KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

CSC111 LECTURE NOTE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

2019/2020 ACADEMIC SESSION

Copyright©2020 All rights reserved

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Contents

1 Evolution of Computers 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Historical Development of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 The Abacus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Napier’s Bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Pascal’s Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.4 Leibniz Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Arithmometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.6 Differential Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.7 Analytical Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.8 Tabulating Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.9 Electronic Digital Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Generations of Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 First Generation (1945-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 Fourth Generation (1971-1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.5 Fifth Generation (1984-1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.6 Sixth Generation (1990 and beyond) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.7 Emerging Generation (Quantum Computers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Classes of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 Analog Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.2 Digital Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3 Hybrid Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.4 Super Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.5 Mainframe Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.6 Mini Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.7 Workstations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.8 Micro Computers/Personal Computers (PCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Characteristics of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6 Components of a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Components of the Computer 16

2.1 Computer Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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2.1.2 Primary Storage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.1.3 Secondary Storage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.4 Input and Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Computer Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 System Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2 Middleware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3 Application Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 Applications of Computers 29
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Office Automation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 Document Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.2 Payroll System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.3 Office Support System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.4 Data Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.5 Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 Business Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.1 Transaction Processing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.2 Order Processing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.3 Inventory Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.4 Decision Support System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3.5 Electronic Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Banking and Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.1 Automated Teller Machine (ATM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.2 Telephone Banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.3 Internet Banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.4 Bankers Automated Clearing Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.5 Accounting Information System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.5 Computational Science and Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.6.1 Computer Aided Learning (CAL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6.2 Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6.3 Electronic Learning (E-learning) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6.4 Distance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.6.5 Digital Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.6.6 Publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.7 Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.8 Expert Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.9 Geographic Information System (GIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.10 Healthcare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.10.1 Medical Equipment and Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.10.2 Electronic Medical Records (EMR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.10.3 Telemedicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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3.10.4 Pharmaceutical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.10.5 Computer Aided Drug Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.10.6 Clinical Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.10.7 Pharmacokinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.11 Defence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.11.1 Weapon Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.11.2 Surveillance and Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.11.3 Simulation and Wargaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4 Data Representation and Processing 42

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2.1 Representing Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2.2 Representing Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2.3 Representing Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.4 Representing Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3 Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3.1 Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.2 Data Processing Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.3 The Data Processing Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3.4 Data Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5 Computer Networks 49
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.1 Types of Computer Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.1.2 Network Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.1.3 Communication Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.1.4 Network Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1.5 Transmission Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.2.1 Internet Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.2 Internet Layered Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.3 Internet Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.4 Internet Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

6 Computer Ethics and Responsibility 67

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2 Software Piracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.3 Privacy of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.4 Use of Computers and the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.5 Green Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.6 Ethical Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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 Chapter
1
Evolution of Computers

This chapter presents the following:

• Historical development of computers

• Generations of computers

• Classifications of computers

• Characteristics of computers

• Components of computers

1.1 Introduction
Computers have revolutionized the world within a short period of decades and become indispensable in
every sphere of human life. In education, computers are used for tasks such as writing papers, searching
for articles, sending email, and participating in online classes. At work, people use computers to analyse
data, make presentations, conduct business transactions, communicate with customers and co-workers,
control machines in manufacturing facilities, and do many other things. At home, people use computers
for tasks such as paying bills, online shopping, communicating with friends and family and playing games.
Computers can do a wide variety of things because they can be programmed. This means that computers
are not designed to do just one job, but to do any job based on their programs.
A program is a set of instructions that a computer follows to perform a task. Programs are commonly
referred to as software. Software is essential to a computer because it controls the hardware components
of the computer and everything the computer does. The software and hardware that make computers
useful are created by individuals working as programmers/software developers and computer engineers. A
programmer/software developer is a person with the training and skills necessary to design, create, and
test computer programs, while a computer engineer focuses on the design and manufacturing of computer
hardware. Today, you will find the work of computer programmers and engineers in business, medicine,
government, law enforcement, agriculture, academics, entertainment, industries, communications and
many other fields. Therefore a computer can be defined as

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A programmable machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory.
The computer is capable of accepting data (input), processing data arithmetically and logically,
producing output from the processing and storing the results for future use. In other words, a
computer is an electronic device that performs specified sequences of operations as per the
set of instructions (known as programs) given on a set of data (input) to generate desired
information (output) and store the result for future used.

The “machine” part of the computer is called the hardware, while the “programmable” part is called the
software.
Computers are used to fulfil general and specific needs of the public, industries and governments.
Computers use software to make it easier for users to accomplish some tasks and solve some problems.
Therefore, software must be efficient, robust, easy to use, visually appealing and produce correct results.
Computing deals with processing information through computations and analysis to solve a particular
problem or produce a desired result, depending on the application at hand. Using software for a desired
task or to a solve problem requires programming and domain knowledge. Computer Science is not an
area of study that covers anything related to Information Technology support, repairing computers,
installing and configuring networks, using application packages, browsing the web or playing games.
Computer Science focuses on understanding what goes on behind software and how software/programs
can be made more efficiently. The general areas of discipline in computer science include computer
architecture, operating systems, programming languages and compilers, algorithms, data structures,
computability theory, numerical analysis, networking and distributed computing, parallel computing,
information management/database systems, software development (or software engineering), human-
computer communication/interaction, graphics and visual computing and intelligent systems (or artificial
intelligence). Thus, studying computer science requires specializing in one or more of these areas.

1.2 Historical Development of Computers

In early days, counting was something difficult and started by using stones. People follow a set of
procedure to perform calculations with these stones, which later led to the creation of the first mechanical
calculating device known as ABACUS.
1.2.1 The Abacus
Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device that was used to perform addition and
subtraction easily and quickly. This device was first developed by the Egyptians in the 10th century B.C,
but it was given its final shape in the 12th century A.D. by the Chinese educationalists. Abacus is made
up of wooden frame in which rods where fitted across with round beads sliding on the rods as shown in
Figure 1.1. It is divided into two parts called ‘Heaven’ and ‘Earth’. Heaven was the upper part and Earth
was the lower one. Thus, any number can be represented by placing the beads at proper place. Early
merchants used the abacus to keep trading transactions. But as the use of paper and pencil spread, the
abacus lost its importance.

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Figure 1.1: The Abacus

1.2.2 Napier’s Bones

In 1617, John Napier of Scotland invented a calculating device called the Napier Bones. Napier’s bone
used bone rods for counting purpose where some numbers were printed on these rods. Figure 1.2 shows the
picture of Napier’s bones. These rods can be used for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Figure 1.2: The Napier’s Bones

1.2.3 Pascal’s Calculator

In 1642, Blaise Pascal, the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical
wheel calculator to help his father with his duties. Pascal’s calculator, also called a Pascaline, is a brass
rectangular box that used eight movable dials to add sums up to eight figures long. Figure 1.3 shows the
Pascal’s calculator.

Figure 1.3: The Pascal’s calculator

The device used a base of ten to accomplish this. For example, as one dial moved ten notches or one
complete revolution, it moves the next dial, which represents the ten’s column - one place. When the
ten’s dial moved one revolution, the dial representing the hundred’s place moved one notch and so on.
The drawback to the Pascaline was its limitation to addition.

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1.2.4 Leibniz Calculator

In 1694, a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniz, improved the Pascaline
by creating a machine that could also multiply. Like its predecessor, Leibniz’s mechanical multiplier
worked by a system of gears and dials. Partly by studying Pascal’s original notes and drawings, Leibniz
was able to refine his machine. Figure 1.4 shows the Leibniz calculator.

Figure 1.4: The Leibniz calculator

The centrepiece of the machine was its stepped-drum gear design, which offered an elongated version of
the simple flat gear. It was not until 1820 that mechanical calculators gained widespread use.
1.2.5 Arithmometer
Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, a Frenchman, invented a machine that could perform the four basic
arithmetic functions. Colmar’s mechanical calculator, the Arithmometer, presented a more practical
approach to computing than the Leibniz Calculator because it could add, subtract, multiply and divide.
With its enhanced versatility, the Arithmometer was widely used until the First World War. Figure 1.5
shows the Arithmometer device.

Figure 1.5: The Arithmometer device

1.2.6 Differential Engine

The real beginning of computers is with an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage. Babbage
noticed a natural harmony between machines and mathematics, that is, machines were best at performing
tasks repeatedly without mistake, while mathematics, particularly the production of mathematics tables,
often required the simple repetition of steps. The problem centred on applying the ability of machines to
the needs of mathematics. Babbage’s first attempt at solving this problem was in 1822 when he proposed
a machine to perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine. Figure 1.6 shows the Differential
Engine.

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Historical Development of Computers Evolution of Computers

Figure 1.6: The Differential Engine

Powered by steam and large as a locomotive, Difference Engine would have a stored program and could
perform calculations and print the results automatically.
1.2.7 Analytical Engine
After working on the Difference Engine for 10 years, Charles Babbage was suddenly inspired to begin
work on the first general-purpose computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. Figure 1.7 shows the
Analytical Engine.

Figure 1.7: The Analytical Engine

Babbage’s assistant, Augusta Ada King, was instrumental in the machine’s design. She helped in
revising plans, secured funding from the British government and communicated the specifics of the
Analytical Engine to the public. Ada’s understanding of the machine allowed her to create the instruction
routines to be fed into the computer, making her the first female computer programmer. In the 1980’s,
the United State Defense Department named a programming language ADA in her honour.
Babbage’s steam-powered engine, although ultimately never constructed, may seem primitive by today’s
standards. However, it outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose computer and was a
breakthrough concept. Consisting of over 50,000 components, the basic design of the Analytical Engine
included input devices in the form of perforated cards containing operating instructions and a "store"
for memory of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. It also contained a "mill" with a control
unit that allowed processing instructions in any sequence and output devices to produce printed results.
Babbage borrowed the idea of punch cards to encode the machine’s instructions from the Jacquard loom.
The loom, produced in 1820 and named after its inventor, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, used punched boards

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that controlled the patterns to be woven. For this great invention of the computer, Sir Charles Babbage
is also known as the father of computer.
1.2.8 Tabulating Machine
In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith, also applied the Jacquard loom concept to computing.
His first task was to find a faster way to compute the United State census. Unlike Babbage’s idea of using
perforated cards to instruct the machine, Hollerith’s method used cards to store data, which he fed into
a machine that compiled the results mechanically. Each punch on a card represented one number and
combinations of two punches represented one letter. Instead of ten years, census takers compiled their
results in just six weeks with Hollerith’s machine. Figure 1.8 shows the Tabulating Machine.

Figure 1.8: The Tabulating machine

In addition to their speed, the punch cards served as a storage method for data and they helped reduce
computational errors. Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the business world, founding Tabulating
Machine Company in 1896. Tabulating Machine Company later became International Business Machines
(IBM) in 1924 after a series of mergers. Other companies such as Remington Rand and Burroughs also
manufactured punch readers for business use. Both business and government used punch cards for data
processing until the 1960’s.
1.2.9 Electronic Digital Computer
Vannevar Bush developed a calculator for solving differential equations in 1931. The machine could solve
complex differential equations that had long left scientists and mathematicians baffled. The machine was
cumbersome because hundreds of gears and shafts were required to represent numbers and their various
relationships to each other. To eliminate this bulkiness, John Vincent Atanasoff, a professor at Iowa
State College (now called Iowa State University) and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, envisioned an
all-electronic computer that applied Boolean algebra to computer circuitry. This approach was based
on the mid-19th century work of George Boole who clarified the binary system of algebra. The binary
system of algebra stated that any mathematical equation could be stated simply as either true or false. By
extending this concept to electronic circuits in the form of on or off, Atanasoff and Berry developed the
first automatic electronic digital computer called Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), which was successfully
tested in 1942. Figure 1.9 shows the Atanasoff-Berry Computer.

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Figure 1.9: The Atanasoff-Berry Computer

1.3 Generations of Computer

In the year 1946, the first successful electronic computer called ENIAC was developed and it was the
starting point of the current generation of computers.
1.3.1 First Generation (1945-1956)
With the onset of World War II, governments sought to develop computers to exploit their potential
strategic importance. This increased funding for computer development projects hastened technical
progress. By 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse developed a computer called the Z3 to design airplanes
and missiles. The Allied forces, however, made greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1943,
the British completed a secret code-breaking computer called Colossus to decode German messages. The
Colossus’s impact on the development of the computer industry was rather limited for two important
reasons. First, Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to decode secret
messages. Second, the existence of the machine was kept secret until decades after the war.
American efforts produced a broader achievement. Howard Hathaway Aiken, a Harvard engineer
working with IBM, succeeded in producing an electronic calculator by 1944. The purpose of the computer
was to create ballistic charts for the United State Navy. It was about half as long as a football field and
contained about 500 miles of wiring. The Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or
Mark I for short, was an electronic relay computer. It used electromagnetic signals to move mechanical
parts. The machine was slow (taking three to five seconds per calculation) and inflexible (in that sequences
of calculations could not change), but it could perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex equations.
Another computer development spurred by the war was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC), produced by a partnership between the United State government and the University
of Pennsylvania. ENIAC consists of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and five million soldered joints,
the computer was massive and consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. ENIAC was developed by
John Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly, and unlike the Colossus and Mark I, the machine was a
general-purpose computer that was 1,000 times faster than Mark I. In the mid-1940’s John von Neumann
joined the University of Pennsylvania team, initiating concepts in computer design that remained central
to computer engineering for 40 years. Figure 1.10 shows the ENIAC computer.

7
Generations of Computer Evolution of Computers

Figure 1.10: The ENIAC computer

Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) in 1945 with
a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data. This "stored memory" technique as well
as the "conditional control transfer" that allowed the computer to be stopped at any point and then
resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer programming. The key element to the von Neumann
architecture was the central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to be coordinated
through a single source. Figure 1.11 shows the EDVAC computer. In 1951, Remington Rand built the
Universal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC I), which became one of the first commercially available
computers to take advantage of these advances.

Figure 1.11: The EDVAC computer

First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-order
for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded
program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to
program and limited its versatility and speed. Other distinctive features of first generation computers were
the use of vacuum tubes (responsible for their breathtaking size) and magnetic drums for data storage.
1.3.2 Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the development of computers. The transistor
replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tube in televisions, radios and computers, reduced the size of

8
Generations of Computer Evolution of Computers

electronic machinery. The transistor was at work in the computer by 1956. Coupled with early advances
in magnetic-core memory, transistors led to second generation computers that were smaller, faster, more
reliable and more energy-efficient than their predecessors. The first large-scale machines to take advantage
of this transistor technology were early supercomputers such as Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry-Rand.
These computers were both developed for atomic energy laboratories and could handle an enormous
amount of data, a capability much in demand by atomic scientists. The machines were costly and tended
to be too powerful for the business sector’s computing needs, thereby limiting their attractiveness.
Second generation computers replaced machine language with assembly language, allowing abbreviated
programming codes to replace long and difficult binary codes. Throughout the early 1960’s, there were
a number of commercially successful second generation computers used in business, universities and
government from companies such as Burroughs, Control Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand and others.
These second generation computers were also of solid state design and contained transistors in place
of vacuum tubes. They also contained all the components associated with the modern day computer:
printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important
example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout industry, and is considered by
many to be the Model T of the computer industry.
By 1965, most large businesses routinely processed financial information using second generation
computers. It was the stored program and programming language that gave the computers the flexibility
to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. More sophisticated high-level languages such
as COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translator) came into use.
These languages replaced cryptic binary machine code with words, sentences, and mathematical formulas,
making it much easier to program a computer. New types of careers such as programmer, analyst and
computer systems expert, and the entire software industry began with second generation computers.
1.3.3 Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
Despite the improvement provided by transistors over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great
deal of heat, which damaged sensitive internal parts of a computer. The quartz rock eliminated this
problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958.
The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz.
Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor. As a result,
computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Figure 1.12 shows a
vacuum tube, a resistor and an integrated circuit.

Figure 1.12: A vacuum tube, a resistor and an integrated circuit

9
Generations of Computer Evolution of Computers

Another third-generation development included the use of an operating system that allowed machines
to run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the
computer’s memory.
1.3.4 Fourth Generation (1971-1984)
After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down in size, that is, Large Scale Integration
(LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto one chip. By the 1980’s, Very Large Scale Integration
(VLSI) squeezed hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large Scale Integration (ULSI)
increased the number to millions. It also increased their power, efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004
chip, developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a
computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. Unlike
the previous integrated circuit that must be manufactured to fit a special purpose, now one microprocessor
could be manufactured and then programmed to meet any number of demands. Later, household items
such as microwave ovens, television sets and auto-mobiles with electronic fuel injection incorporated
microprocessors. Such condensed power enabled people to harness the power of computers. Computers
were no longer developed exclusively for large businesses or government contracts.
By the mid-1970’s, computer manufacturers sought to bring computers to general consumers. These
minicomputers came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even non-technical users
with an array of applications, most popularly word processing and spreadsheet programs. Pioneers in
this field were Commodore, Radio Shack and Apple Computers. In the early 1980’s, arcade video games
such as PAC Man and home video game systems such as the Atari 2600 ignited consumer interest for
more sophisticated, programmable home computers. In 1981, IBM introduced its Personal Computer
(PC) for use in home, office and schools. The 1980’s saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas
as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer even more affordable. Computers continued their
trend toward a smaller size, working their way down from desktop to laptop and palmtop computers.
Apple’s Macintosh line, in direct competition with IBM’s PC, was introduced in 1984. Notable for its
user-friendly design, the Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move screen icons
instead of typing instructions. Users controlled the screen cursor using a mouse, a device that mimicked
the movement of a hand on the computer screen.
As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to harness their potential developed.
As smaller computers became more powerful, they could be linked together or networked to share memory
space, software, information and communicate with each other. As opposed to a mainframe computer,
which was one powerful computer that shared time with many terminals for many applications, networked
computers allowed individual computers to form electronic cooperation using either direct wiring called a
Local Area Network (LAN) or telephone lines.
1.3.5 Fifth Generation (1984-1990)
This generation of computers introduced machines with hundreds of processors that could all be working
on different parts of a single program. The scale of integration in semiconductors enabled building
chips with a million components and semiconductor memories became standard on all computers. Many
advances in the science of computer design and technology emerged such as parallel processing, which
replaces von Neumann’s single central processing unit design, with a system harnessing the power of many
processors to work as one. The superconductor technology, which allows the flow of electricity with little

10
Generations of Computer Evolution of Computers

or no resistance, greatly improved the speed of information flow. Computer networks, both wide area
network (WAN) and local area network (LAN) technologies developed rapidly and single-user workstations
also became popular. The fifth generation computers also introduced the use of Artificial intelligence.
For example, expert systems assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps a
doctor might use in assessing a patient’s needs.
1.3.6 Sixth Generation (1990 and beyond)
Most of the developments in computer systems since 1990 were improvements over established systems.
This generation brought about gains in parallel computing in both the hardware and in improved
understanding of how to develop algorithms to exploit parallel architectures. Workstation technology
continued to improve, with processor designs now using a combination of RISC, pipelining, and parallel
processing. Wide Area Networks, network bandwidth and speed of operation and networking capabilities
have kept developing tremendously. Personal computers (PCs) now operate with Gigabit per second
processors, multi-Gigabyte disks, gigabytes of RAM, colour printers, high-resolution graphic monitors,
stereo sound cards and graphical user interfaces. Thousands of software (operating systems and application
software) are existing today. This generation also brought micro controller technology, which are embedded
inside some other devices (often consumer products) so that they can control the features or actions of
the product. They work as small computers inside devices and now serve as essential components in most
machines.
1.3.7 Emerging Generation (Quantum Computers)
Conventional digital computers store information using bits represented by zeros or ones. Quantum
computers use quantum bits, or qubits, to encode information as zero, one, or both at the same time.
This superposition of states and other quantum mechanical phenomena of entanglement and tunnelling
enables quantum computers to manipulate enormous combinations of states at once. A qubit can be
thought of like an imaginary sphere, it can be any point on the sphere. Whereas a classical bit can be
in two states - at either of the two poles of the sphere. This means a computer using qubits can store
a huge amount of information using less energy than a classical computer. D-Wave Systems developed
an integrated quantum computer system running on a 128-qubit processor in 2011. D-Wave Systems
launched the D-Wave 2 (512-qubit quantum computer) in 2013 and D-Wave 2X (1000-qubit quantum
computer) in 2015. In January 2017, D-Wave Systems launched the D-Wave 2000Q quantum computer
(2000 qubit). Figure 1.13 shows the D-Wave 2000Q quantum computer.

11
Classes of Computers Evolution of Computers

Figure 1.13: D-Wave 2000Q Quantum Computer

1.4 Classes of Computers

Computers can be classified by their mode of operations; analogue, digital and hybrid, and their sizes;
supercomputers, mainframes, minicomputers, workstations and microcomputers.
1.4.1 Analog Computers
An analogue computer is designed to process continuous physical quantities. Examples of analogue
computer usage include monitoring temperature, voltage and current reading in a power station. Each
of these parameters can attain an infinite number of values, not just simple on and off. An analogue
computer has the following characteristics:

• It operates by measuring.

• It functions on continuously varying quantities.

• The output is usually represented in the form of graph.

• Its calculations are first converted in equation and later converted into electrical signals.

• The accuracy of the output is poor.

• It has limited memory space.

• It is not versatile, that is, it has limited application.

• The speed of analog computer is low.

• Not suitable for business and industry.

1.4.2 Digital Computers

A digital computer processes digital quantities that attain discrete values. They are machines made up of
combinations of chips, flip-flops, buttons and other electronic devices to make them function at a very
fast speed. A digital computer has its numbers, letters or other symbols represented in digital format. A
digital computer has the following characteristics:

• It operates by counting.

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Classes of Computers Evolution of Computers

• It functions on discrete numbers.

• The calculations are converted into binary numbers, that is, zeros and ones.

• The output is represented in the form of discrete values.

• Its accuracy is good.

• It has large memory space.

• It is versatile in nature and is suitable for a number of applications.

• It uses numbers, words and symbols.

• Its processing speed is high.

• It is highly suitable for business application.

1.4.3 Hybrid Computers

A hybrid computer possess the features of both analogue and digital computers. A hybrid computer
accepts either digital, analogue or both types of inputs and gives the results as per requirements through
special devices. Thus, with the hybrid computer, users can process both continuous and discrete data.
A converter is fixed in a hybrid computer to convert the analogue data into digital data and vice versa.
These are special purpose devices and are not widely used.
1.4.4 Super Computers
A super computer is the most powerful computer available at any given time. These machines are built
to process huge amounts of information and do so very quickly. Supercomputers are built specifically
for researchers or scientists working on projects that demand very huge amounts of data variables; an
example is in nuclear research, where scientists want to know exactly what will happen during every
millisecond of a nuclear chain reaction. To demonstrate the capability of super computers, for an air
pollution control project that involves more than 500,000 variables, it will take a mini computer about 45
hours to complete the simulation process, while a super computer completes the simulation in 30 minutes.
Supercomputers are big in size, generate a lot of heat and very expensive.
1.4.5 Mainframe Computers
The largest types of computers that are common in use are the mainframe computers. They are designed
to handle tremendous amounts of input, output and storage. They are used mainly by large organization.
Other users access mainframe computers through terminals. Terminals consist of a keyboard and a display.
The mainframe is usually in a computer room.
1.4.6 Mini Computers
These are physically small compared to mainframes and are generally used for special purposes or small-
scale general purposes. The capabilities of mini computers is between mainframes and personal computers.
Like mainframes, they can handle a great deal more input and output than personal computers. Although
some minicomputers are designed for a single user, many can handle dozens or even hundreds of terminals.
Advances in circuitry enabled modern mini computers to out-perform older mainframes.

13
Characteristics of Computers Evolution of Computers

1.4.7 Workstations
Workstations lie between mini computers and microcomputers in terms of processing power. A workstation
looks like a personal computer and is typically used by one person, although it is still more powerful
than the average personal computer. The differences in the capabilities of these types of machines are
growing smaller. They significantly differ from microcomputers in two ways: the central processing units
of workstations are designed differently to enable faster processing of instructions.
1.4.8 Micro Computers/Personal Computers (PCs)
The term microcomputers and personal computers are used interchangeably to mean the small free-
standing computers that are commonly found in offices, homes and classrooms. Today, PCs are seriously
challenging older mainframes and mini computers in processing power and competition is producing
smaller and faster models of PCs every year. The following are different types of PCs:

• Desktop: This is the first type of PC and the most common. Most desktops are small enough to fit
on a desk, but are a little too big to carry around.

• Laptop: This weigh about 4.5kg, and is a battery–operated computer with built–in screens. Laptops
are designed to be carried and used in locations with no electricity. Laptops typically have an almost
full–sized keyboard.

• The Notebook: This is similar to a laptop but smaller. A notebook weighs about 2.7–3.2kg. As the
name implies, notebooks are approximately the size of a notebook.

• The Palmtop : This is also known as personal digital assistance (PDA) and is the smallest of
portable computers. Palmtops are less powerful than notebooks or desktops models and have built-in
applications such as word processing. They are mostly used to display important informations such
as telephone numbers and addresses.

Personal computers can perform many tasks. The most common tasks include writing documents such
as memos, letters, reports and briefs, budgeting and performing accounting tasks, analysing numeric
information, searching through lists or reports for specific information, scheduling and planning projects,
creating illustrations, communication and many other activities.

1.5 Characteristics of Computers

The characteristics that make computer indispensable are speed, accuracy, reliability, storage capacity,
versatility, automation and diligence.

• Speed: A computer is able to process data and give the output in fractions of seconds, such that the
required information is given to the user on time, which enables the user to take right decisions
quickly. A powerful computer is capable of executing about three million calculations or more per
second.

• Accuracy: Apart from high processing speed, the accuracy of computers is consistently high enough
to avoid errors.

• Reliable: The output generated by the computer is very reliable. This is achieved when the data
passed as input to the computer and the instructions are correct and reliable.

14
Components of a Computer Evolution of Computers

• Storage: A computer has a provision to store large volumes of data in small storage devices, which
have capacity to store huge amounts of data and help the retrieval of data an easy task.

• Versatility: A computer performs three basic operations; it is capable of accessing and accepting
information from the user through various input-output devices. It performs basic arithmetic and
logic operations on the data as desired and it is capable of generating the desired output in the
desired form.

• Automation: The instructions fed into a computer works automatically without any human inter-
vention until the completion of execution of a program, or until the computer meets an instructions
to terminate execution.

• Diligence: The performance of a computer is consistent, that is, it does each and every calculation
with same speed and accuracy.

1.6 Components of a Computer

A computer has three main components; hardware, software and peripheral devices. Hardware refers to
the tangible and physical units of a computer system, which includes all electronic and electric circuitry
components and devices. Software is a set of instructions that makes the hardware work to get desired
results. Peripheral devices are machines and other electronic devices attached to the computer system to
perform a desired task. The hardware and software components of a computer system are explained in
Chapter 2.

15
 Chapter
2
Components of the Computer

This chapter presents the following:

• Central Processing Unit

• Primary storage devices

• Secondary storage devices

• Input and output devices

• System software

• Middleware

• Applications software

2.1 Computer Hardware

The term hardware refers to all physical devices or components that a computer is made of. A computer
is not a single device, but a system of devices that all work together. Each device in a computer performs
a particular function. Computer has hardware components such as central processing unit (CPU), main
memory, secondary storage devices, input and output devices. Computer hardware performs some
operations like addition, subtraction, data transfer and control transfers. Figure 2.1 presents a typical
computer system with the following major components:

• The central processing unit (CPU)

• Main memory

• Secondary storage devices

• Input devices

• Output devices

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Computer Hardware Components of the Computer

Figure 2.1: Hardware Component of a Computer

2.1.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

When a computer is performing the tasks that a program commands, it is called running or executing
the program. The CPU is the component in the computer that runs programs. The term CPU is used
loosely to refer to the processor of a computer whether it is a set of chips or a single microprocessor.
The processor is the “brain” of the computer, that is, the part that interprets and executes instructions.
In large computers, the processor often comprises a number of chips whereas in small computers called
microcomputers or PCs, the processor is a single silicon chip, called a microprocessor. Figure 2.2 presents
an Intel microprocessor chip.

Figure 2.2: An Intel Microprocessor Chip

Every CPU has two basic parts, the control unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
Control Unit (CU)
The control unit manages all the computer resources and coordinates all the activities of a computer. The
control unit contains the basic instructions (called firmware) for executing programs. The instruction set,
built into the circuitry of the control unit, is a list of all the operations that the CPU can perform. In fact,
the control unit directs the flow of data around the CPU and the computer. Based on the instructions
given, the CPU ensures that the operations specified in the program are performed in the sequence. These
operations may be receipt of data and storing them at specified locations, transfer of data from one
address of memory to another, transfer of data from memory to the ALU and controlling the ALU.

17
Computer Hardware Components of the Computer

Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)

All calculations and comparisons (decisions) are made in the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) of the
CPU. Processing does not occur in the primary storage. Intermediate results generated are temporarily
placed in a designated working storage area until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from
primary storage to the ALU and back again many times before processing is finished. Once completed,
the final results are released to an output storage section and from there to an output device. The type
and number of ALU operations a computer can perform are determined by the design of the CPU.
2.1.2 Primary Storage Devices
The data passed to the computer is stored in the memory. When the data is required to be processed or
operated upon, it is then transferred to the ALU, which does all the computation work such as addition,
subtraction and shifting. After processing, the data is again brought back and stored in the memory.
There are two main types of memories; main memory and read only memory (ROM).
Main Memory (RAM)
The main memory, commonly known as random-access memory (RAM), can be seen as the work area
of a computer. This is where the computer stores a program while the program is running, as well as
the data that the program is working with. Main memory is called RAM because the CPU is able to
quickly access data stored at any random location. Main memory is usually a volatile type of memory
that is used only for temporary storage while a program is running. When the computer is turned off, the
contents of RAM are erased. Figure 2.3 shows a main memory or RAM chip.

Figure 2.3: A main memory Chip

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Instructions to perform operations that are critical to a computer are stored permanently on a read-only
memory (ROM) chip, which is installed by the manufacturer inside the computer. When the power in the
computer is turned off, the instructions stored in ROM are not lost and the data cannot be changed, thus
they are non-volatile. Figure 2.4 shows a ROM chip.

Figure 2.4: A ROM Chip

ROMs are categorised as follows:

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Computer Hardware Components of the Computer

• Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): These are non-volatile memories and may
be written into only once. The writing process is performed using special equipment for writing.
However, PROMs provide flexibility and convenience.

• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): These are another variation of
read only memories called read-mostly memories. EPROMs can be read and written into as with the
PROMs. Before write operations, the content must be erased by exposing the memory to ultraviolet
radiation. EPROMs have multiple update capacity, that is, they can be erased repeatedly.

• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM): These are read-
mostly memories that can be written into at any time without erasing prior content; only the byte
address are updated. The write operation takes considerably longer time than the read operation.
EEPROM is non-volatile, flexible and more expensive than the EPROM.

Table 2.1 presents differences between RAMs and ROMs

Table 2.1: Differences between RAM and ROM

Random-Access Memory (RAM) Read-Only Memory (ROM)
The data and program in RAM can be read The data or program in ROM can only be
and written. read but cannot be changed.
RAM stores data during and after processing. ROM is another type of memory that is
RAM is also known as a working memory. permanently stored inside the computer.
RAM is volatile which means the programs ROM is non-volatile. It holds the programs
and data in RAM are lost when the computer and data when the computer is powered off.
is powered off.
A computer uses RAM to hold temporary Programs in ROM are pre-recorded. It can
instructions and data needed to complete only be stored by the manufacturer.
tasks. This enables the CPU to access
instructions and data stored in the memory
very quickly

2.1.3 Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is a type of memory that can hold data for long period of time, even when there is
no power to the computer. Programs are normally stored in secondary memory and loaded into main
memory as needed. Important data, such as word processing documents, payroll data and inventory
records are stored in secondary storage as well. The most common type of secondary storage device is the
disk drive. Figure 2.5 shows some storage devices.

19
Computer Hardware Components of the Computer

Figure 2.5: Storage devices

Disk Drive
A disk drive stores data by magnetically encoding it onto a circular disk. Most computers have a disk drive
mounted inside their cases. External disk drives, which connect to one of the computer’s communication
ports, are also available. External disk drives can be used to create backup copies of important data or to
move data to another computer. In addition to external disk drives, many types of devices have been
created for copying data, and for moving data to other computers.
Floppy Disk Drive
A floppy disk drive records data onto a small floppy disk, which can be removed from the drive. Floppy
disks hold a small amount of data, are slow to access data and can be unreliable. Floppy disk drives are
no longer in use in the recent years.
USB Drives
USB drives are small devices that plug into the computer’s universal serial bus (USB) port, and appear
to the system as a disk drive. These drives do not actually contain a disk. They store data in a special
type of memory known as flash memory. USB drives, which are also known as memory sticks and flash
drives, are inexpensive, reliable and small enough to be carried in pocket.
Optical Devices
Optical devices such as the CD (compact disc) and the DVD (digital versatile disc) are also popular for
data storage. Data is not recorded magnetically on an optical disc, but is encoded as a series of pits
on the disc surface. CD and DVD drives use a laser to detect the pits and thus read the encoded data.
Optical discs hold large amounts of data, and because recordable CD and DVD drives are now common,
they are good mediums for creating backup copies of data.
Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used to store gigabytes of data depending on how much memory they have. There are
three different types of flash cards: compact flash cards, smart media cards and memory sticks.
2.1.4 Input and Output Devices
Input is any data the computer collects from a user and other devices. The component that collects
the data and sends it to the computer is called an input device. After the computer has received and
processed data, the final result has to be brought out from the machine in some intelligent and readable

20
Computer Hardware Components of the Computer

form. The result that comes out of the machine is called output and the equipment that enables the
results to be brought out are termed output devices. Output is any data the computer produces for people
or for other devices. It might be a sales report, a list of names or a graphic image. The data is sent to an
output device, which formats and presents it.
Common input and output devices are the keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, joy stick, light pens,
digital camera, visual displays, printers, projector, speaker disk drives and optical drives as shown in
Figure 2.6

Figure 2.6: Input Devices

Keyboard
A keyboard is the most common input device and is used for all kinds of computers. Several kinds
of keyboards are available but they resemble each other with minor variations. The keyboard in most
common use is the QWERTY board. IBM and IBM compatible PCs use 101 keyboard, which has 101
keys.
Mouse
A mouse is an electro-mechanical hand-held device. It is used as a pointer to select menu commands, move
icons, size windows, start programs and choose options. Thus, the mouse is best used as a pointing and
selecting device, as it allows moving the cursor across the screen of a computer in a rapid and intuitive
way. Buttons are mounted on the chassis of the mouse to trigger some events, like the selection of an icon
or menu item the cursor is positioned over. Mice are of two types:

• Mechanical mice: These contain a small ball inside the chassis, which is spun as the mouse is
moved over the surface. The ball in turn rotates some small wheels whose motion is encoded by

21
Computer Hardware Components of the Computer

potentiometers or optical encoders. These mice can work on every surface, but dirt is collected by
the ball and often soils the encoders.

• Optical mice: These do not need a rotating ball, they contain optical sensors that emit signals as
the mouse is moved over a special grid containing reflecting lines in the X and Y direction; on every
line that is crossed, a pulse is emitted. These mice have the advantage that there are no moving
parts and no dirt is collected from the surface, but they work only in combination with a special
mouse pad containing the grid.

Track Balls
The trackball is somehow the inverse of the mouse. It consists of a fixed chassis and a freely rotating ball
that can be moved in any direction with the fingers or the palm of the hand; small wheels, positioned
90 degrees from each other, are connected to the ball and rotate as it is spun. In mechanical trackballs,
the spinning ball is connected to potentiometers whose output corresponds to changes in the X and Y
directions. In optical trackballs, optical encoders are used to generate pulses according to the increments
in rotation around the X and Y axis. Trackballs have the same purpose as the mouse, to move a cursor
across the screen, but are preferable when there is no enough space for a mouse or when the cursor has to
be moved rapidly over a large area, because the ball can be spun very fast and the cursor can be moved
continuously without stopping.
Joy Stick
Joysticks consist of a stick that is mounted vertically on a fixed base, which can be rotated around
two orthogonal axes. There exist three basic types of joysticks employing different technologies; digital,
displacement and force joysticks.

• The digital joystick does not have resistors, but switches mounted around the base of the lever
(usually four), so that movement in any of the eight directions can be sensed. The output is "on" or
"off" in any of the eight directions, and not proportional to the stick’s displacement. Digital joystick
cannot be used in absolute positioning mode, but only to send directional information. This kind of
joystick is extremely successful in arcade games because of its robustness, simplicity and low cost.

• In displacement joysticks, the stick is connected to resistors, typically potentiometers, whose

resistance is proportional to the stick’s position along the two axes. Increasing the force applied
to the stick increases its displacement; there is a direct relation between force and displacement.
The joystick can be used as an absolute positioning device where the vertical stick corresponds to
a central position and the full deflection corresponds to corner positions (absolute mode), or the
deflection may be used as a velocity parameter indicating the direction and the speed of movement
of a cursor (relative parametric mode).

• Force joysticks has a lever that is rigid and cannot be moved noticeably, because the forces applied
to the stick are measured not the motion. The output of force joysticks is proportional to the
direction and amount of force applied. Force joysticks always return to their central position when
released. Because of their extremely limited movement, they are not suited for absolute positioning.

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Computer Hardware Components of the Computer

Touch Pen and Screens

Touch pens are devices used to directly point on the screen to select menu items or icons, or directly draw
graphics on the screen. It can also be used for writing on a special pad as direct written information to a
system. Pressure on tip of a button is used to cause same action as right-button-click of a mouse.
Touch screens are simple intuitive and easiest to learn of all input devices. A touch screen enables users
to choose the desired icon or menu items displayed on the screen by simply touching with their fingers.
Scanner
A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine pages and similar
sources for computer editing and display.
Visual Display
Visual display is an output device that enables a user to see the results produced by the computer. It is
available in different sizes. Colour monitors and liquid crystal displays (LCD) are very popular these days.
The quality of the display depends on the screen resolution.
Printer
A printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There are many different types of printers

• Dot-Matrix Printers: These are character printers that form characters and all kind of images
as a pattern of dots. Dot-matrix prints many special characters, different sizes of print and graphics
such as charts and graphs. They are slow, with speed usually ranging between 30 to 600 characters
per second.

• Ink-Jet printers: These are character printers that form characters and all kind of images by
spraying small drops of ink on to a paper. The print head contains up to 64 tiny nozzles that can
be selectively heated up in a few micro seconds by an integrated circuit register. They are slower
than dot-matrix printers with speed usually ranging from 40 to 300 characters per second.

• Laser Printers: These are line printers that print one line at a time. They have a solid cylinder
drum with characters embossed on its surface in form of circular bands. Laser printers can only
print a pre-defined set of characters in a pre-defined style that is embossed on the drum. They speed
in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per minutes.

• Multifunction Printer: As the name implies, a multifunction printer can perform more than
one task. This device can usually operate as a fax machine, copier, and scanner in addition to its
traditional printing duties.

Plotter
A plotter is a special printer that is used to create posters and blueprints.
Projector
A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) projector is a device that uses its own light source to project what is to
be displayed on a wall or projection screen. A digital light processing (DLP) projector uses tiny mirrors
to reflect light which can be seen clearly in a well-lit room.

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Computer Software Components of the Computer

Speakers
A speaker is a device that produces out music, speech or other sounds. A pair of speakers is an audio
output device that generates sound. The headphone is a pair of small speakers placed over the ears and
plugged into a port on the sound card. A woofer or sub-woofer is used to boost the low bass sound and is
connected to the port on the sound card.
Modem
A modem (MOdulator-DEModulator) converts signal from digital to analogue (modulation) and analogue
to digital (demodulation). The modem enables digital microcomputers to send output through analogue
telephone lines; voice and data can be carried over through the modem. The modem is not only an output
device but also an input device that receives data and voice through a communication channel.

2.2 Computer Software

Computer software is the set of instructions that makes the computer work as desired. Essentially,
computer software can be divided into three main groups depending on their use and application. These
are system software, middleware and application software. Usually most of us interact with a computer
using computer software developed as application software.
2.2.1 System Software
The programs that control and manage the basic operations of a computer are generally referred to as
system software. System software typically includes Operating systems (OS) and other utility software.
Operating Systems (OS)
An operating system is the most fundamental set of programs on a computer. The operating system
controls the internal operations of the computer’s hardware, manages the devices connected to the
computer, allows data to be saved to and retrieved from storage devices, and allows other programs to run
on the computer. Operating system is the software used by the computer to translate inputs from various
sources into a language which a machine can understand. Basically, the operating system coordinates the
different hardware components of a computer. The most popular operating systems are Linux (e.g Redhat,
Ubuntu, Fedora), Microsoft Windows (e.g Windows 7, 8 and 10), Mac OS X and UNIX (e.g Solaris).
Functions of Operating Systems
The operating system has the following primary functions:

• Booting of the Computer: This is the first process that takes place the moment the computer’s
electrical switch is put on. During this process all the peripherals connected to the computer are
checked and validated. At the end of the validation process, the operating system signals a user to
begin working on the computer.

• Providing User Interface: Operating system provides an interface for a user, either as a command
line interface or as a graphical user interface. This enables the user to communicate with the computer.
In other words, operating system communicates with the computer user or operator by means
of terminals and through the use of monitor command responses. The user may also be able to
communicate with the operating system by means of command language. There are two broad
categories of interfaces: command line and graphical user interfaces. To use an operating system

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Computer Software Components of the Computer

with a command line interface, a user can type words and symbols using the keyboard. With a
graphical user interface (GUI), a user selects actions by using a mouse or similar pointing device to
click on pictures called icons or to pick options from menus. Every operating system provides a user
interface, whether it is made up of text or is graphical in nature.

• Managing the Hardware: Operating system controls and manages hardware resources. For
example, operating system manages the selection and operation of devices used for input, output
and storage. In other words the operating system serves as the intermediary between programs and
hardware. Regardless of the type of user interface, the operating system intercepts commands to
use memory and other devices, keeping track of what programs have access to what devices and so
on. For example when instructing the operating system to list the files in a directory or folder, the
software interpreting the command sends a request to the CPU in form of interrupting the CPU
and instructing the CPU to go to the disk drive and retrieve the names of the files it finds in the
directory or folder.

• Managing the File System: Operating system groups data together into logical compartments
for storage on disk. These groups of data are called files. The computer stores information in files.
Files may contain program instructions or data created or used by a program. The operating system
maintains the list of files on a disk.

• Supporting Programs: Another major function of an operating system is to provide services to

other programs. Often these services are similar to those that the operating system provides directly
to users. For example when a user wants word processing program to retrieve a document, the word
processor will list the files in the directory that the user specifies. To do this, the program (word
processing) calls on the operating system to list the files. The operating system goes through the
same process to build a list of files whether it receives instruction directly from a user or from an
application program. But when the request comes from an application the operating system sends
the result of its work to the application program instead of directly to the computer screen. Some
of the other services that an operating system provides to programs are:

– Saving files to disk and reading them from disk into memory .
– Checking available disk or memory space,
– Allocating memory to hold data for a program.
– Reading keystrokes from the keyboard.
– Displaying characters or graphics on the screen.
– Loading the user program into memory.
– Giving instruction to display the result on the monitor

Categories of Operating Systems

Operating systems are designed with many objectives in mind. Among the most basic questions in
operating system design are the following:

Should the operating system be able to do more than one thing at a time?

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Computer Software Components of the Computer

Should the operating system support only one user or should it support multiple users
simultaneously?
Should the operating system be able to use more than one CPU?

The categories of operating systems are;

• Multitasking Operating System/Multi Programming: This is an operating system that

is capable of running more than one program task per operation time. There are two types of
multitasking operating systems; cooperative and pre-emptive.

– Cooperative Multitasking: This requires cooperation between the operating system and applic-
ation programs. In this case, the programs are written in such a way that they periodically
check with the operating system to determine whether any other program needs the CPU. If a
program needs the CPU, they relinquish control of the CPU to the next program. Cooperative
multitasking is common with Macintosh OS and computers running Microsoft Windows.
– Pre-emptive Multitasking: Under this scheme, the operating system maintains a list of processes
(programs) that are running. Each process on the list is assigned a priority by the operating
system when it is started. At any time, the operating system can intervene and modify the
priority list. The operating system also retains control of the amount of time that it spends
with any process before going to the next process. Unix, OS/2 and Windows NT employ
pre-emptive multitasking.

• Multi-user Operating Systems: A multi-user operating system allows more than a single user
access to a computer at the same time. To accomplish this, a multi-user operating system must also
be capable of multitasking. Multi-user operating system provides two ways to enable people use the
same PC at the same time.

– The first way to connect to a PC running multi-user operating system is from another computer
with a connection. The remote user can log in and run programs, list files, send e-mails read
the news and otherwise do everything they could do as if they are physically in front of the
computer.
– The second way to connect to a computer, with multi-user operating system, is by attaching
terminals to the PC. Terminals are inexpensive devices that consist of a keyboard and a
monitor.

• Multiprocessing Operating Systems: A special type of operating system is required to use

a computer equipped with more than one CPU. In other words, multiprocessing requires an
operating system that is capable of using and managing a series of CPUs. There are two types of
multiprocessing operating systems; asymmetric and symmetric. With asymmetrical multiprocessing,
one main CPU retains the overall control of the computer as well as that of the other microprocessors.
In symmetrical multiprocessing, there is no single controlling CPU. This arrangement provides a
linear increase in system capacity for each processor added to the system.

2.2.2 Middleware
Middleware is a set of services that allows multiple processes running on one or more machines to interact.
Middleware is often used to support and simplify complex distributed applications. It can also allow data

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Computer Software Components of the Computer

contained in one database to be accessed through another. Middleware is sometimes called plumbing
because it connects two applications and passes data between them. (e.g Java RMI, CORBA, DCOM,
web servers, application servers, etc.).
2.2.3 Application Software
These are programs that make a computer useful for everyday tasks. These are the programs that people
normally spend most of their time running on their computers. Popular examples of application software
are word processing programs, image editing programs, spreadsheet programs, database programs, email
programs, web browsers and games.
Word Processing
This is one of the most common application software. The great advantage of word processing over using
a typewriter is that you can make changes without retyping the entire document. Word processors make
it easy to manipulate and format documents. Example of word processing software is Microsoft Office
Word and Open Office Word.
Spreadsheets
These are computer programs that allow users to electronically create and manipulate spreadsheets (tables
of values arranged in rows and columns with predefined relationships to each other). Spreadsheets are used
for calculations such as accounting, budgeting, statistics and so on. Examples of spreadsheet applications
are Microsoft Excel, Open Office Spreadsheet, Lotus and SPSS.
Database Management Systems
These applications are computer programs that let people create and manipulate data in a database. A
database is a collection of related information that can be manipulated and used to sort information,
conduct statistical analyses or generate reports. Examples of database management systems are Microsoft
Access, Microsoft SQL, MySQL and Oracle Database.
Presentation Packages
A presentation is a means of assessment, which requires presentation providers to present their work orally
in the presence of an audience. It combines both visual and verbal elements. A presentation software
allows users to create presentations by producing slides or handouts for presentation. Essentially, such
computer programs allow users to create a variety of visually appealing electronic slides for presentation.
They enable users to create highly stylized images for slide presentations and reports. They can also be
used to produce various types of charts and graphs. Microsoft PowerPoint and Prezi are examples of
presentation application.
Image Editors
Image editor programs are designed specifically for capturing, creating, editing, and manipulating images.
These graphics programs provide a variety of special features for creating and altering images. In addition
to offering a host of filters and image transformation algorithms, some image editors also enable users
to create and superimpose layers. Most graphic programs have the ability to import and export one
or more graphic file formats. With image editing software, a user can adjust an image to improve its
appearance, darken or lighten an image, rotate it, adjust it contrast, crop out extraneous detail and much
more. Examples of image editors are Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator and CorelDraw.

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Computer Software Components of the Computer

Communication Packages
These are applications that enable people to send faxes and emails and dial into other computers for voice
and video communication. Examples are Microsoft Outlook and Skype.

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 Chapter
3
Applications of Computers

This chapter presents the applications of computers in the following:

• Office automation

• Business operations

• Banking and financial

• Computational science

• Education

• Engineering Design

• Geographical Information

• Healthcare Services

• Military Operations

3.1 Introduction
Computers play a very important role in almost every aspect of human life such as banking, business,
education insurance, transportation. Computers are useful in office automation, business transactions,
financial transactions, scientific computing and engineering design. This shows how computers are used to
solve problems or achieve a desired activity. This chapter discusses some applications of computers in
facilitating activities and solving different problems using developed software packages.

3.2 Office Automation System

The introduction of mini computers significantly changed the way work is done in offices. Office automation
is a collection of computer-based office-oriented technologies with the basic objective of improving the
efficiency of office work.

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Office Automation System Applications of Computers

3.2.1 Document Management System

A document management system comprises applications that are used to create and manipulate documents
such as word processing, desktop publishing, spreadsheets and image processing.

• Word processing: This is used to create document electronically such as letters, proposals, reports
and brochures. It allows manipulation of such documents and their storage and retrieval.

• Spreadsheet: This is used to maintain records and perform calculations such as expenses, profits
and losses. It is used to perform mathematical, statistical and logical processing.

• Desktop publishing: This is used to produce professional print quality documents with photos and
graphics. A user can combine text, artwork, photos and a variety of fonts to produce the document.

• Multimedia processing: This is used to manipulate and store images, audio and video in a computer.
It can also be used to improve the quality of images, audio and videos.

3.2.2 Payroll System

Organisations employ people for their businesses, management and other activities. The employees have
to be paid their salaries periodically either weekly or monthly. Therefore the payment details of employees
in an organisation have to be processed and stored. Computers facilitate the process using a computer
program that consists of a number of smaller programs or modules. Each module performs a particular
function of the payroll. This set of programs is called a payroll system.
To calculate the pay of an employee, organisations normally use employee number (a unique number
assigned to an employee), name, basic pay, allowances, deductions and bank account number. Using a
payroll system, the details of the employees are stored permanently in a master file in a computer storage.
For example, if an employee completes a year of service, he normally gets an increment. This is updated
using the master update module of the payroll system. Another module of the payroll system reads details
from master file and calculates net pay. The program also prints out pay slip for each employee. A pay
slip shows the employee number, name, basic pay, various allowances, various deductions and net pay.
The payroll system also generates a number of statements.
3.2.3 Office Support System
This is a collection of programs that are used to coordinate the activities of a workgroup in an organisation.
The members of a work-group can use the system to collaborate and exchange information irrespective
of their location. Examples of groupware applications are Lotus Notes and Microsoft SharePoint and
Exchange. Most of the groupware applications include calendering and scheduling, discussion databases,
reference library and messaging.
3.2.4 Data Management System
This is used to effectively organise, manipulate and store records. Educational organisations use data
management system to manage employee and student records. In addition to employee records, hospitals
use data management system to keep the records of patients, medicines and prescriptions.
3.2.5 Communication Systems
These are used to send messages, documents, images, audio and videos from one location to another.
These programs includes facsimile (Fax), email and Teleconference.

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Business Operations Applications of Computers

3.3 Business Operations

Computers have tremendously improved the way businesses operate in their respective industries. Busi-
nesses that do not use computers are at a major disadvantage against their competitors. The following
are some of the applications of computers in businesses.
3.3.1 Transaction Processing System
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) are among the earliest computerised systems catering to the
requirements of large business enterprises. The purpose of a typical TPS is to record, process, validate
and store transactions that occur in the various functional areas of a business for subsequent retrieval and
usage. A transaction could be internal or external. When a department requisitions material supplies
from stores, an internal transaction is said to have occurred. However, when the purchase department
purchases materials from a supplier, an external transaction takes place. The steps involved in TPS are
data entry, data validation, processing and revalidation, storage and reporting.
3.3.2 Order Processing System
Companies often use a set of processes to complete the tasks and activities that occur in their businesses
every day. Order processing is one of these activities. An order processing system captures order data
from customer service employees or from customers directly, stores the data in a central database and
sends order information to the accounting and shipping departments, if applicable. Order processing
systems provide tracking data on orders and inventory for every step of the way.
3.3.3 Inventory Control System
Computers are used to keep track of purchases and raw materials needed in an organization. The purchases
and raw materials are called inventories and the set of programs used to keep track of these inventories
constitute the inventory control system. Therefore, a particularly quantity of each item or raw material
has to be stocked. An inventory control system helps in planning and control functions of inventory
management.
The inventory control system maintains a file with item number, name, quantity on stock a company
orders and the suppliers’ addresses. This file is the inventory master. When an item is issued, the
inventory update program updates the inventory master reducing the stock by the quantity issued. If
the resultant stock falls below the reorder level, the inventory control program prints out an order to the
supplier of the item automatically. It can also be mailed to the supplier. When the supplier supplies the
item, the inventory control program updates the stock. The inventory control system can quickly inform
the management of a company on the usage of items over a period of time. It also maintains an optimum
level of stock of these items.
3.3.4 Decision Support System
A decision support system is a computer application that helps users in analysing problems and making
business decisions more confidently. It uses data routinely collected in organizations and special analysis
tools to provide information support to complex decisions. For example, a sales department of a company
may be interested in analysing various sales decision options. The decision support application might
gather data, present the data graphically and help in evaluating various options. It may use past sales
figures, project sales based on sales assumptions for each alternative considered and display information
graphically. It may also use artificial intelligence to enhance its decision support capability.

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Banking and Finance Applications of Computers

3.3.5 Electronic Commerce

Electronic commerce is the process of searching, choosing, buying and selling of products or services on
the electronic network. It uses the computer and communication networks for promoting products, selling,
delivery, collection and delivery service. In e-commerce, the parties to a transaction interact electronically.
They may be separated by long distances physically, yet the electronic network brings them together
not only to complete a transaction but also to get sales support. The most important advantage of the
internet for business firms is that it allows reaching customers at very low costs.

3.4 Banking and Finance

The following are the major impacts of the use of computers in banking and finance:
3.4.1 Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
An Automated Teller Machine (ATM) is a device that uses computers to enable a customer perform
financial transactions using a personal identification number. This enabled an ATM to dispense cash at
any time of the day and night, unlike the traditional method where customers have to queue in a bank for
a very long time in order to withdraw cash or transfer funds. To use an ATM, a customer is issued an
ATM card. This is a plastic card, which bears the customer’s name. This card is magnetically coded
and can be read by the ATM machine. Each card holder is provided with a secret personal identification
number (PIN). Upon use, the customer has to insert the plastic card in the slot of the machine. After the
card is recognized by the machine, the customer enters his personal identification number. After verifying
the identity of the customers, the ATM machine allows the customer to do the desired transaction. When
the transaction is completed, the ATM ejects the customer’s card.
3.4.2 Telephone Banking
Telephone banking provides a 24 hour banking facility to customers. Telephone banking is based on a
voice processing facility that is controlled using computers. Telephone banking enables a customer to call
a bank and make enquiry about balance in his account or other transaction history. In this system, the
computers at the bank are connected to a telephone link with the help of a modem. Voice processing
facility is provided in the software. The software identifies the voice of the caller and provides a suitable
reply.
3.4.3 Internet Banking
Internet banking enables a customer to do banking transactions through the bank’s website on the Internet.
It is a system of accessing accounts and general information on bank products and services through a
computer. This is more or less bringing the bank to your computer. In traditional banking, a customer
has to approach the branch in person to withdraw cash or deposit a cheque or request a statement of
accounts. However, Internet banking has changed the way of banking now, because a customer can do
transactions using a computer through the website of a bank. All such transactions are encrypted using
computer software. A customer can be rest assured that transactions are secure and confidential.
3.4.4 Bankers Automated Clearing Services
This involves the use of Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) for cheque processing. It is capable of
encoding, reading and sorting cheques. Also, request for cheque books or purchase of draft can be made
and granted via electronic devices.

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Computational Science and Engineering Applications of Computers

3.4.5 Accounting Information System

Accounting software is used to implement a computerised accounting system. The computerised accounting
system is based on the concept of databases. It does away with the concept of creating and maintaining
journals, ledger, etc., which are essential while working with manual accounting system. A computerised
accounting system offers the following features:

• Online input and storage of accounting data.

• Print out of purchase and sales invoices.

• Logical scheme for codification of accounts and transactions. Every account and transaction is
assigned a unique code.

• Grouping of accounts is done from the very beginning.

• Instant reports for management, for example – Statement, Trial Balance, Trading and Profit and
Loss Account, Balance Sheet, Stock Valuation, Value Added Tax (VAT), Returns, Payroll Report,
etc.

Accounting Information System (AIS) identifies, collects, processes and communicates economic information
about an entity to a wide variety of users. Such information is organised in a manner that correct decisions
can be based on it.

3.5 Computational Science and Engineering

Computational science (also known as scientific computing) is a collection of tools, techniques and theories
required to solve complex problems in science and engineering using computers. Majority of these tools,
techniques and theories were originally developed in Mathematics before the advent of electronic computers.
This set of mathematical theories and techniques is called Numerical Analysis (or Numerical Mathematics)
and constitutes a major part of computational science. The development of the electronic computer,
however, signalled a new era in the approach to the solution of scientific problems.
Many numerical methods that had been developed for the purpose of hand calculation (including the
use of desk calculators for the actual arithmetic) had to be revised. Considerations that where irrelevant or
unimportant for hand calculation now became of utmost importance for the efficient and correct use of a
large computer system. Many of these considerations such as programming languages, operating systems,
management of large quantities of data, correctness of programs, were subsumed under the new discipline
of Computer Science, on which scientific computing now depends heavily. In summary, scientific computing
draws on mathematics and computer science to develop the best way to use computer systems to solve
problems in science and engineering. Computational biology, computation chemistry, computational
engineering, computation mathematics and computational physics are sub-fields of computational science.

3.6 Education
Computers have become essential in education, that is, the use of computers in imparting education to
student has been found attractive and satisfying. The use of multimedia packages, hypertext video chats,
web based education, multimedia based education, intelligent tutoring system, digital libraries, simulation
laboratories, tele-education find their places in education. Some of the uses of computers in education

33
Education Applications of Computers

includes Computer Aided Learning (CAL), Computer Aided Instruction (CAI), distance learning, digital
libraries and electronic learning (e-learning).
3.6.1 Computer Aided Learning (CAL)
Computer Aided Learning (CAL) is an interactive technology that describes an educational environment
where a computer program is used to assist people in learning a particular area of study. CAL refers to
an overall integrated approach of instrumental methods. CAL is a device/learning strategy that makes
teaching more interesting and sustainable. CAL is becoming an important part of education system. CAL
system has the following merits;

• Well organized and readily accessible information to user.

• Allows users to work privately and without any interference.

• Elegant way to present information through graphics and animation.

• Rapid response to user’s queries.

• Overcomes traditional approach of blackboard and most of times one way communication.

• User satisfaction can be achieved as it can be used multiple times.

• It is convenient as it can be used at home or work place.

• It is dynamic because its content can be easily modified and upgraded depending upon current
information.

• It is self-evaluating, resource effective, dependable, simulative and numerically judicious.

3.6.2 Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)

Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) is a strategy of delivering learning objectives using computer-based
tools and applications such as electronic lecture halls and electronic seminar rooms in a university
for multimedia supported lectures, the use of projectors in lecture halls and interactive white boards
and screens. There is also a video conference system for live conversations with external discussions
transmitted into lecture halls. Video conferences can be used to transfer lectures to another venue within
the same university or other universities, thereby increasing the inter university cooperation with live
video conference between two lecturers on the same subject in different universities. Computers also find
their place in classrooms for the purpose of presenting graphics, animation and attractive presentation,
which allows easy understanding for the students.
3.6.3 Electronic Learning (E-learning)
Electronic learning (E-learning) refers to the use of networked information and communications technology
in teaching and learning. A number of other terms are also applied to e-learning like online learning,
virtual learning, distributed learning, network and web-based learning. There are four basic models for
e-learning:

• Individualized self-paced e-learning online: This refers to situations where an individual

learner is accessing learning resources such as a database or course content online via an Intranet.

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Education Applications of Computers

A typical example of this is a learner studying alone or conducting some research on the Internet or
a local network.

• Individualized self-paced e-learning offline: This refers to situations where an individual

learner is using learning resources such as a database or a computer-assisted learning package offline
(while not connected to an Intranet). An example of this is a learner working alone off a hard drive,
a CD or DVD.

• Group-based e-learning synchronously: This refers to situations where groups of learners are
working together in real time through the Intranet. It may include text-based conferencing, and one
or two-way audio and video conferencing. Examples of this include learners engaged in a real-time
chat or an audio-video conference.

• Group-based e-learning asynchronously: This refers to situations where groups of learners are
working over an Intranet, where exchanges among participants occur with a time delay (not in real
time). Typical examples of this kind of activity include on-line discussions via electronic mailing
lists and text-based conferencing within learning management systems.

3.6.4 Distance Learning

Distance learning is usually defined as education that takes place when distance or technology separates
the teacher and the learner. The education modes are print correspondence, audio graphics, instrumental
television, videotape, teleconferencing and a computer conferencing. Choosing a mode depends on
educational need or goal. It may be divided as asynchronous or static education, and synchronous or
dynamic (real-time) distance education.

• Asynchronous or static distance education: This means that students and instructors are not
required to be present at the same time. Students do not have to be gathered together in the same
location at the same time. Rather, they may choose their own instructional time frame and gather
learning materials according to their schedules. Delivery modes of asynchronous distance education
include email, video/audio tapes, web pages, CD-ROMs, fax and traditional postal mail.

• Synchronous distance education: This includes the use of satellite video conference, desktop
video conference and multi-user domain object oriented (MOO). Satellite video conference is usually
a one-way video and a one-way audio with a telephone number available for questions. Satellite video
conference is used to cover mass education. Desktop video conferences may be a one-way video and
a two-way audio or a two-way video and audio. Video conferencing technology is used to simulate a
classroom environment for distance learners. The system supports spontaneous interactive lectures,
question and answer sessions and discussions with the students. Multi-user domain Object Oriented
(MOO) allows users to connect from anywhere in the world and enables them to communicate with
others in real time (as opposed to the delayed communication of email). Instructors may use a Web
interface over the MOO to interact with their participants. Courses delivered over the MOO require
less overhead cost than those via video conferences.

3.6.5 Digital Libraries

Digital libraries are an electronic collection of real or virtual resources that are available online or offline
anywhere in the world. They have become widely accepted and even preferred information sources in

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Engineering Design Applications of Computers

areas of education, science and others. The speedy expansion of the Internet and the increasing interest
in development of digital library related technologies and collections helped to speed up the digitization
of printed documents in the past few years. Advantages of digital libraries includes;

• Minimizing storage space.

• Cutting down the cost of library maintenance and resource distribution.

• Information that cannot be provided in printed format can be presented using audio and videos.

• Easy for distribution via the Internet, compact disk (CD) and digital versatile disk (DVD).

• Less time required for searching.

• Multiple access.

3.6.6 Publication
Publication of research work is an important aspect in any field of study and a vital element of academic
profession. The use of computers in writing and editing makes it very effortless and versatile to prepare
and publish article. Computers may be required at the different stages for authors, publishers and
reviewers. For writing a paper, word processing applications are used, which are available on a computer
and easy to operate. Word processing applications provide numerous tools for typing and processing
options for documents such as spell check correcting grammatical mistake, providing option for inserting
tables of required size, graphics, footnotes and many more.
When it comes to publishing articles, conventional ways are very tedious and time consuming. But
the use of computers and Internet makes it very easy. The Internet can be used to search for a list of
different journals, their guidelines for writing research paper and submission process. Most journals today
offer the opportunity to submit paper through their websites, which is called “electronic submission” or
“e-submission”. E-submission is a faster mode of submitting paper by just one click. Publishers can also
send back articles to the author for corrections by e-mail.

3.7 Engineering Design

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computer systems in design process. A CAD system consists
of computer hardware, specialised software and peripherals. The role of the CAD is aiding a designer to

• Accurately generate and easily modify graphical representation of a product. The user can view the
actual product on screen, make any modifications to it, and present ideas on screen without any
prototype, especially during the early stages of the design process.

• Perform complex design analysis in short time and implement finite elements analysis methods.

• Perform static, dynamic and natural frequency analysis, heat transfer analysis, plastic analysis, fluid
flow analysis, motion analysis, tolerance analysis and design optimisation.

• Record and recall information with consistency and speed. In particular, the use of Product Data
Management (PDM) systems enables storing a whole design and processing history of a certain
product for future reuse and upgrade.

36
Expert Systems Applications of Computers

CAD is one of the most popular computer tools used by engineers. CAD helps engineers create designs,
analyse equipment and optimize engineering processes. Computers use CAD software to analyse how
certain conditions may affect the engineer’s design and understand which safety precautions may be
necessary for different processes. For example, an engineer may use software to simulate how a bridge
would hold up under stress from inclement weather, earthquakes or heavy traffic. Engineers may then use
these results to make decisions and develop solutions to any problem that arise.

3.8 Expert Systems

An expert system gathers together a database of knowledge or expertise to offer advice or solution for
problems in a particular area by emulating the abilities and judgements of human experts. It accumulates
all the expert knowledge in a given area so that the advice or solution offered is better than that of a single
consultant or expert. It guides users through problems by asking them a set of questions about the problem.
The answers given are checked against the rule base in the system to draw appropriate conclusions from
the problem situation. Expert systems are particularly useful in dealing with unstructured problems.
Developing an expert system involves extracting relevant knowledge from human experts in the area of
problem, called domain experts. Such knowledge is often heuristic in nature, that is, useful knowledge
based on some “rules of thump” rather than absolute certainties. Acquisition of such rules of thump
and storing them in knowledge base are serious tasks in building a knowledge base. The expert system
consists of two major parts: the development environment and the consultation environment. The expert
system builder uses the development environment to build the components and stores expertise into the
knowledge base. Non-expert users use the consultation environment to get the expert opinion and advice
from the expert system.

3.9 Geographic Information System (GIS)

Geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based system that acquires spatial data from a
variety of sources, changes the data into useful formats, stores the data, and retrieves and manipulates
the data for analysis. GIS is a computer software that links geographic information (where things are)
with descriptive information (what things are). GIS shows data on a map such as streets, buildings and
vegetations, which enables people to analyse and understand patterns and relationships.
With GIS technology, people can compare the locations of different things in order to discover how they
relate to each other. For example, using GIS, a single map could include sites that produce pollution,
such as factories, and sites that are sensitive to pollution, such as wetlands and rivers. Such a map would
help people determine where water supplies are most at risk. GIS applications include both hardware and
software systems. These applications may include cartographic data, photographic data, digital data or
data in spreadsheets.

3.10 Healthcare
Health care institutions employ computer systems to maintain patient records. It is often necessary
to maintain detailed records of the medical history of patients. Doctors often require the information
about a patient’s family history, physical ailments, already diagnosed diseases and prescribed medicines.
This information can be effectively stored in a computer database. Applications of computers in health
also include medical equipments, electronic medical record and telemedicine, pharmaceutical analysis,
computer aided drug design, clinical trials and pharmacokinetics.

37
Healthcare Applications of Computers

3.10.1 Medical Equipment and Appliances

Most modern medical equipment and appliances have small and programmed computers. The circuitry and
logic in most of the medical equipment is basically a computer. For example, the functioning of hospital-
bed beeping systems, emergency alarm systems, X-ray machines and several such medical appliances
is based on computer logic. Computer software is also used for diagnosis of diseases. Computer-based
systems are used to examine internal and delicate organs of the body. Some of the complex surgeries can
be performed with the aid of computers. Medical imaging is a vast field that deals with the techniques to
create images of the human body for medical purposes. Many of the modern methods of scanning and
imaging are largely based on the computer technology such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
3.10.2 Electronic Medical Records (EMR)
The use of computers helps in gathering and storing data about patients. Computers are used in places
such as emergency and intensive care for vital sign monitoring, calculations of cardiac output and even
pulmonary artery pressure. This allows the focus to be solely on the patient and helps in the comparison
of a patient’s present condition to earlier conditions. Computers are also useful in documenting nurse’s
observations. Computer programs either offer nurses a library of common phrases that they can pick to
describe the patient’s condition, or they are offered a series of questions that they answer to describe the
patient’s condition. There is also documentation on the computer that lists all the personnel that worked
on patient’s case.
Electronic medical records (EMR) have increased the efficiency of hospitals by making patient information
readily available and saving office space for the storage of records. It has also eliminated illegible
handwriting, decreases on data-entry errors and automatically connects related records. Through means
of security, only authorized individuals have access to medical records. The computer also keeps track of
the history of those who have visited certain records. Most significantly, EMR has dramatically reduced
the need for paper and storage services.
3.10.3 Telemedicine
Telemedicine is defined as the use of telecommunications technology to deliver medical diagnosis and
patient care to sites that are distant from the provider. This includes health care delivery, diagnosis,
consultation, treatment, education and transfer of medical data. Telemedicine uses computers and a large
array of technologies to distribute health care and educational services, including plain old telephone
service (POTS), cellular systems, integrated services digital network (ISDN), T-1 and T-3 lines, satellite,
and terrestrial microwaves. Besides health care delivery, telemedicine is widely used for distance learning
and continuing medical education for community health providers who do not have access to information.
Well-known examples of telemedicine include: teleradiology (radiographic images are transmitted to
radiologist for interpretation), telepathology (a pathologist can look down and in some cases, control a
microscope located several hundreds miles away), telepsychiatry (a real-time telemedicine application that
is offered routinely as a service in USA and Australia) and surgical telemedicine (used for post-residency
surgical education). From educational perspective, video-conferencing may supplement supervised hands-
on training in the instruction of a new procedure. From a clinical perspective, remote patient evaluation,
consultation, triage decision and non-operative treatment are considered acceptable applications of remote
surgical practice. Teledermatology, home telenursing and minor injuries telemedicine are also in practice.

38
Healthcare Applications of Computers

3.10.4 Pharmaceutical Analysis

Computers in pharmaceutical analysis are mainly utilised for data storage, processing of data and searching
of various files. Also various instruments like ultra violent visible spectrophotometer Infra red instrument,
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), microscopes, mass spectrometer come along with
particular software. The software do all the necessary process required for analysis purpose. Also these
programs contain inbuilt libraries that are useful for searching of data related to different chemical entities.
For example if a mass spectrum of any unknown chemical is obtained then instructions can be given to
the program to find out similar mass spectrum among the library that is present in it, which will help to
find out unknown chemical entity.
3.10.5 Computer Aided Drug Design
Drug design, also sometimes referred to as rational drug design, is the inventive process of finding new
medications based on the knowledge of the biological target. This type of drug design can be assisted by
computer software. Software will generate a number of lead molecules depending upon the feed data and
among these, compound of interest can be developed and tested. If such process is carried out manually
then it will be time consuming and tedious. But the use of computers significantly reduces the time.
Molecular modelling and molecular graphics have shown dramatic growth and are becoming integral part
of drug discovery process.
Molecular modelling is the generation, manipulation and representation of three dimensional form
of molecule. Molecular graphics refers to the use of computer graphics to represent the molecular
structure. In the past, synthetic chemists used molecular models, but computer modelling has enhanced
the detailed display of molecular structures. Various types of software are available such as like AutoDock,
CombiBUILD, DockVision, HINT, LIGPLOT and SITUS.
3.10.6 Clinical Trials
Clinical trials are the important part of current drug development which provides information about
risk and benefits of any medication. Data collection and management are very crucial in clinical trials.
The astonishing advancement in computer hardware and software technology had tremendous impact
on clinical trials, data collection and management. E-clinical software consist of integrated suites of
applications that support clinical research process, including various ways of data collection, data entry,
remote data capture and batch data load. These suites enable users to quickly and easily design studies
and capture clinical data. Some examples of e-clinical software are;

• Oracle clinical V4i from Oracle Corporation

• Data LabsXC from Data labs, Inc.

• Trial master from Omnicomm systems

• Cliniplus Data Management from DZC software solution, Inc.

• Openclinica by Akaza research

3.10.7 Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the science that deals with the rate of absorption, metabolism, distribution and
elimination of drug and its metabolites in the body. Pharmacokinetic analysis is basically carried out to

39
Defence Applications of Computers

get information on renal clearance, volume of distribution, metabolic deposition, absorption and multiple
dosing of drug. This type of analysis can be conducted using software. Classically, long manual calculations
had to be performed and semi-logarithmic paper was used for drawing plots. Now these computations can
be left to the computer. There are different approaches to pharmacokinetics using differential equations
with the help of software. For example, NONLIN is a software that allows users to perform statistical
regression analyses to estimate the values of parameters for linear, multivariate, polynomial, and general
nonlinear functions. The regression analysis determines the values of the parameters that cause the
function to best fit the observed. KINPAK is a software used to obtain Area Under Curve (AUC), peak
plasma concentration (Cmax) and peak plasma time (tmax). ESTRIP and STRIPACT are programs that
are also used for mathematical analysis. These software help in therapeutic drug monitoring of patient.
Other applications such XLSTAT, OpenStat, Prism, SAS, Minitab, SYSTAT and MYSTAT are used for
calculation of regression analysis.

3.11 Defence
The high computation capability of computers was initially utilised in major weapon systems and Electronic
Warfare (EW). The advent of microprocessors enables computers to be used in every area of military
equipment and operations. The need for accurate and timely information is vital for Defence. Computers
with their high speed and unlimited storage are revolutionizing the concept of warfare.
3.11.1 Weapon Systems
Computers are used in the following weapon systems:

• Armoured Vehicles: Computers are used in displaying real-time battle situation, setting guns
for azimuth and elevation, providing accurate information for engaging enemy tanks and tactical
targets, and information on terrain, obstacles, routes and state of armoured fighting vehicles.

• Night Vision: Microprocessor-controlled night vision systems are increasingly being used in basic
infantry and anti-tank weapons for higher accuracy during nights. Mobile computer systems are
being employed for a wide range of communications network and general purpose computing need
at forward field locations.

• Fighter Aircraft: Complex computer systems are essentially required for high performance fighter
aircraft. Extensive use of microprocessor-based cockpit instrumentation made it possible to give
accurate and timely information to the fighter pilot. Separate on-board computer systems assist in
navigation in adverse environmental and tactical situations.

• Missiles: Computers are used in all types of strategic and tactical missile systems to improve their
accuracy. In surface-to-surface ballistic and cruise missiles, a very powerful on-board processor
capable of image processing is used to navigate the missiles to the target. In air-to-surface missiles,
microprocessors have extensively been used to process on-board parameters to correct their course.
In surface-to-air missiles, both in the ground and the on-board systems, powerful computers are
utilised to ensure high probability of hit.

3.11.2 Surveillance and Communication Systems

Computers together with satellites, aircraft sensors and telecommunication networks are used in surveillance
and communication systems to provide accurate information to commanders at various levels to exercise

40
Defence Applications of Computers

effective command and control using reliable communication. Surveillance is gathering information with
respect to the position of an enemy, resources and capabilities. This is obtained by satellites, radars, sonar,
EW equipment installed on land, in ships and in aircraft or in space. Communications is transmitting
the information gathered in surveillance to locations where such information could be processed and
analysed. The decisions based on such analysis are communicated to the theatres of action. A variety
of communication links such as satellite links are employed for this purpose. In each of these systems,
computer technology plays a major role by reducing the time spent in collecting accurate information and
transmitting the information for analysis.
3.11.3 Simulation and Wargaming
Fast and powerful computer systems and efficient simulation software make it possible to configure and
develop real-time man-in-loop simulation system. It provides cost-effective and time-saving support
towards design, development and training programs in respect of complex military systems. Simulation is
an extremely useful technique, which enables better understanding of dynamic behaviour of complicated
physical systems through mathematical modelling. The real-time ground-based simulator systems have
proved efficient in providing training to human operators, without putting them at risk on the real-life
system being simulated. This also increases the operational life of the sophisticated military equipments
and expensive modern weapon systems, which otherwise would have to be utilised for training.
Another major area where computer systems have been effectively utilised is wargaming, A simulation
of battlefield situation is provided to different levels of commanders to test their professional skills
and decision-making capabilities. A computer system provides flexibility of use of the visual displays
for different operations of war. Highly complex situations can be simulated with the help of powerful
computers. A number of dynamic simulation probabilistic models for different types of battles have been
developed and are being utilised to determine the effectiveness of battle tactics.

41
 Chapter
4
Data Representation and Processing

This chapter presents the following:

• How data is represented in computers

• How computers process and organise data

4.1 Introduction
The word "data" is the plural of datum, which means fact, observation, assumption or occurrence. More
precisely, data are representations of facts pertaining to people, things, ideas and events. Data are
represented by symbols such as letters of the alphabets; student names and product names, numerals;
employee number or other special symbols. Data processing refers to generating and organising data in a
useful way. People and organisations generate data to keep record of activities, events and transactions.
Data collection, processing, storage and retrieval can be facilitated using a computer system. This chapter
is concerned with how data is represented and processed in computers.

4.2 Data Representation

All information in the computer is handled using electrical components like the integrated circuits and
semiconductors, all of which can recognize only two states; presence or absence of an electrical signal.
Two symbols used to represent these two states are 0 and 1, and are known as BITS (an abbreviation for
BInary digiTS). A zero (0) represents the absence of a signal and one (1) represents the presence of a
signal. Therefore, a BIT is the smallest unit of data in a computer and can either store a 0 or 1. Since a
single bit can store only one of the two values, there can possibly be only four unique combinations:

00 01 10 11

Therefore, bits are combined together into larger units in order to hold greater range of values. NIBBLES
are four sequence of bits. BYTES are typically a sequence of eight bits put together to create a single
computer alphabetical or numerical character.
Bytes are used to quantify the amount of data digitally stored (on disks, tapes) or transmitted (over a
network), and are also used to measure the memory and document size. A CHARACTER is represented

42
Data Representation Data Representation and Processing

by one byte. It can be a letter, digit, punctuation mark or special characters. A WORD is a combination
of 2 bytes or more. Bytes may appear as Kilobytes (210 = 1024 bytes), Megabytes (220 = 1, 048, 576
bytes), Gigabytes (230 = 1, 073, 741, 824 bytes), Terabytes (240 = 1, 099, 511, 627, 776 bytes), or Petabytes
(250 = 1, 125, 899, 906, 842, 624 bytes).
4.2.1 Representing Text
Text is represented in a computer using an agreed unique code for every letter, number and symbol that
needs to be presented. Each code consists of a fixed-length and unique sequence of bits. A word can then
be ‘written’ by determining the code for each letter and putting them together. The common agreed code
for text representation in computer is the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
ASCII uses 8-bit strings or one byte to represent an alphabet. Appendix A presents an overview of the
ASCII codes. Therefore, the text “A Computer” can be encoded as follows:

A C o m p u t e r
01000001 100000 01000011 01101111 01101101 01110000 01110101 01110100 01100101 01110010

Therefore, text files generally contain long sequences of code (mostly ASCII) as described above. A
text editor translates the sequence of code into a human readable format and the other way round.
4.2.2 Representing Numbers
The ASCII (or Unicode) table in Appendix A includes codes for the representation of numbers. However,
this is not an ideal way of representing numbers if they are used within a calculation. The ASCII code
uses eight (8) bits or one byte to represent a single-digit number, therefore the largest number that
can be stored is nine (9). However, if numbers are represented in binary (rather than decimal), eight
bits can represent numbers from 0 to 127. There is also an advantage of having a number translated
into a different numeric system (i.e. the binary system) where it remains a number and where hence
mathematical calculations can still be conducted. Binary numbers are represented using bit sequences.
The representation follows the same simple principle as the decimal system.
The binary system uses 2 as its base with the digits 0 and 1. Therefore the binary number 10110102 = 9010
and vice versa as shown below:

1011010 = 0×20 + 1×21 + 0×22 + 1×23 + 1×24 + 0×25 + 1×26 = 0 + 2 + 0 + 8 + 16 + 0 + 64 = 9010

90
2 = 45 remainder 0

45
2 = 22 remainder 1

22
2 = 11 remainder 0

11
2 = 5 remainder 1

5
2 = 2 remainder 1

2
2 = 1 remainder 0

1
2 = 0 remainder 1

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Data Processing Data Representation and Processing

4.2.3 Representing Images

Computers represent an image by dividing the image into many small picture elements known as pixels.
The appearance of each pixel is then encoded in binary coded form. The collection of these encoded
pixels is known as the bitmap of the image. The method that is used to encode the individual pixels of
a bitmap varies. For example, a black and white image can be represented using a single bit for each
pixel. More sophisticated black-and-white pictures with varying shades of grey may use as 8-bit sequences
(a byte) for each pixel to represent the different shades. A colour image usually uses three bytes to
represent a single pixel. For example, computers frequently use a combination of red, green and blue to
represent a wide spectrum of colour (the RGB colour model). Accordingly, the colour of a pixel can be
represented using three bytes, each representing the intensity of the colours red, green and blue. Files
that store a bitmap image can be rather large, and various compression methods have been developed to
reduce their size. Graphic Interchange Format (GIF), for example, is one such method that reduces the
size of a bitmap file by reducing the number of colours that can be assigned to a pixel to 256, and the
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) developed a compression method which is commonly used to
compress photographs.
4.2.4 Representing Sounds
Sounds are represented in a computer by converting the analogue sound signal into a digital format. This
is achieved by checking and recording the amplitude of the sound wave at regular time intervals. The
recorded values can then be stored in binary form and used to re-construct the initial wave at a later
stage. The sampling frequency used when recording a CD is 44,100 samples per second (44.1 kHz sample
rate), and the sample data is recorded as a 16-bit sequence (32 bits for stereo recordings). For example,
the Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) files is an approach to recording music that is frequently
used in the music synthesisers used for video games or annotation on websites. MIDI files generally require
less memory space, because they store music in the form of parameters that describe the music, such as,
for example, the note to be played, the volume, the tempo, and so on. This usually requires less storage
space than sampling at a rate of 44.1 kHz. The Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG) also developed
various standards to compress both audio and video files. For example, the MPEG layer 3 (MP3) is a
system that compress audio. Compression methods are used reduce storage space and to ensure that
sound files can be easily transmitted across network transmission media.

4.3 Data Processing

Data in its raw form cannot solve any problem. The data needs some processing to make it useful. Data
processing is the conversion of data into a more useful form; handling or manipulating data in some
fashion. Regardless of the activities involved in it, processing tries to assign meaning to data. Thus, the
ultimate goal of processing is to transform data into information. Data processing is the process through
which facts and figures are collected, assigned meaning, communicated to others and retained for future
use. Thus

Data processing is a series of actions or operations that converts data into useful information.
Data processing system is the resources used to accomplish the processing of data.

44
Data Processing Data Representation and Processing

4.3.1 Information
Information refers to data that has been transformed into a meaningful and useful form for specific
purposes. The result obtained by data processing is called information. However, information produced in
one data processing step may be used as data in another data processing step. Although data is generally
not useful unless it is manipulated and organised into meaningful form, in some cases, data may not
require any processing before constituting information. Information is identified and defined by its users,
that is, determining when data becomes information depends on user requirements. For example, purchase
data, such as your name, address, the number of items purchased, the price, the tax and the amount you
paid, are data items when considered separately. However, putting these items together, they represent
information about a business transaction. Similarly putting together student name, number, department,
course, etc., represent information about student registration.
4.3.2 Data Processing Activities
Data processing comprises activities that are necessary to transform data into information. This can be
achieved through the following:

• Manual Data Processing: Data is processed without the help of mechanical devices. Here the
data is processed manually using tools such as abacus, slide rule, Napier bones etc.

• Mechanical Data Processing: Mechanical devices such as calculators, tabulators, etc., are used
for data processing.

• Electronic Data Processing: The data is processed using a computer.

As the complexity of data processing increased, the need for high performance data processing systems
increased. Therefore, the use of electronic data processing outperformed the use of manual and mechanical
methods. Data processing requires various functions and activities that can be grouped under five basic
categories; collection, conversion, manipulation, storage and communication.
Collection
Data originates in the form of events or some observations. The data is then recorded in some usable form.
Data may be initially recorded on paper source documents and then converted into a machine usable
form for processing. Alternatively, the data may be recorded by a direct input device in a paperless,
machine-readable form. Data collection is also termed as data capture. Data collection implies that the
raw data are collected and set out in the form of original document called a source document.
Conversion
Once the data is collected, it is converted from its source documents to a form that is more suitable for
processing. The data is first codified by assigning identification codes. A code comprises of numbers,
letters, special characters or a combination of these. For example, an employee may be allotted a code as
5253162, his category as S or J class. It is useful to codify data, when data requires classification. To
classify means to categorize, that is, data with similar characteristics are placed in similar categories or
groups. After classification of data, it is verified or checked to ensure the accuracy before processing
starts. After verification, the data is transcribed from one data medium to another. For example, in data
processing using a computer, the data may be transformed from source documents to machine sensible
form using magnetic tape or a disk.

45
Data Processing Data Representation and Processing

Manipulation
Once data is collected and converted, it is ready for the manipulation function, which converts data into
information. Manipulation consists of following activities:

• Sorting: This involves the arrangement of data items in a desired sequence. Usually, it is easier
to work with data if it is arranged in a logical sequence. Most often, the data are arranged in
alphabetical sequence. Sometimes sorting itself will transform data into information. For example,
a simple act of sorting the names in alphabetical order gives meaning to a telephone directory. The
directory will be practically worthless without sorting. Business data processing extensively utilises
sorting technique. Virtually all the records in business files are maintained in some logical sequence.
Numeric sorting is common in computer-based processing systems because it is usually faster than
alphabetical sorting.

• Calculating: This is the arithmetic manipulation of data. Items of recorded data can be added to
one another, subtracted, divided or multiplied to create new data. Calculation is an integral part of
data processing. For example, in calculating an employee’s pay, the hours worked multiplied by the
hourly wage rate gives the gross pay. Based on total earning, income-tax deductions are computed
and subtracted from gross-pay to arrive at net pay.

• Summarizing: This is to condense or reduce masses of data to a more usable and concise form.
When the data involved is numbers, you summarize by counting or accumulating the totals of the
data in a classification or by selecting strategic data from the mass of data being processed. For
example, in summarizing a business activity, a general manager may be provided with sales-totals
by major product line or sales totals by individual salesman.

• Comparing: This is to perform an evaluation in relation to some known measures. For example,
business managers compare data to discover how well their companies are doing. They may compare
current sales figures with those for last year to analyse the performance of the company in the
current month.

Managing the Output Results

Once data has been captured and manipulated, the following activities may be performed:

• Storing: This is to hold data for continued or later use. Storage is essential for any organised
method of processing and re-using data. The basic requirement for utilizing the computer is the
ability to store and access data. The storage mechanisms for a computer are magnetic disks/magnetic
tapes. The storing activity involves storing data and information in organised manner in order to
facilitate the retrieval activity. The data should be stored only if the value of having them in future
exceeds the storage cost.

• Retrieving: This is the process of searching or locating a data item from the storage. Using a
computer, the data is retrieved from the storage device in sequential, indexed sequential or random
access mode.

46
Data Processing Data Representation and Processing

Communication
Communication is the process of sharing information. Unless the information is made available to the
users who need it, it is worthless. Thus, communication involves the transfer of data and information
produced by the data processing system to the prospective users of such information or to another data
processing system. As a result, reports and documents are prepared and delivered to the users. Using a
computer, results are communicated through display units or terminals or printed out.
Reproduction
To reproduce is to copy or duplicate data or information. This reproduction activity can be done using a
computer.
4.3.3 The Data Processing Cycle
The data processing activities described above can be grouped into four (4) functional categories consti-
tuting what is known as a data processing cycle (also called Information Processing Cycle); data input,
data processing, data output and data storage.

• Input: The term input refers to the activities required to record data and to make it available
for processing. The input can also include the steps necessary to check, verify and validate data
contents. A computer can accept data (input) from a wide range of input devices such as keyboards,
mouse, microphones and scanners.

• Processing: The term processing denotes the actual data manipulation techniques such as clas-
sifying, sorting, calculating, summarizing, comparing, etc., that convert data into information.
Computer circuits perform calculations on numbers. They are also capable of manipulating numerics
and other symbols used in text with equal efficiency. A computer also possesses the ability to
perform logic operations. For example, if we compare two items represented by the symbols A and
B, there are only three possible outcomes. A is less than B (A<B); A is equal to B (A=B): or A is
greater than B (A>B). A computer can perform such comparisons and, depending on the result,
follow a predetermined path to complete its work. This ability to compare is an important property
of computers.

• Output: This is a communication function that transmits the information generated to the needed
person. Sometimes output also includes decoding activity which converts the electronically generated
information into human-readable form. A computer can supply processed data (information) to a
wide range of output devices such as display screens and printers.

• Storage: This involves the filing of data and information for future use. Both data and program
instructions are stored internally in a computer. Once they are stored in the internal memory, they
can be called up quickly or retrieved for further use.

Thus, a computer is a data processing system that uses data as input and processes the data to produce
information as output. These achieve the function of data processing cycle. The four basic function are
performed in a logical sequence as presented in Figure 4.1.

47
Data Processing Data Representation and Processing

Storage Processing output

Data and Sorting Data and
Storing Information Calculating Information Communicate
and Retrieving Summarizing Reproduce
Comparing

Data

Collecting
Converting

Input

Figure 4.1: Data processing life cycle

4.3.4 Data Organisation

Data can be arranged or organised in a variety of ways, before using a computer for processing. The
hierarchical approach to organisation of data is generally recommended.

• Data Item: A data item is the smallest unit of information stored in a computer file. It is a single
element used to represent a fact such as an employee’s name, student number and item price.

• Field: Data items are physically arranged as fields in a computer file. Their length may be fixed or
variable. For example a student identification number that uses eight digit has a fixed field length.
In contrast, name varies considerably from one student to another, therefore student names has
variable field length.

• Record: A record is a collection of related data fields. Each record normally corresponds to a
specific unit of information.

• Database: The collection of related files is called a database. A database contains all the related
files for a particular application.

48
 Chapter
5
Computer Networks

This chapter presents the following:

• Computer networks

• The Internet

5.1 Introduction
A computer network is a collection of computers and other hardware components interconnected by
communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. Two devices are said to be in a
network if at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at least one process
residing in a remote device. Simply, two or more computers interconnected through a communication
medium for information interchange is called a computer network.
5.1.1 Types of Computer Networks
Networks come in a wide variety of types. The most common are local area networks (LANs) and wide
area networks (WANs), but there are many other types of networks, including metropolitan area networks
(MANs), storage area networks (SANs), intranets and extranets.
Local Area Network (LAN)
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical
area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings.
Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on
Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-T also provide a way to create a wired LAN using
existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Wide area networks are used to connect LANs together. Typically, WANs are used when the LANs that
must be connected are separated by a long distance. WANs are leased from carrier networks, such as
telephone companies. Four basic types of connections, or circuits, are used in WAN services: circuit-
switched, cell-switched, packet-switched, and dedicated connections. A wide array of WAN services are

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Introduction Computer Networks

available, including analogue dialup, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), dedicated circuits, cable, digital
subscriber line (DSL) Frame Relay, Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), Switched Multi-megabit
Data Services (SMDS), and X.25. Analog dialup and ISDN are examples of circuit switched services,
ATM and SMDS are examples of cell-switched services, and Frame Relay and X.25 are examples of
packet-switched services.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a hybrid between a LAN and a WAN. Like a WAN, it connects two
or more LANs in the same geographic area. A MAN, for example, might connect two different buildings
or offices in the same city. A MAN provides high-speed connections, such as T1 (1.544 Mbps) and
optical services. The optical services provided include the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) and
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) standards. With these optical services, carriers can provide high-
speed services, including ATM and Gigabit Ethernet. These two optical services provide speeds ranging
into the hundreds or thousands of megabits per second (Mbps). Devices used to provide connections for
MANs include high-end routers, ATM switches and optical switches.
Storage Area Network
A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block level
data storage. Storage area networks are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape
libraries and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices appear like locally attached devices
to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not
accessible through the local area network by other devices.
Intranet
An Intranet is basically a network that is local to a company, that is, users from within the company can
find their resources without having to go outside of the company. An Intranet can include LANs, private
WANs, MANs and SANs.
Extranet
An extranet is an extended intranet, where certain internal services are made available to known external
users or external business partners at remote locations. The connections between these external users and
the internal resource are typically secured.
5.1.2 Network Topology
A topology is the characteristic of a communication network that consists of both the physical configuration
of the cabling that is used to inter connect communicating system and the logical way in which system
view the structure of the network. Topology is therefore the physical or logical arrangement of computers.
The following sections explained the different types of network topologies.
Star Topology
This topology consists of a central node to which all other nodes are connected. Star topology is used
in most existing information networks involving data processing and voice communication. This allows
sufficient connection point to be provided for one sub–area, while providing flexibility in their allocation
within that area. Figure 5.1 shows a typical star and extended star topologies.

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Introduction Computer Networks

Figure 5.1: Star and extended star topologies

Advantages of star topology

• Diagnosis and isolation of problem is easy.

• Easy to add a new computer system to the network.

• Failure of one workstation does not affect the entire network.

• Uses a single access protocols.

• Provides ease of service.

• It is very fast.

Disadvantages of star topology

• There is central node dependency.

• Always requires very long cable length when connecting many nodes.

Bus Topology
The bus topology is the simplest method of networking computers. It consists of a single cable known as
a trunk, backbone or segment that connects all the computers in the network. Each system is directly
attached to a common communication channel. Signal that is transmitted over the channel makes up the
messages. As each message passes along the channel, each system receives the message and examine the
destination address contained in the message. If the destination address tells a particular system that the
message is addressed to it, that system accepts and process the message, if the message address tells the
computer that the message is intended for another system, that computer will ignore the message.
In a bus topology, signals are sent to all the computers in the network. To keep the signal from bouncing
back and forth along the cable, a terminator, British Naval Connector (BNC), is placed at the end of the
cable. In a bus topology only one computer can send data at a time, therefore increasing the number of
computers in a bus slows data transmission in the network. A typical bus topology is shown in Figure 5.2

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Introduction Computer Networks

Figure 5.2: Bus topology

Advantages of Bus topology

• It is cheap, because of its simplicity.

• It requires a short cable length.

• It is easy to expand the network.

• It is easy to set up compared to Star and Ring topologies.

• There is no chances for data collision since only one computer can transmit at a time.

• Locating cable fault in a bus topology is relatively easy.

• Bus topology is ideal for one to many data transmission.

• Signal on the cable are bidirectional, hence reaches all the nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology

• Fault diagnosis is difficult in a bus topology – detection of fault may have to be performed from any
point in the network.

• Fault isolation is difficult – if fault in the node is detected, the node can simply be removed. But if
the fault is in the network medium itself, the entire segment of the bus must be disconnected to
isolate the fault.

• Repeater configuration – When a bus type network has its backbone intended for using a repeater,
configuration maybe necessary thus may involve tailoring cable length and adjusting terminator.

• Computer nodes must be intelligence – each node on the network is directly connected to the central
bus. This means that each node must have method of deciding and detecting its own data.

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each node is connected to form a single closed data path as shown in Figure 5.3. Data
from one node is passed along to the next node from which it will be examined, and if that node is not
the intended destination, then it is transmitted to the next node until the destination is reached. Token
(a special bit pattern) is circulated in the network to enable a node to capture the data. Ring topology
might be structured so that there are a number of information frames or slot in construct circulation.
A node wishing to transmit first detects the arrival of an empty slot then inserts the data it wishes to
send and mark the frame as full. The receiving node takes the data and then marks the frame as empty.
In implementation, one particular node has the responsibility for generating the token or slot when the
network is first constituted.

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Introduction Computer Networks

Figure 5.3: Ring topology

Advantages of ring topology

• The ability to achieve transmission rates of the order of 10 million bits per second.

• Provision of local communication via a single channel.

• No central server, which reduces the cost of establishing the ring topology.

Disadvantages of ring Topology

• Failure of one node result into entire network failure.

• Detection and isolation of fault is very difficult in ring topology.

Tree Topology
The tree topology integrates multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub
devices connect directly to the tree bus and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of devices. This
bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited
in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub
connection points) alone. A typical tree topology is shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Tree topology

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Introduction Computer Networks

Advantages of a Tree Topology

• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

• Supported by several hardware and software vendors.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Mesh Topology
Mesh topology involves the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on
a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. Some WANs, most
notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other
is called a full mesh as shown in Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5: A mesh topology

5.1.3 Communication Media

Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware and associated software technology that
is used to interconnect the individual devices in the network, such as electrical cable, optical fibre and
radio waves (wireless LAN).
Wired Technologies
The order of the following wired technologies is from slowest to fastest transmission speed.

• Twisted pair wire: This is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair
cabling consists of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two
insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer networking cabling (wired Ethernet as defined
by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data
transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic
induction. The transmission speed ranges from two million bits per second to 10 billion bits per

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second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded
twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios.

• Coaxial cable: This cable consists of copper or aluminium wire surrounded by an insulating
layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric constant), which itself is surrounded by a
conductive layer. The insulation helps minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed
ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per second.

• ITU-T technology: This uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines)
to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network.

• An optical fibre: This is a glass fibre that uses pulses of light to transmit data. Some advantages
of optical fibres over metal wires are less transmission loss, immunity from electromagnetic radiation
and very fast transmission speed, up to trillions of bits per second. One can use different colours of
lights to increase the number of messages being sent over a fibre optic cable.
Wireless Technologies
• Terrestrial microwave: This uses earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite
dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-giga hertz range, which limits all communications to
line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km apart.

• Communications satellite: This communicates via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected
by the Earth’s atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit
35,400 km above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying
voice, data and TV signals.

• Cellular systems: These use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the
region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay
antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

• Radio and spread spectrum technologies: Wireless local area networks use a high-frequency
radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use
spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area.
IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavour of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology.

• Infra-red communication: This can transmit signals for small distances, typically no more than
10 meters. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of
communicating devices.

• A global area network (GAN): This is a network used for supporting mobile communication
across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in
mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next.
In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.

5.1.4 Network Devices

Apart from the physical communications media themselves as described above, networks comprise
additional basic hardware building blocks that interconnect their terminals, such as network interface
cards (NICs), hubs, bridges, switches and routers.

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Introduction Computer Networks

Network Interface Cards (NIC)

A network interface card, network card or network adapter, is a piece of computer hardware designed to
allow computers to physically access a networking medium. It provides a low-level addressing system
through the use of media access control (MAC) addresses. Each network interface has a unique MAC
address which is usually stored in a small memory device on the card, allowing any device to connect to
the network without creating an address conflict. Ethernet MAC addresses are composed of six octets.
Uniqueness is maintained by the Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), which manages
the Ethernet address space by assigning 3-octet prefixes to equipment manufacturers. The list of prefixes
is publicly available. Each manufacturer is then obliged to both use only their assigned prefix(es) and to
uniquely set the 3-octet suffix of every Ethernet interface they produce.
Repeaters and hubs
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it and
retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover
longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required
for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters
require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can
affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row. Many network architectures
limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row (e.g. Ethernet’s 5-4-3 rule). Today, repeaters and
hubs have been made mostly obsolete by switches.
Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments together. Bridges broadcast to all ports except
the port on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all
ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge
associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only. Bridges learn
the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames received on various
ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC
address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen,
the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived. Bridges
come in three basic types:

• Local bridges: Connect LANs directly.

• Remote bridges: Can be used to create a WAN link between LANs. Remote bridge were largely
replaced by routers, particularly, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks.

• Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters (chunks of data communication) between ports
(connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it
only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A
switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding

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decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a
star topology for devices and cascading additional switches.
Routers
A router is an inter-networking device that forwards packets between networks by processing information
found in the datagram or packet. In many situations, this information is processed in conjunction with
the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing tables to determine what interface
to forward packets.
5.1.5 Transmission Modes
A given transmission on a communications channel between two machines can occur in several different
ways. The transmission is characterized by:

• The direction of the exchange.

• The number of bits sent at a time.

• Channel; synchronous and asynchronous.

Direction of the Exchange

There are three different transmission modes characterised according to the direction of the exchanges:

• A simplex connection is a connection in which data flows in only one direction, from the transmitter
to the receiver. This type of connection is useful if the data does not need to flow in both directions
(for example, from your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer).

• A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a connection

in which the data flow in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time. With this
type of connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn. This type of connection makes it
possible to have bidirectional communications using the full capacity of the line.

• A full-duplex connection is a connection in which the data flow in both directions simultaneously.
Each end of the line can thus transmit and receive at the same time, which means that the bandwidth
is divided into two for each direction of data transmission if the same transmission medium is used
for both directions of transmission.

Number of Bits Transmitted

The transmission mode refers to the number of elementary units of information (bits) that can be
simultaneously translated by the communications channel. In fact, processors (and therefore computers in
general) never process (in the case of recent processors) a single bit at a time; generally they are able
to process several bits, and for this reason the basic connections on a computer are parallel and serial
connections.

• Parallel connection: This means simultaneous transmission of N bits. These bits are sent simul-
taneously over M different channels (a channel being, for example, a wire, a cable or any other
physical medium). The parallel connection on PC-type computers generally requires 10 wires. These
channels may be:

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– A number of physical lines in which case each bit is sent on a physical line (which is why
parallel cables are made up of several wires in a ribbon cable).
– One physical line divided into several sub-channels by dividing up the bandwidth. In this case,
each bit is sent at a different frequency. Since the conductive wires are close to each other in
the ribbon cable, interference can occur (particularly at high speeds) and degrade the signal
quality.

• Serial connection: In a serial connection, the data are sent one bit at a time over the transmission
channel. However, since most processors process data in parallel, the transmitter needs to transform
incoming parallel data into serial data and the receiver needs to do the opposite. These operations
are performed by a communications controller, normally a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver
Transmitter) chip.

Transmission Channel
• In asynchronous connection, each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example a user
sending characters entered at the keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine that a single
bit is transmitted during a long period of silence; the receiver will not be able to know if this is
00010000, 10000000 or 00000100. To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some
information indicating the start of character transmission (the transmission start information is
called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-transmission information (called STOP bit, there
may even be several STOP bits).

• In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock. The
receiver continuously receives (even when no bits are transmitted) the information at the same
rate the transmitter sends it. This is why the transmitter and receiver are paced at the same
speed. In addition, supplementary information is inserted to guarantee that there are no errors
during transmission. During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent successively with no
separation between each character, so it is necessary to insert synchronization elements; this is called
character-level synchronization. The main disadvantage of synchronous transmission is recognizing
the data at the receiver, as there may be differences between the transmitter and receiver clocks.
That is why each data transmission must be sustained long enough for the receiver to distinguish it.
As a result, the transmission speed cannot be very high in a synchronous link.

5.2 The Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public and private
computer networks. The Internet is a medium of sharing information globally with ease and speed. In this
digital age, more and more of what we do is somehow related to the Internet; job application, business
and marketing, education, communication, etc. The Internet is a global interconnected network of millions
of computers together. Information that travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages known
as protocols. The Internet is a cooperative endeavour—no organization is in charge of the Internet. The
Internet is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. Every computer in the
Internet is identified by a unique Internet Protocol (IP) address. The Internet is accessible to every user
all over the world.

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5.2.1 Internet Evolution

The concept of the Internet originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological and infrastructural
changes. The Internet originated from the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET).
ARPANET was developed by DARPA of the United States Department of Defense. The purpose of
ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of government. In 1972, the
ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different countries and thus became known as
Internet. As the Internet grew, it was used for applications beyond research, such as electronic mail. In
the early 1980s, the current versions of the core Internet protocols, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and Internet Protocol (IP), were introduced. In 1991, the Center for European Nuclear Research (CERN)
released the first versions of World Wide Web (WWW) software. The invention of new technologies such
as Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), WWW, domain name system (DNS),
browsers, scripting languages etc., provided a medium to publish and access information over the web.
5.2.2 Internet Layered Architecture
The Internet consists of four layers as presented in Figure 5.6; application, transport, internet and
host-to-network layers.

Figure 5.6: Internet Layered Architecture

Application layer
It provides different services such as manipulation of information in several ways, re-transferring of
information, distribution of information, etc. The functions such as LOGIN or password checking are also
performed by the application layer. Protocols used in the layer comprises FTP, HTTP, NNTP, SMTP
and Telnet.

• Transfer Protocol (FTP): This protocol is used to copy files from one host to another in the following
manner:

– Creates two processes such as control process and data transfer process at both ends, that is,
at client and server sides.
– Establishes two different connections: one is for data transfer and other is for control information.
– Uses port 21 for the control connection and Port 20 for the data connection.

• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): This protocol is used for communication. It defines
mechanism for communication between browser and the web server. It is also called request and

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response protocol because the communication between browser and server takes place in request
and response pairs.

• Net News Transfer Protocol (NNTP): This protocol is used to access or transfer Usenet news over
the Internet.

• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): This protocol is used for sending e-mails efficiently and
reliably over the Internet. It handles exchange of messages between e-mail servers over TCP/IP
network. Apart from transferring e-mail, SMTP also provides notification regarding incoming mail.
When you send an e-mail, your e-mail client sends it to your e-mail server which further contacts the
recipient mail server using SMTP client. These SMTP commands specify the sender’s and receiver’s
e-mail address, along with the message to be send. The exchange of commands between servers is
carried out without intervention of any user. If messages cannot be delivered, an error report is sent
to the sender which makes SMTP a reliable protocol.

• Telnet: This protocol is used to log in to a remote computer on the Internet. There are a number of
Telnet clients having user friendly interface.

Transport Layer
The transport layer performs the following functions:

• It decides if the data transmission should take place on parallel paths or single path.

• It performs multiplexing and splitting of the data.

• It breaks the data groups into smaller units so that they are handled more efficiently by the network
layer.

The transport layer guarantees transmission of data from one end to another. The transport layer uses
TCP and User datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols for end to end transmission. TCP is a reliable and
connection oriented protocol. TCP provides means to allow two software on difference machines on the
Internet find each other, rendezvous and transfer data. TCP also provides an essential service of making
sure that each piece of data is transferred in the correct sequence and without error. TCP also handles
flow control. The UDP is a connection less protocol. It is not reliable and does not perform flow control.
Internet Layer
The function of this layer is to allow the host to insert packets into network and then make them travel
independently to the destination. However, the order of receiving the packet can be different from the
sequence they were sent. The Internet layer used Internet Protocol (IP) for addressing.
Host-to-Network
This is the lowest layer in the Internet model. The host has to connect to network using some protocols,
so that it can send IP packets. This protocol varies from host to host and network to network. Some of
the protocols used are ARPANET, Ethernet and packet radio.
5.2.3 Internet Design Principles
The fundamental design principles of the Internet are interoperability, layering, simplicity, uniform naming
and addressing and end-to-end protocol.

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Table 5.1: Generic and Country Top-Level Domain Names

Generic Top-Level Domain Names Country Top-Level Domain Names
Domain Name Meaning Domain Name Meaning
com Commercial business ca Canada
edu Education in India
gov U.S. government agency jp Japan
int International entity ng Nigeria
mil U.S. military uk United Kingdom
net Networking organization us United State
org Non profit organization za South Africa

Interoperability
Interoperability means that systems can be assembled using client and server computers and software from
different vendors. In the context of Internet commerce, interoperability means that buyers and sellers do
not have to buy and upgrade software simultaneously from the same vendors to conduct commerce. Thus,
independent implementations of Internet protocols work together.
Layering
Internet protocols are designed to work in layers, with each higher layer building on the facilities provided
by lower layers.
Simplicity
The layering of the Internet grows both up and down from Internet Protocol. Internet Protocol (IP) is
very simple and provides only addressing and formatting of packets. Below the level of IP, there is the
complexity of many different kinds of network hardware, topologies and routers. Internet Protocol (IP)
hides that complexity from applications and insulates application developers from the complexities of
different network devices and the complexities of implementing low-level network protocols. Above IP,
higher-level protocols such as TCP offer service abstractions that are easy for application programmers to
understand and use.
Uniform Naming and Addressing
The IP layer offers a uniform addressing structure that assigns a 32-bit address to each computer connected
to the network known as IP Address. IP address is a unique set of numbers such as 10.23.33.114, which
identifies a computer location. Domain name system (DNS) offers a uniform way to translate human-
readable names for computers, such as www.google.com to the numeric address for that computer. The
domain name system comprises domain names, domain name space and name server.

• Domain Names: Domain name is a symbolic string associated with an IP address. There are several
domain names available; some of them are generic such as com, edu, gov and net, while some are
country level domain names such as au, in, ng, us and za. Table 5.1 shows some of the generic
top-level and country top-level domain names.

• Domain Name Space: The domain name space refers to a hierarchy in the Internet naming structure.
This hierarchy has multiple levels from 0 to 127, with a root at the top. Figure 5.7 shows the domain
name space hierarchy.

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com gov ng org

google Yahoo edu org

abu buk kasu

acc csc

Figure 5.7: Domain Name Space Hierarchy

Each subtree in Figure 5.7 represents a domain. Each domain can be partitioned into sub domains
and these can be further partitioned and so on. For example, the top-level domain for Nigeria is
“ng”, which is further partitioned into “edu” and “org” domains for educational institutions and
Nigerian government agencies respectively. The domain for educational institutions comprises “abu”,
“buk” and “kasu” domains for Ahmadu Bello University, Bayero University Kano and Kaduna State
University respectively. The “kasu” domain comprises the “acc” and “csc” domains for accounting
and computer science departments respectively.

• Name Server: Name server contains the DNS database. This database comprises various names and
their corresponding IP addresses. Since it is not possible for a single server to maintain entire DNS
database, the information is distributed among many DNS servers. The server maintains a database
called zone file for every zone. Zone is a collection of sub-domains under the main domain.

End-to-End
The Internet is designed around end-to-end protocols; the interpretation of the data happens on the
sending and receiving systems, but nothing in the network needs to look at anything but the destination
address for delivering the packet. End-to-end protocols have several advantages such as hiding the internal
structure of the network and providing simple abstractions to programmers; shielding them from details
of recovering from lower-level errors.

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5.2.4 Internet Applications

The Internet is now the biggest network of resources and provides a wide variety of services such as
electronic mail, file transfer, interest group membership, interactive collaboration, multimedia displays,
real-time broadcasting, shopping opportunities, and much more. Some of the common services provided
by the Internet are presented in the following sections:
The World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a way of accessing information in the Internet. The World Wide
Web was created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN in Geneva. The World Wide Web came
into existence as a proposal to allow researchers to work together effectively and efficiently at CERN.
Eventually it became World Wide Web. The WWW project merges the techniques of network information
and hypertext to make an easy but powerful global information system.
The web uses the HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol), which is only one of the many “languages”
spoken over the Internet, to transmit data. HTTP is a simple data transfer protocol that binds the web
together and supports the communications between a web client (browser) and its web server. HTTP
consists of a set of messages and replies for both servers and browsers and relies on the universal resource
identifier (URI), enclosed in the universal resource locator (URL), to identify files. The web utilizes special
software called browsers to access web documents (more commonly known as web pages) that are linked
to each other via hyperlinks. Web pages contain some or all of the following: text, images, audio and
video.
A web browser is used as a client on the web to support users requests, connect to a web server using
URL information, format and display the responding information (from the web server). A web server
listens for incoming requests from a web browser to find the requested document and transmit information
to the browser or find a program and execute it. A URL is the address of web resource that leads to a file,
a single record in a database, the front-end of an Internet program or a result of a query. For example

http://www.kasu.edu.ng/

The http:// enables a web browser to locate and display the web page or website. Most browsers
will automatically add this prefix. The www stands for world wide web. This means that the page is
somewhere on the world wide web. For some websites, it is not necessary to type in the “www” part. The
text “kasu” is the name of the web page or website (or the host). It is flanked by dots on either side
which separate it from other sections of the web address. The edu.ng is the top level domain name for
educational institutions in Nigeria. This indicates where the web page is registered, and often tells what
kind of website it is.
The WWW works on client-server approach using the following steps:

• User enters the URL (example http://www.google.com) of a web page in the address bar of a web
browser.

• Then the browser sends a request to the domain name server for the IP address corresponding to
www.google.com.

• After receiving the IP address, the browser sends the request for web page to the web server using
the HTTP protocol, which specifies the way the browser and web server communicates.

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• Then web server receives request using HTTP protocol and searches for the requested web page. If
found it returns it back to the web browser and closes the HTTP connection.

• Now the web browser receives the web page, interprets it and display the contents of web page in
web browser’s window.

A website is a collection of web pages that can be identified using a domain name. Websites can be
accessible to the whole world via the Internet, or can be a private affair available only to users in an
organization. There are private and public websites. Private websites are called Intranet servers, which
are used by internal users in an organization. Private websites are set-up inside a firewall to protect
access from external users, but shared by all internal users across many types of local area TCP/IP based
computer network. Public websites are accessible by users through the Internet. Public websites are
normally placed on a web server that has Internet connection, which is maintained by the owner of the
website or an organisation that provides web hosting services.
There are advantages and disadvantages in setting up a web server by an organisation to host a website
or having a website hosted by a web hosting organisation. Setting up a web server within an organisation
provides complete control over the operations of the server and ability to use server scripts that interact
with other systems in the organisation. However, the organisation needs to connect the web server to the
Internet and provide an administrator for the web server. On the other hand, having a website hosted by
a web hosting organisation relieves an organisation from the need for a high speed Internet connection,
hardware and software to set up a web server. However, the website must be managed remotely and the
owner of the website will give up the ability to write server scripts and integrate the website with other
system.
Search Engines
Search engine refers to a huge database of Internet resources such as web pages, newsgroups, programs and
images. It enables users to locate information on World Wide Web. Users can search for any information
by passing a query in form of keywords or a phrase. It then searches for relevant information in its
database and return to the user. There are three basic components of a search engine; web crawler,
database and search interfaces.
The web crawler is a software component that traverses the web to gather information. Information on
the web is stored in database, which consists of huge web resources. Search interface is the component
that resides between a user and the database. It helps the user to search through the database. The web
crawler, database and search interface components make the search engine work. Search engines make use
of Boolean expression AND, OR and NOT to restrict and widen the results of a search. To search for a
web resource, the following are the steps are performed by a search engine:

• The search engine looks for the keyword in the index for predefined database instead of going directly
to the web to search for the keyword.

• The search engine then uses the web crawler to search for the information in the database.

• Once web crawler finds the pages, the search engine then shows the relevant web pages as a result,
which include title of the pages, size of text portion, first several sentences etc. The search criteria
may vary from one search engine to the other. The retrieved information is ranked according to
various factors such as frequency of keywords, relevancy of information, links etc.

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• A user can then select any of the search results to open the web resource using a web browser.
Electronic Mail
Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a fast, easy and inexpensive way to communicate with other Internet users
around the world. It is one of the basic and earliest services of the Internet and the most used application
on the Internet too. E-mail overcomes most of the problems and delays of getting a physical document
from one person to another. Rather, it has the dual advantage of being faster
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a system of rules and a software program that enables a user to log
on to another computer and transfer information between the two computers. It was the first service
developed for the Internet so that government and educational institutions could easily exchange files.
FTP allows the user to get access to the files stored in the directory of a remote computer that is connected
to the Internet. Using FTP, a user can upload and download files from the remote computer (known as
FTP servers), with access permission on the remote machine.
Telnet
Telnet is a protocol that allows a user to log on to a remote computer. Telnet is also known as remote
login, which means connecting one machine to another in such a way that a person may interact with
another machine as if it is being used locally.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
The Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a service on the Internet that allows people to communicate in real
time and carry on conversations via the computer with one or more people. It provides the user with the
facility to engage in simultaneous (synchronous) online conversation with other users from anywhere in
the world.
Chatting and Instant Messaging
Chart programs allow users on the Internet to communicate with each other by typing in real time.
They are sometimes included as a feature of a website, where users can log into chat rooms to exchange
comments and information about the topics addressed on the site.
Internet Telephony
Internet telephone is the use of the Internet rather than the traditional telephone company infrastructure,
to exchange spoken or other telephonic information. It consists of hardware and software that enable
people to use the Internet as a transmission medium for telephone calls. There are many Internet telephony
applications available. Some, Internet telephony applications such as Cool Talk and NetMeeting, come
bundled with popular web browsers.
Video Conferencing
Video conferencing uses the same technology as IRC, but also provides sound and video pictures. It
enables direct face-to-face communication across networks. A video conferencing system has two or more
parties in different locations, which have the ability to communicate using a combination of video, audio
and data. A video conference can be person to person (referred to as “point-to-point”) or can involve
more than two people (referred to as “multipoint”) and the video conferencing terminals are often referred
to as “endpoints”.

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Newsgroups (Usenet)
Newsgroups are international discussion groups that focus on a particular topic and help in gathering
information about the topic. The information or articles that make up the “news” are written by people
interested in a specific topic. These articles are posted to the newsgroup so that others can read, reply
and comment on them.
Mailing Lists (List server)
The Internet is home to a large community of individuals who carry out active discussions, organized
around topic-oriented forums that are distributed via e-mail. This method of Internet communications is
known as mailing list and it enables people with similar interests from all over the world to communicate
and share information with each other.

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 Chapter
6
Computer Ethics and Responsibility

This chapter presents the following:

• Software piracy

• Privacy of data

• Use of computers and the Internet

• Green computing

• Ethical responsibilities

6.1 Introduction
Every profession operates with a set of ethics that help to define the responsibilities of people who practice
the profession. Computers present a range of capabilities that can affect people and the environment
by challenging society with many new ethical issues. Some of the existing ethical practices apply to the
use of computers, whereas other situations require new ethical rules. In some cases, there may not be
established guidelines, but it is up to the user to decide what is ethical.
A computer professional has knowledge to access computers, program them, and manipulate data. This
gives gives a computer professional the ability to create new products, solve important problems and help
people to manage their interactions with the society. Knowledge of computers can be a powerful means
to effecting positive change. Computer knowledge can be used in unethical ways. A computer can be
programmed for hacking and unauthorised activities, to sabotage a competitor’s production line or to
steal sensitive information. In addition, it is illegal to copy or distribute computer software without the
permission of the owner because it is an intellectual property. Intellectual property is creations (books,
software, videos, etc.) that are protected by law. Copyright is protecting intellectual property from
copying by others for a period of years. This chapter discuss some ethical and professional responsibilities
of using computers and the Internet.

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6.2 Software Piracy

Computer software is easy to copy. However, software buyers only own the right to use the software
according to the license agreement. Therefore, it is illegal to copy, resell, lend, rent, lease and distribute
software without the permission of its creator. These acts are called software piracy. Copyright laws exist
to protect the creators of software (and books and art) so that they can make a profit from the effort and
money spent developing the software.
A software package can cost millions of dollars to develop and distribute to retailers. If people make
unauthorized copies of the software, then the owner of the software loses those sales and either has to
raise its prices to compensate or spend less money to develop improved versions of the software. Software
pirates sometimes rational of saying they just make one copy for their own use. However, if thousands of
people do the same, then it adds up to the lost of revenue for the software company, which leads to higher
prices for everyone.
When a user purchases a copy of a software program, the user is actually buying a software license,
or in the case of an organization that needs many copies, a site license. A software license can only be
copied for backup purposes while site licenses let the organization make a specific number of copies to be
used within that organization only. There are four types of software licenses: public domain, freeware,
shareware and all rights reserved.

• Public Domain License: This has no owner and is not protected by copyright law. It is either
created with public funds, or the ownership was forfeited by the creator. This can be copied, sold
and/or modified.

• General Public License: GPL software has the same restrictions as public domain software, but
cannot be sold for profit.

• Freeware License: This is a copyrighted software that is licensed to be copied and distributed
without charge. However, it is still under the control of the owner.

• Shareware License: This allows people to use the software for a trial period but it is illegal to copy
or modify them without permission since they are copyrighted. The user must pay a registration
fee to the owner for permanent use. Some shareware trials expire on a certain date. Purchasing
the software may also provide a user with a version with more powerful features and published
documentation.

• All Rights Reserved License: This may be used by the purchaser according the exact details
spelled out in the license agreement. People cannot legally posses and use it without the permission
of the owner.

Thus, computer users have an ethical obligation not to engage in software piracy and to try to stop it
from occurring. This rule is not restricted to duplicating copyrighted software, it includes plagiarism of
all or part of code. If someone gives you permission to copy some code, then just like any responsible
writer, you should acknowledge that person with a citation in the code.

6.3 Privacy of Data

The computer enables the compilation of databases containing useful information about people, companies,
geographic regions and so on. These databases allow employers to issue payroll checks, banks to cash a

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customer’s check at any branch, the government to collect taxes, and mass merchandisers to send out
junk mail. Even though people may not care for every use of databases, they generally have positive
benefits. However, they also can be used in negative ways. For example, an industrial spy might steal
customer data from a company database and sell it to a competitor, which is obviously an illegal act.
Any information about a person that is not clearly public should be considered confidential. An example
of public information is a phone number listed in a telephone directory. Private information includes any
data that has been provided with an understanding that it will be used only for a specific purpose such
as the data on a credit card application, staff and student records, company payroll, patient record and
so on. Therefore, unauthorised access, viewing and distribution of these information are unethical and
invasion of the owners right to privacy.
Thus, a computer user has a responsibility to avoid taking advantage of special access to confidential
data. The user also has a responsibility to guard that data from unauthorized access. Guarding data
involves shredding old printouts that contain confidential information, keeping backup copies in a locked
cabinet, not using passwords that are easy to guess (such as a name or word), and more complex measures
such as encryption (keeping it stored in a secret coded form).

6.4 Use of Computers and the Internet

A computer can be used to commit an illegal act such as snooping around someone’s personal computer
physically or through remote access, intentionally modifying or destroying files to which one has not been
granted access, releasing computer viruses, stealing passwords or files, exposing personal information, and
stealing electronic money. This also involves the use of computer and Internet connection that belong to
an organisation for personal business, viewing, downloading or storing contents that are illegal or against
the policies of the organisation such as pornography, movies, etc.
Thus, computer users have an ethical responsibility never to use or access computer resources without
permission, either physically or through network access, or access an Internet content that is illegal or
against the policy of an organisation.

6.5 Green Computing

Green Computing is a movement towards a more environmentally sustainable computing or IT, through
the study and practice of efficient and eco-friendly computing concepts. Green computing deals with
the practice of designing, manufacturing, using and disposing of computers, servers, monitors, printers,
storage devices, and networking and communications systems efficiently and effectively with minimal
or no impact on the environment. It is also necessary to reduce the energy consumed due to various
computing technologies. The targeted areas of green computing are portable devices (laptop, tablets, etc),
desktops, servers, data centres and mobile infrastructures. Thus, it is the responsibility of a computer
user to participate in disposing computing devices appropriately and reducing the energy consumed by
the devices for a clean and sustainable environment through the following:

• Turn off the computer when not in use, even if it is just for an hour.

• Turn off the monitor when not in use rather than opting a screen saver.

• Use power saver mode

• Switch off Wi-Fi when not in use

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• Do not print unless necessary

• Upgrading where possible is preferred rather than replacement

• Dispose computing devices appropriately.

• Use hardware/software with the Energy Star label. Energy Star is a “seal of approval” by the
Energy Star organization of the government (the EPA) as shown in Figure 6.1.

Figure 6.1: Energy Star label

6.6 Ethical Responsibilities

Ethics deals with placing a value on acts according to whether they are good or bad. Every society has
its rules about whether certain acts are ethical or not. These rules have been established as a result of
consensus in society and are often written into laws. Computer ethics is a term used to describe the
ethical and moral principles in computer-based society. Today, laws have been formulated, either national
or international, for illegal use of computer resources, and every computer user is responsible for knowing
the laws. Thus, it is unethical for a computer user to

1. Use a computer to harm other people: If it is unethical or bad to steal and destroy other
people’s books and notebooks, it is equally bad to access and destroy their computer files.

2. Interfere with other people’s computer work: Computer viruses and or malicious software
are programs that disrupt other people’s computer work by destroying their files, taking huge
amounts of computer time or memory, or by simply displaying annoying messages. Generating and
consciously spreading computer viruses is unethical.

3. Snoop around in other people’s files: Reading other people’s e-mail messages, screens, and
personal documents in their computers is as bad as opening and reading their letters: This is
invading their privacy. Obtaining other people’s non-public files should be judged the same way as
breaking into their rooms and stealing their documents. Text documents on the Internet may be
protected by encryption.

4. Use a computer to steal: Using a computer to break into the accounts of a company, an individual
or a bank and transferring money should be judged the same way as robbery. It is illegal and there
are strict laws against it.

5. Use computer to bear false witness: The Internet can be used to spread false information as
fast as it can spread the truth. Putting out false information to the world is bad. For instance,
spreading false rumours about a person or false propaganda about events is wrong.

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6. Use or copy software without payment or permission: Software is an intellectual product. In

that way, it is like a book; obtaining illegal copies of copyrighted software is as bad as photocopying
a copyrighted book. There are laws against both. Information about the copyright owner can be
embedded by a process called watermarking into pictures in the digital format.

7. Use other people’s computer resources without authorization: Multi-user systems employ
user identifications and passwords to enforce their memory and time allocations, and to safeguard
information. A computer user should not try to bypass this authorization system. Hacking a system
to break and bypass the authorization is unethical.

8. Appropriate other people’s intellectual output: Copying a program developed by someone

or an organisation without proper authorization is software piracy and is unethical. Intellectual
property is a form of ownership and may be protected by copyright laws.

9. Develop a program to harm people or society: Software developers have to think about
computer issues in a more general social framework; can the program you write be used in a way
that is harmful to society? If yes, then a person should desist from writing the program.

10. Use a computer in ways that show no consideration and respect: Just like public buses or
banks, people using computer communication systems should be nice to other people. The fact that
you cannot see the people you are interacting with does not mean that you can be rude to them.

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