Two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req:
Req = R1 + R2
So,
v = iReq
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in
series is the sum of the individual resistances
For N resistors in series then,

As:
The voltage across each resistor
Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct
proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the
voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division,
Req = R1 + R2
Parallel Resistors and Current Division
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel as shown in
the figure below. Therefore, have the same voltage v across them.
From Ohm’s law,
OR
Applying KCL at node a gives the total

current i as:
Combining both equations:

Two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req:
OR
So,
Resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by their sum.
For N resistors in parallel then,

As:
And
The total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse

proportion to their resistances. This is known as the principle
of current division, also known as a current divider.
Example
• Find Req for the circuit shown:
Circuit analysis
Circuit analysis
• Nodal analysis: It is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s
current law(KCL).
• Nodal Analysis without Voltage Sources
• Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• Mesh analysis: It is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s

voltage law (KVL).
Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
• In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages.
Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal
analysis of the circuit involves taking the following three steps
Nodal Analysis
The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed

to have zero potential.
A reference node is indicated by any of the three symbols
Common ground Ground Chassis Ground

Step1: Select a reference Node and Assign voltages to
remaining nodes
Node 0 is the reference node
(v=0) while nodes 1 and 2 are
assigned voltages v1 and v2,
respectively.
Step2
Apply KCL to each nonreference node in the circuit.
At Node 1:
At Node 2:
Step 2:
Apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i1, i2 and i3 in terms
of node voltages.
According to the passive sign convention:
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor
• We can express this principle as:
Nodal Analysis
• From step 1, we know:
• From step 2, we know:
• Substituting these equations:
or
Step3
The third step in nodal analysis is to solve for the node voltages.
If apply KCL to n-1 nonreference nodes, we obtain n-1

simultaneous equations.
To obtain node voltages using any standard method:

• Substitution method
• Elimination method
• Cramer’s rule
• Matrix inversion
To use either of the last two methods, one must cast the
simultaneous equations in matrix form.
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit
shown below
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives:
Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we

obtain:
At node 2, we do the same thing and get:
Multiplying each term by 12 results in:

Nodal Analysis
Using the elimination technique, we add both equations:
Substituting in
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• Case 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node
and a nonreference node, we simply set the voltage at the
nonreference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source.
• Case 2: If the voltage source is connected between two nonreference

nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or
supernode, we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node
voltages.
Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source connected
between two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in
parallel with it.
nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode

• We analyze a circuit with supernodes using the same three steps
mentioned in the previous section except that the supernodes are
treated differently.
• An essential component of nodal analysis is applying KCL, which

requires knowing the current through each element. There is no way
of knowing the current through a voltage source in advance.
However, KCL must be satisfied at a supernode like any other node.
At the supernode:
Or
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the supernode.
From:
we can obtain the node voltages.

Properties of Supernode
Note the following properties of a supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint
equation needed to solve for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
Example
For the circuit shown, find the node voltages.
Applying KCL to the supernode
To get the relationship between and we
apply KVL to the circuit
AS
we write

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CSCS 105

If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the

Combining both equations, we obtain:

For N resistors in series then,

The voltage across each resistor

Applying KCL at node a gives the total

Combining both equations:

Two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req:

For N resistors in parallel then,

The total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse

• Mesh analysis: It is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s

The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed

A reference node is indicated by any of the three symbols

Common ground Ground Chassis Ground

• From step 2, we know:

• Substituting these equations:

If apply KCL to n-1 nonreference nodes, we obtain n-1

To obtain node voltages using any standard method:

Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we

At node 2, we do the same thing and get:

Multiplying each term by 12 results in:

Using the elimination technique, we add both equations:

• Case 2: If the voltage source is connected between two nonreference

nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode

• An essential component of nodal analysis is applying KCL, which

we can obtain the node voltages.

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