10.

4
Basic Electrical and
Electronics
Mark Engine ring

Space
Fig. 10.3 Double current working Telegraph signal
Radar Signal
A radar is a device which is used to find out
the location of distance objects in ter.
ol range and bearing. This is done by
the target. The reflected signal is pickedtransmitting a short period signal and
up by the radar receiver and is used beaming it to
the location of the to determine
object.
The radar signal is basically a train of
rectangular pulses transmitted at a low pulse
repetition frequency. The width of the pulses employed
A radar is sometimes required to are in the range of 1.0 u sec duration.
measure the velocity of a moving object. Such a radar is
termed as Doppler Radar.

10.3| MODULATION

Modulation may be defined as the process by which some

signal termed as carrier is varied in accordance parameter of a high
with the signal to be transmitted.frequency
Various
modulation methods have been developed for transmission of
with minimum possible distortion. The signals as effectively as possible
comparison
methods may be based upon the signal power to noise
of the effectiveness of these
modulation
receiver. Accordingly, a wide range of modulation power measured at the output of a
techniques have been developed.
The modulation technique may be broadly
techniques. The analog methods of modulation are grouped
simpler
into analog techniques and pulse
and cheaper than pulse modulation
techniques. The former employs sinusoidal signals as carrier while the later circuit uses tran
of pulses as the carrier signal.

Analog modulation may be divided into amplitude

Amplitude modulation (AM) may be categorised as AM modulation and angle modulatton.
(AM/DSB), vestigial side band (VSB), double side-band with both side bands and cartie
side-band suppressed carrier (SSB/SC), and independent suppressed carrier (DSB/SC), Sing
side-band suppressed carrier (SDo
In angle modulation, the
instantaneous angle of a sinusojdal carrier is varied as Po
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. The system leads to phase modulation (PM)
and frequency modulation (FM). FM and PM waves require a much larger bandwidth than
AM, but are capable of waves with sufficiently improved signal to noise ratio than the latter.
Fundamentals of
Communication Engineering 10.5

10.3.1 Amplitude Modulation

prOcess of amplitude
modulation
consists of varying the peak amplitude of a
The carrier
sinusoidal wave in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal.
sinusoiohe amplitude of the carrier wave is changed but its frequency remains the same.
of the modulated carrier is an exact replication of the audio frequency signal
The envelope
Wave.

Let the carrier signal be represented by,

V.=Vy Sin 0, t ...
(10.1)

where,
signal
Vo is the constant amplitude of the carrier
o, is the carrier angular frequency
and the modulating signal is represented by,
Vm = Vm sin W,, ! (10.2)

where,

V,, is the amplitude of the modulating signal

W,, is the signl frequency
along with the resulting modulated waves as shown in Fig. 10.4.
These components
Vm
V.m =Vmsin t

wave
Modulating signal and the AM
Fig. 10.4
amplitude of the carrier so that for the
the peak
The process of modulation increases
odulated wave peak amplitude is given aS,
(10.3)
Vm sin n,
Vmod =Vem t
10.6 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineerin0

and its instantaneous value is given as

Vmod = mod Sin 0 t

Vmod = [Vcm + Vm sin O,] sin o, t

= Vcom Sin O,+ Vm Sin Om Sin Oct
(10.4)
m
Vmod = Vcm Sin c + 2 [cos (0,- O,) t- cos (0,+ O,)
mcm
Vmod= Vcm Sin Oct 2 (cos (0,-,) t- cos (0,+ o,m) l
Cm

= Vom Sin Oc t Vm Vem [cos (0, 0)-cos (0,+ om) i]

Vcm 2

=VemSin @c t 2 Ma
cos (0, W Vcm COs (0.+o,) t
(10.5)
where,

ma= is termed as the degree of modulation or modulation index

Cm

Equation (10.5) shows that the AM wave consists of three components

1. Vcm Sin o is the original carrier that is undistributed.
2. m, Vcn cos
2 (0, -0,) is the component that has a peak amplitude of nna Vcm and
a frequency that is the difference between carrier and the modulating signal, and
3. Ma Vcm
2 cos (0, + O,) t is the component that has an amplitude equal to the second
component but opposite in phase and the frequency is the sum of carrier and signal
frequency. V

mVon
mv
Cm
2
LSF
USF

Fig. 10.5 USB and LSB for single frequency AM wave

 10.7
Fundamentals of
Communication Engineering

Conseguently, second and third components are termed as Lower Side Band (LSB) and
Upper Side Band
(USB). Fig. 10.5 shows the Upper and Lower side bands for single frequency
AM wave.

POWER IN AN AM WAVE
Y40.4
The average power in each component of the wave is given by the square of RMS
concerned.
values of the components
For carrier wave,
2

P.
V2
V
Ycm
P= 2 (10.6)

where,
V
Cn
is the peak value of the carrier wave voltage
For power in side bands
Pse=PSB + PusB
2 2
ma Vcm +
m, Vcm
2 N2 2 N2

m
4 ... (10.7)
wave power and the power in side
Thus, the total power is equal to the sum of carrier
bands.

P= P+PsB
vmg Vem
Cm
+

2 4

P, 1+ 2 (10.8)
2
power,
lI the carrier yoltage has a Rms value V, then total

1+
2 2
 108 Basic Eleclrical and
EloctronGs Engineorite
m
2

P;
P.It
C
(109)
10.4.1 Current Relation
Let
I, be the unmodulated current and
I, is the total or modulated current of an AM transmitter
R is the resistance in which these current flows
2

P R
Therefore,

1+
2

Hence

I,=1,/+"
.. (10.10)

10.4.2 Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave n
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal without any variationIn
the amplitude of the carrier wave. Because the amplitude of the wave remains unch unged.
the power associated with an FM wave is constant. Fig. 10.6 shows the wave forms in a
FM wave.

From the figure shown below, when the modulating signal is zero, the output frequency
equals f (centre frequency). When the modulating signal reaches its positive peak, the
frequency of the modulated signal is maximum and equals Vc +Sm). At negative peak of the
modulating signal, the frequency of the FM wave becomes minimum and equal to (, Jm
Fundtamentals of Communication Enginoeritng
109
Em

(fetan)
Ec

Fig. 10.6 FM wave forms

Thus. the process of Irequency modulation makes the frequency of the FM wave to
deviate
from its centre Irequency V) by an amount ( Af) where Af is termed as the frequency
deviation of the system. During this process, the total power in the wave does not change
but a part of the carrier power is transferred to the side bands.
Assume the modulating signal can be represented by,
Vm = Vm COs ), and carrier wave being represented by,

v,= V sin (o, 1 +0) ... (10.|1)

where,
(0, +0) represents the total phase angle at a time and
represents the initial phase angle
Thus =(0 +0)
The angular velocity may be determined by finding the rate of change of this phase
angle.
do
Angular velocity dt

After frequency modulation takes place, angular velocity of the carrier wave vanes in
poportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. The instantaneous angular
velocity wi is given by.

... (10.12)
0,= 0, t K Vm cos Wm
where,
Kis a constant of
proportionality.
10.10 Basic Electrical and
Maximum frequency shift or deviation occurs when the cosine
value t 1. Under this condition, the instantaneous angular velocity in
Elocqnctronics Engi90ring
is given by. 0.12) bat a
),= 0, t K Vm
...

So that the maximum frequency deviation Af is given by,

KVm
Af= 2T
It gives,

K V,,=2r Af
IEquation (10.12) can be rewritten as,
...

(10.14)
O,= 0, + 2rt Afcos ),

Integration of the equation (10.15) gives the instantaneous phase angle (10.15)
modulated wave. of the freaieneu

,=,
dt
=
| (o, +2T Afcos o,) di

= 0, 1+
2 Af
sin ), t
where

0, is a constant of integration, representing a constant phase angle and may be neglected

The instantaneous amplitude of the modulated wave is given by,

Vmod=V sin ,

= V, sin (0, + sin Omi

and
The ratio is termed as the modulation index of the frequency modulated wave
is denoted by mf
frequency deviation
m=
modulating frequency
Af
Fundamentals of Communication Engineering 10.11

The maximum value of frequency deviation (Af) is fixed at 75 kHz for commercial
than 1. For
EM broadcasting. For normal band, the valuc of modulation index (m) is less
wide band FM, m, is greater than 1.

Advantages of FM over AM
independent of the depth
1. The amplitudes of the frequency modulated wave in FM is
parameter.
of modulation, where as in AM, it is independent on this
the total transmitted power is
2. In AM, when the modulation index increases,
increased with the increased modulation index.

FM is much more immune to noise than

AM and hence there is an increase in
3.
the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) in FM.
noise can further be reduced in FM, where
4. By increasing frequency deviation, the
as AM does not have this feature.
there is less adjacent channel
5. As there is a guard band between FM stations,
interference in FM than in AM.
the space
6. Since the FM transmitter operates in the upper VHF and UHF ranges,
limited to Line of
wave is used for propagation so that the radius of reception is
Sight (LOS).

Disadvantages of FM over AM
1. FM requires a much wider channel, perhaps 7 to 15 times as large as that needed
by AM.

2. FM transmitting and receiving equipments are more complex and expensive.

3. Since reception is limited to line of sight, the area of reception for FM is much
smaller than for AM,