A PROJECT REPORT

ON
DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
BY

P.V. SUBBA REDDY (209L1A0481)

S.MAHAMMED SHAFI (209L1A04A3)
P.SAMVITH NAIDU (219L5A0415)
RAVOORI VIJAYKUMAR (219L5A0412)
Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. K. SIVAPRASAD, M.Tech.,

(Assistant Professor Department of ECE)

SIDDARTHA EDUCATIONAL ACADEMY GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
AND ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)

An ISO 9001:2015 & ISO 14001:2015 Certified Institution

Near C. Gollapalli, Tirupati-517505
MAY-2024
 SIDDARTHA EDUCATIONAL ACADEMY GROUP OF
INSTITUTIONS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
AND ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)

An ISO 9001:2015 & ISO 14001:2015 Certified Institution

Near C. Gollapalli, Tirupati-517505

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled “DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM” is a
bonafide work carried out by
P.V. SUBBA REDDY (209L1A0481)
S.MAHAMMED SHAFI (209L1A04A3)
P.SAMVITH NAIDU (219L5A0415)
RAVOORI VIJAYKUMAR (219L5A0412)
B. Tech student of Siddartha Educational Academy Group of Institutions, Affiliated to JNTU,
Ananthapuramu in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY with the specialization in ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING during the Academic year 2023-2024.

Project guide Head of the department

Mr. K. SIVA PRASAD. M. Tech. Mr P.SAI PRASAD M.Tech ,(Ph.D)
Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE, H.O.D, Dept. of ECE,
SEAGI, Tirupati – 517505. SEAGI, Tirupati – 517505.

Viva-voice conducted on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 SIDDARTHA EDUCATIONAL ACADEMY GROUP OF
INSTITUTIONS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
AND ENGINEERING
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)

An ISO 9001:2015 & ISO 14001:2015 Certified Institution

Near C. Gollapalli, Tirupati-517505

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project report work entitled “DUAL AXIS SOLAR TRACKING
SYSTEM” is entirely our original work carried out under the guidance of Mr. K. SIVA
PRASAD, Assistant Professor Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Siddartha Educational Academy Group Of Institutions, C. Gollapalli, Tirupati, Affiliated to
JNTU, Anantapuramu, for the award of the Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY with
the specialization in ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING. The project
report has not been submitted in a part full for the award of any degree or diploma of this or
any other university or institution.

P.V. SUBBA REDDY (209L1A0481)

S.MAHAMMED SHAFI (209L1A04A3)
P.SAMVITH NAIDU (219L5A0415)
RAVOORI VIJAYKUMAR (219L5A0412)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All endeavors over a long period can be successful only with the advice and support of many
well-wishers. I take this opportunity to express our gratitude and appreciation to all of them.

I wish to express a deep sense of gratitude to our beloved and respected guide Mr. K. SIVA
PRASAD, Assistant Professor Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Siddartha
Educational Academy Group of Institutions, Tirupati, for his valuable guidance, given to us for the
successful completion of work.

My sincere thanks to MR P.SAI PRASAD , Head, Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering for his valuable advice, guidance and encouragement given to us for the successful
completion of work.

I extend sincere thanks to Dr. K. RAJASEKHAR, Principal, for his kind cooperation in completing
and making the project a success.

I would like to thank the Management for their kind cooperation and for providing infrastructure
facilities.

I extend our thanks to all the Teaching staff and Non-Teaching staff of the Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering for their support and encouragement during the course of our project
work.

I also thank our parents for being helpful in many ways in successful completion of our work.
Finally, we thank all those who helped us directly or indirectly in successful completion of this project
work.

P.V. SUBBA REDDY (209L1A0481)

S.MAHAMMED SHAFI (209L1A04A3)
P.SAMVITH NAIDU (219L5A0415)
RAVOORI VIJAYKUMAR (219L5A0412)
 ABSTRACT

The impending scarcity of nonrenewable resources, people are considering using

alternate sources of energy. From all other available resources solar energy is the most
abundant in nature. It is also easily converted into electrical energy. Use of solar panels to
convert the sun's energy to electricity is very popular. Since the transition of sun from
east to west, the fixed solar panels may not be able to generate optimum energy. The
proposed system is able to solve the problem by tracking the sun. The project uses a
dummy solar panel coupled with two servo motors to track the sun with the help of four
LDRs. The movement is achieved by using a programmed microcontroller. The
microcontroller delivers the pulses in periodic form to the motor. The microcontroller
used in this project is from the Atmel family. The servo is driven by an interfacing IC.
Further this project can be enhanced by using RTC(Real Time Clock) to follow the sun.
This will help in maintaining the required position of the panel even if the power is
interrupted for some time.
 INDEX

CHAPTER NAME DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION (1-8)

1.1 General Introduction
1.2 Working Principle
1.3 Basic Circuit Diagram
1.4 Literature Review
1.5 Existing Systems
1.6 Proposed Method

CHAPTER 2 ARDUINO UNO (9-20)

2.1 Introduction to Embedded Systems
2.2 Characteristics of Embedded Systems
2.3 Microcontroller v/s Microprocessor
2.4 Microcontroller for Embedded Systems
2.5 Arduino UNO Microcontroller
2.6 Arduino Pin Description

CHAPTER 3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS (21-34)

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Regulated Power Supply
3.3 LDR Sensor
3.4 Servo Motor
3.5 Solar Panel

CHAPTER 4 SOFTWARE
(35-48)
4.1 Introduction to Arduino IDE
CHAPTER 5 RESULT (48 -51)
CONCLUSION
FUTURE SCOPE

CHAPTER 6 REFERENCES (52-53)

 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig No Name Page
No.

1.1 LDR Circuit 3

1.2 Hardware Model 3

1.3 Basic Circuit 4

1.4 Flow Chart 7

1.5 Block Diagram 8

2.1 Arduino UNO Board 12

3.1 Block Diagram of Power Supply 21

3.2 Circuit Illustration of Bridge Rectifier 22

3.3 Transformer core 22

3.4 Flow current for positive half cycle 23

3.5 Flow current for Negative half cycle 24

3.6 Output of Rectifier 24

3.7 Capacitive to smoothing of Rectifier output 24

3.8 LDR Sensor 26

3.9 Circuit Diagram of LDR Sensor 26

3.10 Servo Motor 28

3.11 Solar Panel 30

4.1 USB Cord 33

4.2 Download Arduino IDE Software 33

4.3 Launch Arduino IDE 34

4.4 Arduino IDE Interface 35

4.5 Open new file 35

4.6 Open Blink 36

4.7 Select the Arduino UNO 37

4.8 Select serial port 37

4.9 Type The Code 38

4.10 Upload the program to your board 45

4.11 Upload Completed 46

5.1 Snapshot of Project 48

 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Name Page

No.

Table 2.1 Arduino UNO 12

Specifications

Table 3.1 Servo Motor 29

Configuration
 LIST OF ACRONYMS

Symbol Name

ACC Accumulator

B B register

PSW Program status word

SP Stack pointer

DPTR Data pointer 2 bytes

DPL Low byte

DPH High byte

P0 Port 0

P1 Port 1

P2 Port 2

LDR Light Dependent Resistor

P3 Port 3

IP Interrupt priority control

IE Interrupt enable control

TMOD Timer/counter mode control

TCON Timer/counter control

T2CON Timer/counter 2 control

T2MOD Timer counter mode 2

control

TH0 Timer/control 0 high byte

TL0 Timer/control 0 low byte

TH1 Timer/control 1 high byte

TL1 Timer/control 1 low byte

TH2 Timer/control 2 high byte

TL2 Timer/control 2 low byte

SCON Serial control

PC Personal computer

RPS Regulated power supply

RMS Root mean square

EEPROM Electrically erasable

programmable ROM

ROM Read only memory

RAM Random access memory

BIOS Basic input output system

SRAM Static RAM

EPROM Erasable programmable ROM

DRAM Dynamic RAM

ISR Interrupt service routine

I2C Inter integrated chip

 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the utilization of solar energy has gained significant momentum due to
its sustainability and renewable nature. Solar tracking systems have emerged as a pivotal
technology to enhance the efficiency of solar panels by maximizing their exposure to
sunlight throughout the day. Among various types of solar tracking mechanisms, the
dual-axis solar tracking system stands out as an innovative solution offering precise
alignment with the sun's position in both azimuth and elevation angles.

This project focuses on the design, development, and implementation of a Dual Axis
Solar Tracking System, aimed at optimizing the performance of photovoltaic (PV) panels.
By dynamically adjusting the orientation of solar panels along two axes, azimuth and
elevation, this system ensures that panels remain perpendicular to the incident sunlight,
thereby maximizing energy generation potential.

The primary objective of this project is to explore the feasibility and effectiveness of
dual-axis solar tracking in enhancing energy yield compared to fixed-mount systems. By
employing sophisticated sensors and actuators, coupled with robust control algorithms,
the system autonomously tracks the sun's trajectory throughout the day, adapting to
changing environmental conditions and seasonal variations.

In this introductory section, we provide an overview of the project's motivation,

objectives, and scope. Additionally, we outline the structure of the report, detailing the
methodology employed, system design considerations, implementation aspects,
experimental setup, and anticipated outcomes.

With a growing emphasis on sustainable energy solutions, the development of efficient

solar tracking systems holds immense promise in revolutionizing the renewable energy
landscape. Through this project, we aim to contribute to the advancement of solar energy
technologies while addressing the pressing need for environmentally friendly power
generation solutions.

Solar tracking systems represent a pivotal technology in this endeavor, offering a means
to optimize the performance of solar panels by dynamically adjusting their orientation to

1
capture the maximum amount of sunlight. Among these systems, dual-axis solar tracking
stands at the forefront, providing precise alignment with the sun's position in both
azimuth and elevation angles.

This project is dedicated to the design, development, and implementation of a Dual Axis
Solar Tracking System, poised to revolutionize the efficiency of photovoltaic (PV)
installations. By continuously adapting the orientation of solar panels, this system aims to
maximize energy generation potential, leading to increased productivity and viability of
solar power.

Through a sophisticated integration of sensors, actuators, and control algorithms, the

Dual Axis Solar Tracking System autonomously tracks the sun's trajectory, accounting
for environmental factors and seasonal variations. The primary objective is to assess the
feasibility and efficacy of dual-axis solar tracking compared to fixed-mount systems, with
a focus on optimizing energy yield and enhancing overall system performance.

In this introductory segment, we offer an overview of the project's motivation, objectives,

and scope. Furthermore, we delineate the structure of the forthcoming report, delving into
the methodology, design considerations, implementation strategies, experimental setup,
and anticipated outcomes.

With the global imperative to transition towards sustainable energy solutions, the
development of efficient solar tracking systems assumes paramount significance.
Through this project, we endeavor to propel the advancement of solar energy
technologies, charting a course towards a cleaner, greener future while addressing the
imperative for environmentally conscious power generation solutions.

1.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Resistance of LDR depends on intensity of the light and it varies according to

it. The higher is the intensity of light, lower will be the LDR resistance and due to this the
output voltage lowers and when the light intensity is low, higher will be the LDR
resistance and thus higher output voltage is obtained. A potential divider circuit is used
to get the output voltage from the sensors (LDRs).The circuit is shown here.

2
 Figure 1.1: LDR Circuit

The LDR senses the analog input in voltages between 0 to 5 volts and provides
a digital number at the output which generally ranges from 0 to 1023. Now this will give
feedback to the microcontroller using the arduino software(IDE). The servo motor
position can be controlled by this mechanism which is discussed later in the hardware
model.

Figure 1.2:Hardware Model

The tracker finally adjusts its position sensing the maximum intensity of light falling
perpendicular to it and stays there till it notices any further change. The sensitivity of the
LDR depends on the point source of light. It hardly shows any effect on diffuse lighting
conditions.

3
1.3 BASIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

An overview of the required circuit for the Dual-axis solar tracker is shown here. The 5V
supply is fed from an USB 5V dc voltage source through Arduino Board.

Servo X :Rotates solar panel along X direction

Servo Y :Rotates solar panel along Y direction

Figure 1.3: Basic Circuit of Dual Axis Solar Tracking System

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1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW

Hossein Mousazadeh et Al.,[ (2011), Journal of Solar Energy Engineering,Vol.133 ]

studied and investigated maximization of collected energy from an on-board PV array, on
a solar assist plug-in hybrid electric tractor (SAPHT). Using four light dependent
resistive sensors a sun tracking system on a mobile structure was constructed and
evaluated. The experimental tests using the sun-tracking system showed that 30% more
energy was collected in comparison to that of the horizontally fixed mode.. Four LDR
sensors were used to sense the direct beams of the sun. Each pair of LDRs was separated
by an obstruction as a shading device. A microcontroller based electronic drive board was
used as an interface between the hardware and the software. For driving of each motor, a
power MOSFET was used to control the actuators. The experimental results indicated
that the designed system was very robust and effective.

K.S. Madhu et al., (2012) International Journal of Scientific & Engineering

Research vol. 3, 2229–5518, states that a single axis tracker tracks the sun east to
west, and a two-axis tracker tracks the daily east to west movement of the sun and the
seasonal declination movement of the sun. Concentrates solar power systems use lenses
or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV
converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. Solar power is the
conversion of sunlight into electricity. Test results indicate that the increase in power
efficiency of tracking solar plate in normal days is 26 to 38% compared to fixed plate.
And during cloudy or rainy days it’s varies at any level.

1.5 EXISTING SYSTEMS

In the development of Dual Axis Solar Tracking Systems, various existing methods have
been explored to optimize the orientation of solar panels for efficient energy capture.
These methods include:

1.2.1 Fixed Mount Solar Panels

Fixed mount solar panels represent a traditional and widely adopted method in solar
energy systems. These panels are mounted in a fixed position, typically at an angle
optimized for the specific location's latitude, to capture sunlight throughout the day.
While simple and cost-effective to install, fixed mount systems have inherent limitations.

5
Their stationary orientation means they cannot adapt to the sun's changing position,
leading to reduced energy capture efficiency, particularly during mornings, evenings, and
seasonal changes when the sun's angle varies significantly. Despite these limitations,
fixed mount systems remain a popular choice for smaller-scale installations and
applications where cost and simplicity are prioritized.

1.2.2 Single Axis Solar Tracking Systems

Single-axis solar tracking systems adjust the orientation of solar panels along one axis,
typically azimuth, to track the sun's daily east-west movement. These systems can
significantly improve energy capture compared to fixed mount panels by ensuring panels
remain perpendicular to the sun's rays throughout the day. By following the sun's
movement, single-axis trackers can capture more sunlight, leading to increased energy
generation. While offering improved performance compared to fixed mount systems,
single-axis trackers have limitations in accounting for changes in elevation angle, which
can result in suboptimal energy capture, particularly during certain times of the day and
year.

1.2.3 Light Intensity-Based Solar Tracking Systems

Light Intensity-Based Solar Tracking Systems utilize light intensity sensors to track the
sun's position and adjust solar panel orientation accordingly. These systems operate in
real-time, continuously monitoring sunlight intensity to make precise adjustments to
panel orientation. By responding to changes in sunlight intensity, these trackers can
optimize energy capture throughout the day. Light intensity-based tracking offers
potential cost-effectiveness, as it can be implemented using off-the-shelf components and
does not rely on complex tracking algorithms. However, these systems may be
susceptible to inaccuracies under cloudy or overcast conditions and may exhibit limited
effectiveness in areas with significant shading or obstructions.

1.2.4 GPS-Based Solar Tracking Systems

GPS-Based Solar Tracking Systems use GPS coordinates and time data to calculate the
sun's position and adjust solar panel orientation accordingly. These systems offer accurate
tracking regardless of weather conditions or geographic location, making them suitable
for remote or off-grid installations. By leveraging GPS technology, these trackers can
provide precise positioning information, allowing for optimal alignment of solar panels

6
with the sun's position. However, GPS-based systems come with a relatively higher cost
associated with GPS modules and data acquisition. Additionally, they require continuous
access to GPS signals, which may not be available in certain environments, posing
challenges for implementation in remote or densely forested areas.

1.6 PROPOSED METHOD

Our proposed method utilizes Arduino microcontrollers, light-dependent
resistors (LDRs), servo motors, and solar panels. LDRs sense light intensity, allowing
Arduino to compute optimal panel angles. Servos adjust panel positioning along both
azimuth and elevation axes. This approach aims to enhance energy capture efficiency
compared to fixed mounts, offering affordability, simplicity, and adaptability.

FLOW CHART:

Figure 1.4: Flow Chart of Dual Axis Solar Tracking System

7
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE SOLAR TRACKER:

Figure 1.5: Block Diagram of Dual Axis Solar Tracking System

8
 CHAPTER 2
ARDUINO UNO

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to perform one or a

few dedicated functions, sometimes with real-time computing constraints. It is usually
embedded as part of a complete device including hardware and mechanical parts. In
contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, can do many different
tasks depending on programming. Embedded systems have become very important today
as they control many of the common devices we use.
Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize
it, reducing the size and cost of the product, or increasing the reliability and performance.
Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and
MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the
systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single
microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted
inside a large chassis or enclosure.
In general, "embedded system" is not an exactly defined term, as many systems have
some element of programmability. For example, Handheld computers share some
elements with embedded systems — such as the operating systems and microprocessors
which power them — but are not truly embedded systems, because they allow different
applications to be load and peripherals to be connected.
An embedded system is some combination of computer hardware and software, either
fixed in capability or programmable, that is specifically designed for a particular kind of
application device. Industrial machines, automobiles, medical equipment, cameras,
household appliances, airplanes, vending machines, and toys (as well as the more obvious
cellular phone and PDA) are among the myriad possible hosts of an embedded system.
Embedded systems that are programmable are provided with a programming interface,
and embedded systems programming is a specialized occupation. Certain operating
systems or language platforms are tailored for the embedded market, such as Embedded
Java and Windows XP Embedded. However, some low-end consumer products use very
inexpensive microprocessors and limited storage, with the application and operating
system both part of a single program. The program is written permanently into the
system's memory in this case, rather than being loaded into RAM (random access
memory), as programs on a personal computer are.

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2.2 CHARACTERISTIC OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Speed (bytes/sec): Should be high speed

Power (watts): Low power dissipation
Size and weight: As far as possible small in size and low weight
Accuracy (%error): Must be very accurate
Adaptability: High adaptability and accessibility
Reliability: Must be reliable over a long period of time

APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

We are living in the Embedded World. You are surrounded with many embedded products
and your daily life largely depends on the proper functioning of these gadgets. Television,
Radio, CD player of your living room, Washing Machine or Microwave Oven in your
kitchen, Card readers, Access Controllers, Palm devices of your work space enable you to
do many of your tasks very effectively. Apart from all these, many controllers embedded
in your car take care of car operations between the bumpers and most of the times you
tend to ignore all these controllers.

Robotics: industrial robots, machine tools, Robocop soccer robots

Automotive: cars, trucks, trains
Aviation: airplanes, helicopters
Home and Building Automation
Aerospace: rockets, satellites
Energy systems: windmills, nuclear plants
Medical systems: prostheses, revalidation machine.

2.3 MICROCONTROLLER V/S MICROPROCESSOR

What is the difference between a Microprocessor and Microcontroller? By

microprocessor is meant the general purpose Microprocessors such as Intel's X86 family
(8086, 80286, 80386, 80486, and the Pentium) or Motorola's 680X0 family (68000,
68010, 68020, 68030, 68040, etc). These microprocessors contain no RAM, no ROM,
and no I/O ports on the chip itself. For this reason, they are commonly referred to as
general-purpose Microprocessors.

A system designer using a general-purpose microprocessor such as the Pentium or the

68040 must add RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers externally to make them functional.
Although the addition of external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports makes these systems
bulkier and much more expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the
designer can decide on the amount of RAM, ROM and I/O ports needed to fit the task at
hand. This is not the case with Microcontrollers.

10
A Microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fixed amount of RAM,
ROM, I/O ports, and a timer all on a single chip. In other words, the processor, the RAM,
ROM, I/O ports and the timer are all embedded together on one chip; therefore, the
designer cannot add any external memory, I/O ports, or timer to it. The fixed amount of
on-chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/O ports in Microcontrollers makes them ideal for
many applications in which cost and space are critical.

In many applications, for example a TV remote control, there is no need for the
computing power of a 486 or even an 8086 microprocessor. These applications most
often require some I/O operations to read signals and turn on and off certain bits.

2.4 MICROCONTROLLERS FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

In the Literature discussing microprocessors, we often see the term Embedded System.
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers are widely used in embedded system products. An
embedded system product uses a microprocessor (or Microcontroller) to do one task only.
A printer is an example of embedded system since the processor inside it performs one
task only; namely getting the data and printing it. Contrast this with a Pentium based PC.
A PC can be used for any number of applications such as word processor, print-server,
bank teller terminal, Video game, network server, or Internet terminal. Software for a
variety of applications can be loaded and run. Of course the reason a pc can perform
myriad tasks is that it has RAM memory and an operating system that loads the
application software into RAM memory and lets the CPU run it.

2.5 ARDUINO UNO MICROCONTROLLER

The Arduino Uno is a versatile microcontroller board renowned for its simplicity and
accessibility in electronics prototyping. Powered by the Atmega328P microcontroller, it
boasts an array of digital and analog input/output pins, facilitating easy connection with
sensors, actuators, and other components. With USB connectivity for programming and
serial communication, alongside options for external power supply, it offers flexibility in
usage. Programming the Uno is streamlined through the Arduino IDE, based on a
simplified version of C/C++, enabling users to write and upload code effortlessly. As an
open-source platform, its hardware and software are freely available, encouraging
innovation and collaboration. Widely used in robotics, IoT, home automation, and
education, the Arduino Uno's expandability through shields further enhances its
capabilities, making it a cornerstone in the world of DIY electronics.

The Arduino Uno is a pivotal component in the maker community, offering an accessible
entry point into the realm of electronics and programming. At its core lies the
Atmega328P microcontroller, which powers its diverse array of functionalities. With 14
digital and 6 analog pins, the Uno provides ample room for connecting sensors, LEDs,

11
motors, and more, allowing enthusiasts to bring their creative ideas to life. Its USB
connectivity simplifies the programming process, while also enabling seamless
communication with computers. Moreover, the open-source nature of the Arduino
ecosystem fosters a collaborative environment where users can freely share and modify
designs and code. This versatility has led to the Uno's widespread adoption in a myriad of
projects, spanning from interactive art installations to smart home systems.

The following are the power pins:

VIN:When the Arduino board is powered externally (as opposed to 5 volts from a USB
connection or other regulated power source), the input voltage is known as VIN. This pin
can be used to supply voltage or to access voltage if it is supplied via the power jack.

5V: The microcontroller and other parts of the board are powered by this regulated power
source. This can be supplied via USB or another regulated 5V supply, or it can originate
from VIN via an on-board regulator.

3.3V: An on-board regulator-generated 3.3 volt supply. 50 mA is the maximum current

draw.

Memory: The Atmega328 includes two KB of SRAM and one KB of EEPROM, which
may be read and written with the use of an EEPROM library. It also has 32 KB of flash
memory for code storage, of which 0.5 KB is utilized for the bootloader.

Input and Output: Using the pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() methods, each
of the Uno's 14 digital pins can be utilized as an input or output. They run on five volts.
Each pin features an inbuilt 20–50 kOhm pull-up resistor, which is unconnected by
default, and may supply or receive a maximum of 40 mA. Furthermore, certain pins serve
specific purposes:

Sequential: 1 (TX) and 0 (RX). utilized for TTL serial data transmission (TX) and
reception (RX). These pins are linked to the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip's
matching pins.

Three and Two External Interrupts: These pins can be set up to respond to changes in
value, arising or falling edges, or low values by triggering an interrupt. For more
information, see the attached Interrupt() function.

PWM: 10, 11, 10, 5, 6, 9, and 10. With the help of the analogWrite() function, provide
8-bit PWM output.

SPI: SS (10), MOSI (11), MISO (12), and SCK (13). These pins allow SPI
communication, which is not yet supported by the Arduino language, even though it is

12
given by the underlying hardware.

LED 13: Digital pin 13 is linked to an integrated LED. The LED is on when the pin has a
HIGH value and off when it has a LOW value.Each of the six analog inputs on the Uno
has 10 bits of resolution, or 1024 distinct values. They measure from ground to five volts
by default, but you can adjust the upper end of the by using the analogReference()
method and AREFpin.
Some pins have also become specialized.

Communication: There are several ways to communicate with a computer, another

Arduino, or other microcontrollers using the features that the Arduino Uno offers. TX and
RX are digital pins on the ATmega328 that provide UART TTL (5V) serial
communication. This serial communication is routed through USB by an ATmega8U2 on
the board, which shows up to computer programs as a virtual serial port. There is no need
for an extra driver because the '8U2 firmware uses the normal USB COM drivers. Still,
on Windows

There must be a *.inf file. Easy-to-read textual data can be transmitted to and received
from the Arduino board via the serial monitor built into the Arduino software. The RX
and TX LEDs on the board will illuminate when data is transferred over the
USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the PC (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1).

2.6 ARDUINO UNO BOARD

A microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 is called the Arduino Uno. It features a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, 6 analog inputs, 14 digital input/output pins (six of which can
be used as PWM outputs), a USB port, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It comes with everything required to support the microcontroller; all you need to do is
power it with a battery or an AC-to-DC adapter or connect it to a computer via a USB
cable to get going.

The FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip is not used by the Uno, setting it apart from all
previous boards.
On the other hand, it has the Atmega16U2 (or the Atmega8U2 up to version R2)
configured as a serial-to-USB converter.

13
 Figure 2.1: Arduino UNO Board

Table 2.1: Arduino Specifications

USB Interface: A USB cable from your computer can be used to power an Arduino
board. All that has to be done is attach the USB cord to the USB port.

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External power source:By attaching the Arduino board to the power supply (Barrel
Jack), it is possible to power it directly from the AC mains power source.

Voltage Regulator: This device regulates the voltage applied to the Arduino board and
maintains the stability of the DC voltages that the CPU and other components require.

Crystal Oscillator: Arduino can handle timing problems with the aid of the crystal
oscillator. 16.000H9H is the number that is printed on the top of the Arduino crystal. It
informs us that the frequency is 16 MHz, or 16,000,000 Hertz.

2.6 ARDUINO PIN DESCRIPTION:

It has the ability to restart your software from scratch by wiping your Arduino board.
There are two ways to reset the UNO board.
(3.3, 5, GND, Vin) 9 Pins

3.3V (6): Provide a 3.3 volt output.

5V (7): Provide a 5 volt output.
The majority of the parts used in Arduino boards function well at 3.3 and 5 volts.
GND (8) (Ground): The Arduino has many GND pins.
Vin (9): The Arduino board can also be powered by an external power source, such as the
AC mains power supply, via this pin.

Analog pins:
Pins A0 through A5 on the Arduino UNO board are analog input pins. These pins have
the ability to take an analog sensor's signal, such as a temperature or humidity sensor, and
transform it into a digital value that the CPU can read.

Primary microcontroller:
A microcontroller is unique to each Arduino board (11). It can be thought of as your
board's brain. Each board of the Arduino has a slightly different integrated circuit (IC).
Typically, ATMEL is the manufacturer of the microcontrollers.

VCC: This refers to the digital supply voltage.

15
GND: Indicates the ground connection.

Port B (PB[7:0]) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2:

Port B consists of an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port equipped with internal pull-up resistors,
which are individually selectable for each bit. The output buffers of Port B possess
symmetrical drive capabilities with both high sink and source capabilities. When
configured as inputs, Port B pins pulled low externally will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. In a reset condition, the Port B pins are in a tri-stated state,
regardless of clock status.

Port C (PC[5:0]):

Port C is a 7-bit bidirectional I/O port featuring internal pull-up resistors, which can be
individually selected for each bit. The output buffers exhibit symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capabilities.

PC6/RESET:

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is enabled, PC6 functions as an I/O pin, although its electrical
characteristics differ from other Port C pins. When the RSTDISBL Fuse is disabled, PC6
serves as a Reset input. A low signal lasting longer than the specified pulse length on this
pin will trigger a Reset, even if the clock isn't active. Shorter pulses may not reliably
generate a Reset.

Port D (PD[7:0]):

Port D is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors for each bit. The
output buffers of Port D exhibit symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and
source capabilities.

AVCC: AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC[3:0], and PE[3:2]. It
should be connected externally to VCC, regardless of ADC usage. If the ADC is utilized,
it should be linked to VCC via a low-pass filter.

AREF: This is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

16
ADC [7:6] (TQFP and VFQFN Package Only): In the TQFP and VFQFN package,
ADC[7:6] serves as analog inputs to the A/D converter. These pins are powered from the
analog supply and function as 10-bit ADC channels.

ICSP pin: ICSP (12) is primarily an AVR, serving as a small programming header for
Arduino, comprising MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It's commonly
known as an SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), extending the output capabilities,
effectively allowing the device to be slaved to the SPI bus master.

Power LED indicator: This LED illuminates when the Arduino is connected to a power
source, indicating proper board power-up. If this LED fails to light up, there may be a
connection issue.

TX and RX LEDs: The board includes labels for TX (transmit) and RX (receive). These
labels are present at digital pins 0 and 1, indicating the pins responsible for serial
communication. Additionally, TX and RX LEDs at pin 13 flash at varying speeds during
serial data transmission.

Digital I/O: The Arduino UNO board offers 14 digital I/O pins (15), with 6 providing
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) output. These pins can be configured as digital input
pins to read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to control various modules like
LEDs or relays. Pins marked with a tilde (~) can generate PWM signals.

AREF: AREF, or Analog Reference, allows setting an external reference voltage

(ranging from 0 to 5 Volts) as the upper limit for analog input pins.

AVR Microcontroller Architecture: The text provided describes the pinout and
functionalities of various pins on a microcontroller, likely belonging to the AVR family.
AVR microcontrollers are popular in embedded systems due to their simplicity,
efficiency, and rich feature set. They are widely used in applications ranging from
consumer electronics to industrial automation.

Programming and Development with Arduino: The mention of ICSP (In-Circuit Serial
Programming) pin indicates the capability to program the microcontroller directly on the
board, commonly done using the Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE).
This environment simplifies coding for beginners and experts alike, offering a vast library
of pre-written functions and a supportive community.

17
Analog and Digital Input/Output: The microcontroller offers a mix of analog and
digital I/O pins. Analog pins are essential for interfacing with sensors, potentiometers,
and other analog devices, while digital pins facilitate communication with digital sensors,
actuators, and peripherals.

Serial Communication: The presence of TX (transmit) and RX (receive) LEDs indicates

the serial communication capability of the board, typically used for interfacing with
computers, other microcontrollers, or external modules. Serial communication is
fundamental for tasks such as debugging, data logging, and control.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM): PWM pins allow for precise control of analog
devices like LEDs, motors, and servos by modulating the duty cycle of the output
waveform. This technique is widely used in robotics, motor control, and lighting
applications.

Hardware Reset and Configuration: The explanation of the RESET pin's functionality
highlights the importance of hardware-level reset capability, ensuring reliable operation
and recovery from errors. Additionally, the configuration options provided by fuse
settings demonstrate the flexibility of the microcontroller for diverse applications.

Overall, the detailed pinout and features described in the text form the foundation for
building various electronic projects using the Arduino platform, ranging from simple
LED blinking to sophisticated IoT applications.

Community and Support: One of the key strengths of Arduino Uno is its vibrant
community and extensive support network. Users can find a plethora of tutorials, guides,
and forums online where they can seek help, share their projects, and collaborate with
others. This community-driven approach makes it easier for beginners to get started and
for advanced users to find solutions to more complex problems.

Education and Learning: Arduino Uno is widely used in educational settings to teach
programming, electronics, and engineering concepts. Its simplicity and hands-on
approach make it an ideal platform for introducing students to STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects. Many educational institutions
around the world have integrated Arduino into their curricula, offering courses and
workshops centered around the Uno board.

18
Prototyping and Rapid Development: The Arduino Uno's ease of use and quick
prototyping capabilities make it an invaluable tool for rapid product development and
iteration. Entrepreneurs and startups often use Arduino Uno to create prototypes of their
products, allowing them to test ideas, gather feedback, and refine their designs before
moving to more expensive and complex development stages.

Art and Creativity: Beyond its technical applications, Arduino Uno is also a popular
tool for artists, designers, and creative individuals. Its ability to interact with the physical
world through sensors, lights, motors, and other actuators opens up endless possibilities
for interactive art installations, kinetic sculptures, wearable technology, and multimedia
experiences.

Accessibility and Inclusivity: Arduino Uno's affordability, simplicity, and open nature
contribute to its accessibility and inclusivity. It empowers people from diverse
backgrounds, including hobbyists, students, artists, engineers, and individuals with
disabilities, to engage with technology and express their creativity in innovative ways.

IoT (Internet of Things) Applications: Arduino Uno plays a significant role in IoT
projects, where it serves as a central control unit for connecting and managing various
smart devices and sensors. With its connectivity options and compatibility with IoT
platforms such as Arduino IoT Cloud, users can create home automation systems,
environmental monitoring devices, and other IoT applications.

Embedded Systems Development: Arduino Uno is often used in embedded systems

development, where it serves as a prototyping platform for designing and testing
embedded software and hardware solutions. Its simplicity and versatility make it suitable
for a wide range of embedded applications, including robotics, data logging, and
industrial automation.

Customization and Modification: Advanced users can customize and modify the
Arduino Uno to suit their specific requirements. This may involve tweaking the firmware,
adding external components, or even redesigning the board itself. Such customization
allows users to tailor the Uno to their unique needs and explore new possibilities beyond
its standard capabilities.

Cross-Platform Compatibility: Arduino Uno is compatible with multiple operating

systems, including Windows, macOS, and Linux, making it accessible to users regardless

19
of their preferred platform. This cross-platform compatibility ensures that users can
develop and program their projects using their operating system of choice, enhancing the
Uno's accessibility and usability.

Ecosystem Expansion: The Arduino Uno is just one part of the larger Arduino
ecosystem, which includes a wide range of compatible boards, modules, and accessories.
As users gain experience with the Uno, they can explore other Arduino boards with
enhanced features and capabilities, such as the Arduino Mega, Arduino Nano, or Arduino
Due, further expanding the possibilities for their projects.

20
 CHAPTER - 3
HARDWARE COMPONENTS

3.1INTRODUCTION

In this project, the hardware components utilized are:

​ Regulated Power Supply

​ LDR Sensor
​ Servo Motor
​ Solar Panel

3.2 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

A regulated power supply is essential in converting high voltage AC mains electricity

into a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A Regulated
Power Supply (RPS) undergoes rectification, filtering, and regulation processes on the
AC mains to provide a stable power supply for microcontrollers and interfaced devices.

A regulated DC power supply maintains a constant output voltage regardless of AC

mains fluctuations or load variations. For instance, a 5V regulated power supply system
typically comprises several stages, including rectification, filtering, and regulation.

The power supply unit (PSU) refers to a device or system responsible for providing
electrical or other forms of energy to one or more output loads. Although the term "power
supply" predominantly applies to electrical energy supplies, it may also encompass
mechanical or other energy sources, albeit less frequently. The power supply section's
primary function is to convert AC signals to DC signals and regulate the signal's
amplitude to ensure stable operation of the connected devices.

Components of a Regulated Power Supply:

​ Rectification: The AC mains voltage is typically alternating current (AC), which

needs to be converted into direct current (DC) for electronic circuits to operate.
Rectification is the process of converting AC to DC, usually accomplished using
diodes arranged in a bridge rectifier configuration.

21
 ​ Filtering: After rectification, the resulting DC voltage may still contain ripples or
fluctuations. Filtering components, such as capacitors, are employed to smooth out
these variations, resulting in a more stable DC output.
​ Regulation: The final stage of a regulated power supply involves maintaining the
output voltage at a constant level, regardless of fluctuations in input voltage or
changes in load. This is achieved using voltage regulation circuits, such as voltage
regulators (e.g., LM7805 for a 5V supply), which adjust the output voltage to the
desired level.

Importance of Regulation:

Regulation is critical in ensuring that electronic devices receive consistent and reliable
power. Fluctuations in voltage can adversely affect the performance and longevity of
electronic components. By providing a stable output voltage, regulated power supplies
protect sensitive electronics from damage and ensure consistent operation.

Applications of Regulated Power Supplies:

Regulated power supplies find widespread use in various electronic applications,

including:

● Powering microcontrollers, integrated circuits, and other digital electronics.

● Providing stable voltage for analog circuits and sensors.
● Charging batteries and powering portable devices.
● Driving motors and actuators in robotics and automation systems.
● Supplying power to communication equipment, audio/video devices, and lighting
systems.

Overall, regulated power supplies play a fundamental role in ensuring the reliable
operation of electronic systems by delivering consistent and well-regulated power to the
connected devices.

In this project, the objective is to convert the available AC voltage signal from the mains
(230V/50Hz) into the required DC voltages (+5V and +12V) for various applications. To
achieve this, a series of components are used, including a transformer, bridge rectifier,
and voltage regulators.

22
 Fig 3.1: Block diagram of power supply.

In this segment, we employ a Transformer, Bridge rectifier, and voltage regulators to

generate +5V and +12V outputs (using 7805 and 7812 regulators) from the mains supply.
These components are interconnected in series, and a capacitor (1000µF) is connected in
parallel to each regulator. Additionally, capacitors of various values (100µF, 10µF, 1µF,
0.1µF) are connected in parallel with each regulator output to further stabilize the
corresponding outputs (+5V or +12V).

A transformer functions by transferring electrical energy from one circuit to another

through inductively coupled conductors. As the current in the primary circuit fluctuates, it
generates a changing magnetic field, which induces a corresponding voltage in the
secondary circuit. By connecting a load to the secondary circuit, current can flow in the
transformer, thereby transferring energy from one circuit to another.

23
The secondary induced voltage \( V_S \) of an ideal transformer is determined by scaling
the primary voltage \( V_P \) by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire
in their respective windings.

Fig 3.2 Circuit illustration of bridge rectifier

Fig 3.3 Transformer core

A diode bridge, also known as a bridge rectifier, consists of four diodes arranged in a
bridge configuration. This arrangement ensures that the output voltage polarity remains
the same regardless of the input voltage polarity. Unlike a center-tapped transformer
design, which requires a center tap on the secondary winding, a bridge rectifier can

24
efficiently utilize both halves of the input AC waveform, resulting in lower cost and
weight.

However, it's important to note that a bridge rectifier has two diode drops in series, as
opposed to one in a center-tapped design. This can lead to reduced efficiency compared
to a center-tapped transformer in certain applications.

The primary function of a bridge rectifier is to convert alternating current (AC) input into
direct current (DC) output, a process known as rectification. It provides full-wave
rectification output voltage.

Basic Operation:
During each half cycle of the input sine wave, the diodes conduct current in such a way
that the output remains positive with respect to the reference point. When the input
connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive relative to the one connected at the
right corner, current flows to the right along the upper path to the output. Conversely,
during the negative half cycle, current flows through the lower path, allowing for
continuous output flow. This simple current flow mechanism enables the bridge rectifier
to effectively convert AC input into DC output.

Fig 3.4 Flow current for positive half cycle of sine wave

25
 Fig 3.5 Flow current for negative half cycle of sine wave

In every instance, the upper right output maintains a positive polarity in relation to the
lower right output.

Fig 3.6 Output of rectifier

Output smoothing through the use of capacitors is crucial in numerous applications,

particularly those involving single-phase AC where a full-wave bridge rectifier is
employed to convert AC input into DC output. This addition of a capacitor becomes
significant because the bridge rectifier, on its own, delivers an output voltage with a fixed
polarity but pulsating magnitude.

Fig 3.7 Capacitive smoothing of rectifier output

26
The role of this capacitor, often referred to as a reservoir capacitor or smoothing
capacitor, is to minimize the variation in the rectified AC output voltage waveform from
the bridge. Smoothing is achieved as the capacitor offers a low impedance path to the AC
component of the output, thereby decreasing the AC voltage across and AC current
through the resistive load. To put it simply, any decrease in the output voltage and current
of the bridge tends to be offset by the discharge of the capacitor, ensuring a more
consistent output voltage.

3.3 LDR SENSOR:

In the domain of light sensing technology, Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) hold
significant importance, especially in applications where the detection of ambient light
levels is essential. LDRs offer an economical and adaptable solution for measuring light
intensity, finding utility in various fields such as photography and solar tracking systems.

What is an LDR?

Light Dependent Resistors, also known as LDRs or photoresistors, are passive electronic
components whose resistance alters in response to fluctuating levels of incident light.
This characteristic makes them valuable for detecting and quantifying light intensity
across a broad spectrum of applications.

Working Principle

The operational principle of an LDR hinges on its semiconductor material composition,

typically cadmium sulfide (CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe). When exposed to light, the
semiconductor lattice absorbs photons, leading to the generation of electron-hole pairs
and consequently reducing the material's resistance. Conversely, in the absence of light,
the resistance of the material increases. This phenomenon is leveraged to convert
alterations in light intensity into measurable electrical signals.

LDR Sensor Module:

The sensor module comprises four pins, each serving a specific function when interfaced
with a microcontroller unit. These pins include:

27
 Figure 3.8: LDR Sensor

1. LDR (Photoresistor): The primary component responsible for light sensing. It

demonstrates variable resistance based on incident light levels.

2. Voltage Divider Circuit: The LDR is commonly linked in series with a fixed resistor
to establish a voltage divider circuit. This configuration facilitates the conversion of
resistance changes into corresponding voltage variations.

3. Output Interface: The output voltage from the voltage divider circuit is subsequently
interfaced with a microcontroller or other electronic devices for further processing and
analysis.

LDR Sensor Circuit Diagram:

Figure 3.9: Circuit Diagram of LDR Sensor

28
The features of this sensor are as follows:

1. High Sensitivity: LDRs demonstrate a heightened sensitivity to changes in light

intensity, enabling them to detect subtle variations in ambient lighting conditions
effectively.

2. Wide Operating Range: LDRs function across a broad spectrum of light levels,
ranging from dimly lit environments to bright sunlight. This wide operating range
enhances their versatility across various applications.

3. Cost-Effectiveness: LDRs are economically priced and readily accessible, making

them a preferred choice for light sensing applications where cost considerations are
significant.

4. Simple Integration: LDR sensor modules are straightforward to incorporate into

electronic circuits, requiring minimal additional components for operational functionality.

Applications:

These sensors find utility in several critical scenarios, including:

1. Light Sensing and Control in Automatic Lighting Systems.

2. Light Metering in Photography for Exposure Control.
3. Security Systems for Intrusion Detection based on Light Changes.
4. Solar Tracking Systems for Optimizing Solar Panel Orientation.
5. Automotive Headlight Control and Automatic Windshield Wipers.
6. Weather Monitoring Stations for Ambient Light Measurement.
7. Display Brightness Control in Consumer Electronics.
8. Greenhouse Automation for Plant Growth Optimization.
9. Industrial Process Control and Monitoring.
10. Educational Projects for Hands-On Learning in Electronics.

3.4 SERVO MOTOR

Servo motors are integral components within the motion control domain, offering
precision and adaptability across various applications.

29
What is a Servo Motor?
A servo motor serves as a rotary actuator enabling precise control over angular position,
velocity, and acceleration. It translates electrical signals into mechanical motion, making
it invaluable for tasks necessitating meticulous and controlled movement.

Working Principle:
Servo motors function based on a closed-loop control system, typically integrating
feedback mechanisms like encoders or potentiometers to ensure precise positioning. They
receive input signals, compare them with desired position or velocity parameters, and
subsequently adjust their output to achieve the intended motion accurately.

Servo Motor Configuration:

Comprising several essential components, servo motors include a DC motor, gearbox,
control circuitry, and feedback device. The control circuitry interprets input signals,
generates corresponding control signals, and regulates the motor's position or velocity
accordingly. Concurrently, the feedback device furnishes real-time information
concerning the motor's actual position, facilitating precise control and error correction.

Figure 3.10: Servo Motor

30
Servo Motor Wire Configuration

WIRE NUMBER WIRE COLOR DESCRIPTION

1 BROWN Ground wire connected to

the ground of system

2 RED Powers the motor typically

+ 5 volts is used

3 ORANGE PWM signal is given in

through this wire to drive
the motor

Table 3.1 : Servo Motor Configuration

Features of TowerPro SG-90 Servo Motor:

1. Operating Voltage: Typically operates at +5V.

2. Torque: Provides a torque of 2.5kg/cm.
3. Operating Speed: Has an operating speed of 0.1s/60°.
4. Gear Type: Equipped with plastic gears.
5. Rotation: Capable of rotating from 0° to 180°.
6. Weight: Weighs approximately 9 grams.
7. Package Contents: Includes gear horns and screws.

Equivalent Servo Motors:

- MG90S Metal Gear
- MG995 High Torque Metal Gear
- VTS-08A Analog Servo

Features of Equivalent Servo Motors:

1. Precision Control: Offers precise control over angular position, velocity, and
acceleration, ensuring accuracy and repeatability in applications.
2. Feedback Mechanisms: Utilizes feedback devices for accurate positioning and error
correction, enhancing performance and reliability.
3. Compact Design: Available in compact designs, suitable for applications with space
constraints or weight limitations.

31
4. High Torque: Despite their compact size, delivers high torque output, capable of
handling heavy loads or demanding tasks.
5. Wide Range of Applications: Finds application in various industries, including
robotics, automation, aerospace, and manufacturing, where precise motion control is
crucial.

3.5 SOLAR PANEL

In the realm of renewable energy, solar panels are pivotal components that harness
sunlight to generate electricity, providing sustainable power solutions.

Figure 3.11: Solar Panel

A solar panel, also known as a photovoltaic (PV) panel, is a device designed to convert
sunlight into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. It is composed of
interconnected solar cells, which are the fundamental units responsible for generating
electricity from sunlight.

Working Principle:
Solar panels operate based on the photovoltaic effect, wherein photons from sunlight
strike the semiconductor material within the solar cells, causing the release of electrons.
This creates an electric current, which is then captured by the solar panel and directed
through an electrical circuit for practical use.

Solar Panel Configuration:

32
Typically, a solar panel consists of multiple solar cells arranged in a grid-like pattern on a
supportive substrate, such as glass or plastic. These cells are connected using conductive
materials to form either a series or parallel configuration, depending on the desired
voltage and current output required for specific applications.

Solar Tracking Systems: Implementing solar tracking mechanisms with Arduino can
optimize the solar panel's orientation towards the sun throughout the day, maximizing
energy generation.

Battery Charging: Arduino can be used to regulate the charging of batteries connected
to solar panels, ensuring efficient utilization of generated energy and extending battery
life.

Data Logging: Arduino can log various parameters such as solar panel voltage, current,
and environmental conditions using sensors, enabling data-driven analysis and
optimization of solar panel performance.

Remote Monitoring: Utilizing Arduino along with wireless communication modules like
GSM, Wi-Fi, or LoRa, enables remote monitoring and control of solar panel systems,
facilitating real-time status updates and adjustments.

Power Management: Arduino-based power management systems can intelligently

distribute solar energy for powering different components or devices based on priority
and demand.

Energy Harvesting: Arduino can control energy harvesting circuits to efficiently capture
and store energy from solar panels for powering low-power sensor nodes or IoT devices.

Automatic Load Control: Arduino can automatically control loads based on the
availability of solar energy, optimizing energy consumption and ensuring continuous
operation even during periods of low sunlight.

Smart Home Integration: Integrating Arduino with smart home platforms allows solar
panels to interact with other home automation systems, enabling energy-efficient
practices and enhancing overall home sustainability.

33
Fault Detection and Diagnostics: Arduino-based systems can monitor solar panel
performance and detect faults or anomalies, providing early warnings and facilitating
timely maintenance.

Education and Learning: Arduino platforms provide an excellent educational tool for
learning about solar energy systems, allowing students and enthusiasts to explore
renewable energy concepts through hands-on experimentation and project development.

34
 CHAPTER - 4
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 IDE Setup for Arduino
This part will walk us through the simple process of installing the Arduino IDE on our
PC and getting the board ready to accept the program over a USB wire.
Step 1: To begin, you'll need a USB cable and an Arduino board (you can select your
preferred board). For Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove, Nano, Arduino Mega 2560,
or Diecimila, a normal USB cable (A plug to 0B plug) is required; this is the same type of
cable you would use to connect a USB printer, as seen in the picture below.

Figure 4.1: A typical USB cord

Step 2 − Download Arduino IDE Software.

35
 Figure 4.2: Download Arduino IDE software
Step 3: Activate your skateboard.
The Arduino Mega, Duemilanove, Nano, and Uno automatically draw power from an
external power source or via the USB connection to the computer. Make sure the Arduino
Diecimila is set up to draw power via the USB connection if you're using one of these
boards. A jumper, which is a little plastic device that slides onto two of the three pins
between the power and USB connectors, is used to select the power source. Verify that
the two pins that are nearest to the USB port are occupied.

Use the USB cord to link the Arduino board to your computer. The PWR designated
green power LED needs to be illuminated.

Step4: Open the Arduino IDE.

You must unzip the folder once the Arduino IDE software has downloaded. inside the
file.
The application icon with the infinity label (application.exe) is located. Start the IDE by
double-clicking the icon.

Figure 4.3: Launch Arduino IDE

36
Step 5: Launch the first project.
You have two choices after the software launches: − Start a new project.
Launch an example project that already exists.

To initiate a fresh project, choose File → New.

Figure 4.4: Arduino IDE Interface

Figure 4.5: Open New File

37
You can choose File → Example → Basics → Blink to access an existing project
example.

Figure 4.6: Open Blink in Examples

We are going to focus on only one case under the name Blink here. It takes a little while
for the LED to turn on and off. Any other example in the list may be chosen.

Step-6
You must choose the Arduino board name that corresponds with the board that is
connected to your computer in order to prevent any errors while uploading your
application to the board.
Choose your board by going to Tools → Board.

38
 Figure 4.7: Select the Arduino Uno

Step 7: Choose the serial port.

Choose the Arduino board's serial device. Select the Tools → Serial Port option. Since
COM1 and COM2 are typically designated for hardware serial ports, this is most likely
COM3 or higher.

You may find out by unplugging your Arduino board and opening the menu again. The
Arduino board should be the one whose entry vanishes. Choose that serial port and
reattach the board.

Figure 4.8: Select Serial Port

39
Step-8:Write the Program
Begin by typing your Arduino code into the Arduino IDE.

Type Code in Coding Area

Figure 4.9: Type the Code

40
PROGRAM
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(13,12,11,10,9,8);
int sw1 =7 ;
int sw2 =6;
int sw3 =5;
int sw4 =4;
int out1=3;
int b1 = A0;
int b2 = A1;
int count=0;
int sped=0;
int ir=2;
int gas=3;

void setup()
{
pinMode(sw1,INPUT);
pinMode(sw2,INPUT);
pinMode(sw3,INPUT);
pinMode(sw4,INPUT);
pinMode(out1,OUTPUT);
pinMode(b1,INPUT);
pinMode(b2,INPUT);
pinMode(ir,OUTPUT);
pinMode(gas,INPUT);
// pinMode(out2,OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(b1,HIGH);digitalWrite(b2,HIGH);
Serial.begin(9600);

41
 lcd.begin(16,2);
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("RF BASED DC MOTOR");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("CONTROL SYSTEM");delay(2000);

}
void loop()
{
back:
while(1)
{
if((digitalRead(b1)==LOW)&& (digitalRead(b2)==HIGH))
{
count=count+1;
if(count>10)
{
count=10;
sped=250;
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("max limit reach");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print(count*10);
analogWrite(out1,sped);
analogWrite(out1,sped);delay(2000);
delay(1000);goto back;
}
sped=sped+25;
analogWrite(out1,sped);

42
analogWrite(out1,sped);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("SPEED:");lcd.print(count*10);lcd.print("km/h");delay(500);

else if((digitalRead(b2)==LOW)&& (digitalRead(b1)==HIGH))

{
count=count-1;
if(count<0)
{
count=0;
sped=0;
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("min limit reach");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print(count*10);
analogWrite(out1,sped);
analogWrite(out1,sped);delay(2000);
delay(1000);goto back;
}
sped=sped-25;
analogWrite(out1,sped);
analogWrite(out1,sped);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("SPEED:");lcd.print(count*10);lcd.print("km/h");delay(500);

43
 else if((digitalRead(sw1)==LOW) && (digitalRead(sw2)==HIGH) &&
(digitalRead(sw3)==HIGH) && (digitalRead(sw4)==HIGH))
{
// count = 8;
// sped=200;
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("overspeed detect");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("speed");delay(1000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("SPEED DOWN TO");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("80 KM/H");
analogWrite(out1,200);
analogWrite(out1,200);delay(2000);
}
else if((digitalRead(sw1)==HIGH) && (digitalRead(sw2)==LOW) &&
(digitalRead(sw3)==HIGH) && (digitalRead(sw4)==HIGH))
{
// count = 6;
// sped=150;
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("overspeed detect");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("speed");delay(1000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("SPEED DOWN TO");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("60 KM/H");

44
 analogWrite(out1,150);
analogWrite(out1,150);delay(2000);
}
else if((digitalRead(sw1)==HIGH) && (digitalRead(sw2)==HIGH) &&
(digitalRead(sw3)==LOW) && (digitalRead(sw4)==HIGH))
{
// count = 4;
// sped=100;
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("overspeed detect");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("speed");delay(1000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("SPEED DOWN TO");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("40 KM/H");
analogWrite(out1,100);
analogWrite(out1,100);delay(2000);
}
else if((digitalRead(sw1)==HIGH) && (digitalRead(sw2)==HIGH) &&
(digitalRead(sw3)==HIGH) && (digitalRead(sw4)==LOW))
{
// count = 2;
// sped=50;
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("overspeed detect");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("speed");delay(1000);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("SPEED DOWN TO");

45
 lcd.setCursor(0, 1);
lcd.print("20 KM/H");
analogWrite(out1,50);
analogWrite(out1,50);delay(2000);
}
else
{
analogWrite(out1,sped);
analogWrite(out1,sped);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("SPEED:");lcd.print(count*10);lcd.print("km/h");delay(500);
}

46
Step 8 − Upload the program to your board.

Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must demonstrate the
function of each symbol appearing in the Arduino IDE toolbar.

Figure 4.10: Upload the program to your board

47
Just click the "Upload" button in the environment at this point. After a little while, the
RX and TX LEDs on the board will start to flash. The status bar will display the message
"Done uploading" if the upload is successful.

Figure 4.11: Upload Completed

48
 CHAPTER-5
RESULTS

In this Dual Axis Solar Tracker, when source light falls on the panel, the panel adjusts its
position according to maximum intensity of light falling perpendicular to it. The
objective of the project is completed.

This was achieved through using light sensors that are able to detect the amount of
sunlight that reaches the solar panel. The values obtained by the LDRs are compared and
if there is any significant difference, there is actuation of the panel using a servo motor to
the point where it is almost perpendicular to the rays of the sun. This was achieved using
a system with three stages or subsystems. Each stage has its own role.

The stages were; An input stage that was responsible for converting incident light to a
voltage. A control stage that was responsible for controlling actuation and decision
making. A driver stage with the servo motor. It was responsible for actual movement of
the panel.

The input stage is designed with a voltage divider circuit so that it gives desired range of
illumination for bright illumination conditions or when there is dim lighting. The
potentiometer was adjusted to cater for such changes. The LDRs were found to be most
suitable for this project because their resistance varies with light. They are readily
available and are cost effective.

Temperature sensors for instance would be costly. The control stage has a
microcontroller that receives voltages from the LDRs and determines the action to be
performed. The microcontroller is programmed to ensure it sends a signal to the servo
motor that moves in accordance with the generated error.

The final stage was the driving circuitry that consisted mainly of the servo motor. The
servo motor had enough torque to drive the panel. Servo motors are noise free and are
affordable, making them the best choice for the project.

49
This is the snapshot of my project kit when we switch on the power supply.

Fig’s 5.1 Snapshot of Arduino based Dual Axis Solar Tracking System

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, the implementation of a Dual Axis Solar Tracking System offers a

promising solution for optimizing solar energy capture and enhancing the efficiency of
photovoltaic (PV) installations. By dynamically adjusting the orientation of solar panels
along both azimuth and elevation axes to align with the sun's position, this system
maximizes energy generation potential while adapting to changing environmental
conditions. With advantages such as enhanced energy efficiency, adaptability, and

50
improved return on investment, the project holds significant promise for various
applications, including residential, commercial, agricultural, and educational sectors. As
the world continues to transition towards sustainable energy solutions, the development
and deployment of innovative technologies like the Dual Axis Solar Tracking System
contribute to a greener and more sustainable future.

SCOPE:

The solar project was implemented using two servo motors. The choice was informed by
the fact that the motor is fast, can sustain high torque, has precise rotation within limited
angle and does not produce any noise. The Arduino IDE was used for the coding. Kolkata
has coordinates of 22.5726°N, 88.3639°E and therefore the position of the sun will vary
in a significant way during the year. In the tropics, the sun position varies considerably
during certain seasons.

There is the design of an input stage that facilitates conversion of light into a voltage by
the light dependent resistors, LDRs. There is comparison of the two voltages, then the
microcontroller uses the difference as the error. The servo motor uses this error to rotate
through a corresponding angle for the adjustment of the position of the solar panel until
such a time that the voltage outputs in the LDRs are equal. The difference between the
voltages of the LDRs is received as analog readings.

Function of the processor: The analog readings are converted to integer values by ADC
input ports which is compared in order to get the difference value for motor movement.
The difference is transmitted to the servo motor and it thus moves to ensure the two
LDRs are an equal inclination. This means they will be receiving the same amount of
light, and the Solar panel will receive the sunlight at 90°, (the plane of PV panel will
make an angle 90° with the Sun, and the perpendicular drawn on the plane makes an
angle 0° with the Sun, to ensure maximum illumination: Lambert’s cosine Law) The
procedure is repeated throughout the day. Tracker systems work on two simple principles
together.

One being, the normal principle of incidence and reflection on which our tracker works
and the other is the principle on which the solar (PV) panel works.

51
 REFERENCES
[1] "Go Solar California," [Online]. Available:
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[2] J. Bartlett, "Arise Energy Solutions," Arise Energy Solutions, LLC, [Online].
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[6] Md. Tanvir Arafat Khan, "Design and Construction of an Automatic Solar
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[8] "Utility Drive," 29 November 2016. [Online]. Available:

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[9] "Coursera," [Online]. Available:

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[12] "Economic Survey 2017/18," GoN, Ministry of Finance, June 2018. [Online].
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