TABLE OF CONTENTS

SAFETY OF FLIGHT.....................................................................................................................................................................................................2
AIRPORTS...................................................................................................................................................................................................................27
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS.........................................................................................................................................................................................72
AIRSPACE...................................................................................................................................................................................................................87
GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS....................................................................................................................................................................122
TRAFFIC PATTERNS................................................................................................................................................................................................129
FLIGHT LESSON 5: GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS..................................................................................................................................137
SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS.....................................................................................................................................................140
FLIGHT LESSON 6: ABNORMAL AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES.................................................................................................................155
SAFETY OF FLIGHT
Scan Patterns
A consistent habit of looking outside the cockpit could avert most mid-air collisions. To see and avoid other aircraft,
you must develop an effective visual scanning pattern.
When scanning for traffic, divide your windshield into 10-degree segments, and then methodically focus on: each
segment for at least one second.
Start at the far left of the windshield and make a methodical sweep to the right, pausing in each block of your
windshield to focus your eyes.
Alternatively, start in the center block of the windshield, and move to the left, focusing in each block. After reaching
the left end of the windshield, swing quickly to the center block and repeat this action to the right.
Be sure that the scan pattern you use covers all of the sky that you can see from the cockpit, both horizontally and
vertically, with particular emphasis on the area 60 degrees to the left and right of the center visual area and 10
degrees up and down from your flight path.

Field of Vision
The normal field of vision for each eye is about 135° vertically and about 160° horizontally. Two normal healthy
eyes provide a field of vision of approximately 200°. However, the area in which the eye can focus sharply and
perceive detail is a relatively narrow cone (usually only about 10° wide) directly in the center of the field of vision.
Beyond this area, visual acuity decreases sharply in all directions. A scan pattern brings successive areas of the
sky into your centralco visual field and gives your eyes time to focus on this narrow viewing area.
A Visual Experiment
You can use a textbook, such as the Private Pilot Manual, to demonstrate the limitations of your visual field. Stand
it on edge on a table and sit in a chair about 5 feet away. The width of the book represents an area approximately
10 degrees wide, the same as the relatively small area in which your eyes can focus sharply.
Now focus on the lower left corner of the book. Can you see the details in the upper right corner? As long as you
remain focused on the lower left corner, you probably will not be able to see detail clearly.

Scan Limitations
Many conditions can affect your ability to see traffic while scanning:
 Reduced detail in peripheral vision
 Absence of relative motion
 Refocusing time.
 Reduced visibility
 Background contrast
 Empty field myopia
Peripheral Vision Experiment
It is difficult to perceive objects in your peripheral vision when there is no relative motion. For example, when your
eyes are focused straight ahead, how well can you see an object positioned even with your ear and no more than
two feet away?
When it is stationary?
When it is moving up and down?

Aircraft Blind Spots

In both high-wing and low-wing aircraft designs, the fuselage and wings block portions of your view, which makes it
difficult to see conflicting traffic.
To reduce the possibility of a collision due to blind spots:
 Prior to beginning a turn in a high-wing airplane, lift the wing and look in the direction of the turn to check the
area for other aircraft.
 During extended climbs or descents, make shallow S-turns and avoid climbing or descending at steep
angles.
Piggy Back Ride
The pilots of these two training planes in Florida were fortunate enough to walk away from a normally fatal midair
collision that occurred while both planes were on final for touch-and-go landings on the same runway.
The instructor in the Cessna took control of the aircraft from his student pilot and safely landed the interlocked
aircraft in the grass near the runway. Amazingly, both aircraft sustained only minor damage.

Aircraft Lighting
All aircraft operated at night must meet specific lighting and equipment requirements:
Position lights:
 Green light on right wingtip
 Red light on left wingtip
 White light on tail
Anticollision lights:
 On whenever the engine is running
 Red or white flashing
 Found on wingtips or tail
 Can be extinguished when they might interfere with safety.
Operation Lights on
To increase safety at airports, the FAA has established a voluntary program called Operation Lights On, which
encourages you to use your landing lights during departures and approaches, both day and night, especially when
operating within 10 miles of an airport or in conditions of reduced visibility. Check your POH for any limitations on
the use of your aircraft lights.
FAA REGULATION
Sec. 91.209. Aircraft lights
No person may:
(a) During the period from sunset to sunrise (or, in Alaska, during the period a prominent unlighted object cannot be
seen from a distance of 3 statute miles, or the sun is more than 6 degrees below the horizon)
(1) Operate an aircraft unless it has lighted position lights.
(2) Park or move an aircraft in, or in dangerous proximity to, a night flight operations area of an airport unless the
aircraft
 Is clearly illuminated.
 Has lighted position lights.
 is in an area that is marked by obstruction lights.

(3) Anchor an aircraft unless the aircraft

 Has lighted anchor lights.
 Is in an area where anchor lights are not required on vessels.
(b) Operate an aircraft that is equipped with an anticollision light system, unless it has lighted anticollision lights.
However, the anticollision lights need not be lighted when the pilot-in-command determines that, because of
operating conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to turn the lights off.
Position Lights
A steady green and a flashing red light means that an aircraft is passing from left to right.
A steady white light combined with a flashing red light means an aircraft is flying away from you.
A steady red and a flashing red light means that the aircraft is crossing from right to left
A red position light to the right of a green light means an aircraft is flying toward you

Clearing Turns
Clearing turns enable you to see areas blocked by blind spots and make it easier to maintain visual contact with
other aircraft in the area.
To clear the area, either perform two 90-degree turns or perform one 180-degree turn, followed by an entry to the
practice maneuver as soon as possible.
Watch for traffic while turning. The number of degrees you turn is less important than ensuring the airspace is free
of traffic.
Right-of-Way Rules
When another aircraft has the right of way.
 Give way to that aircraft.
 Do not pass over, under, or ahead of the aircraft unless your flight path is well clear of the other aircraft.

Aircraft in Distress
An aircraft in distress has the right of way over all other aircraft.

FAA REGULATION
Sec. 91.113. Right-of-way rules: Except water operations.
(c) in distress. An aircraft in distress has the right of way over all other air traffic.
Converging Aircraft of the Same Category
When aircraft of the same category converge, take the appropriate action based on the direction of the approach.

Overtaking
The aircraft being overtaken, has the right of way.
Overtaking aircraft traveling in the same direction must pass the slower aircraft well clear on the right.
Approaching Head-On
If you’re approaching head-on or nearly so, you should both alter your courses to the right.
Converging
The aircraft to the left must turn away in a manner that will not interfere with the other aircraft's flight path.
The aircraft on the right has the right of way.
FAA REGULATION
Sec. 91.113. Right-of-way rules: Except water operations.
(d) Converging. When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same altitude (except
head-on, or nearly so), the aircraft to the other's right has the right of way. (e) Approaching head-on. When aircraft
are approaching each other head-on, or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.
(f) Overtaking. Each aircraft that is being overtaken has the right of way and each pilot of an overtaking aircraft
shall alter course to the right to pass well clear.
Converging Aircraft of Different Types
The least maneuverable aircraft usually has the right of way over all other traffic.

FAA REGULATION
Sec. 91.113. Right-of-way rules: Except water operations.
(d) Converging. If the aircraft are of different categories-
(1) A balloon has the right of way over any other category of aircraft,
(2) A glider has the right of way over an airship, powered parachute, weight-shift-control aircraft, airplane, or
rotorcraft.
(3) An airship has the right of way over a powered parachute, weight shift-control aircraft, airplane, or rotorcraft
However, an aircraft towing or refueling other aircraft has the right of way over all other engine-driven aircraft.
Landing Aircraft
These right-of-way rules apply to specific airport operations:
An aircraft on final approach or landing has the right of way over aircraft in the traffic pattern and on the ground.
When two or more aircraft, each of which are preparing to land, enter the traffic pattern at the same time, the
aircraft at the lowest altitude has the right of way.

FAA REGULATION
Sec. 91.113. Right-of-way rules: Except water operations.

(g) Landing. Aircraft, while on final approach to land or while landing, have the right of way over other aircraft in
flight or operating on the surface, except that they shall not take advantage of this rule to force an aircraft off the
runway surface which has already landed and is attempting to make way for an aircraft on final approach. When
two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the
right of way, but it shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land or
to overtake that aircraft.
Minimum Safe Altitudes
Congested Area
Over cities or metropolitan areas, fly at least 1,000 feet above any obstacle within 2,000 feet of your aircraft.
Uncongested Area
Over uncongested areas, fly at least 500 feet above the surface.
Sparsely Populated Area
Over sparsely populated or open water areas, stay more than 500 feet from any person, vessel, vehicle, or
structure.
Any Terrain
The lowest altitude at which you can fly over any terrain is one that permits you to make an emergency landing
without posing an undue hazard to persons or property on the surface.
NALL report
Every year, the AOPA Air Safety Foundation analyzes National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) statistics to
gain greater understanding of the causes and contributing factors in general aviation accidents. The result of this
analysis is the Joseph T. Nail Report.
According to the Nall Report, accident rates over the last 10 years reflect a downward trend, but there is still plenty
of room for improvement, as accidents per flight hour are not decreasing significantly.
NTSB statistics reveal that a disproportionately high percentage of fatal accidents occurred during general aviation
flights in comparison to airline operations. For every airline accident that resulted in fatalities (per 100,000 flight
hours), general aviation had about 125 fatal accidents. Even though airlines report a higher number of fatalities per
accident, GA total fatalities per flight hour still exceed those of the airlines.
These are the factors that make general aviation more risky:
 Variety of missions
 Variability of pilot certificate and experience levels Limited cockpit resources and flight support.
 Greater variety of facilities More takeoffs and landings
 Aircraft that are less weather-tolerant
Hazardous Terrain
To safely operate over mountainous terrain or over open water, you must:
 Obtain specialized training from an experienced instructor who is familiar with the area over which the flight
will be conducted.
 Carry appropriate survival gear.
 Be prepared for decreased aircraft performance at high altitudes, turbulence, rapidly changing weather, and
difficulty in locating a forced landing site.

FAA REGULATION
FAR 91.119 Minimum safe altitudes: General
Except when necessary for takeoff or landing, no person may operate an aircraft below the following altitudes:
(a) Anywhere. An altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or
property on the surface.
(b) Over congested areas. Over any congested area of a city, town, or settlement, or over any open air assembly of
persons, an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the aircraft
(c) Over other than congested areas. An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, except over open water or sparsely
populated areas. In those cases, the aircraft may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel,
vehicle, or structure.
From the Files of the NTSB
May 16th, 2002, New River, AZ - During a sales demonstration flight, a pilot descended into the upsloping face of
mountainous terrain about 17 nm north of the destination airport. The accident occurred at night under visual
meteorological conditions.
The wreckage distribution path was 640 feet long and indicated that the airplane was in controlled flight in a shallow
descent when it collided with the terrain. The airplane was equipped with an autopilot, a global positioning satellite
receiver, and a multifunction color display that, if operated in the topographic mode, had the capability to display
terrain elevation information.
The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause of the accident was the pilot's failure
to maintain adequate terrain clearance altitude during a cruise descent. Factors that contributed to the accident
were the rising mountainous terrain. the dark nighttime condition, and the pilot's loss of situational awareness
regarding terrain proximity.

CFIT Definition
Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)
A qualified pilot flies an airworthy aircraft into terrain, water, or obstacles with inadequate awareness of the
impending collision
Causes of CFIT Accidents
The main causes of CFIT are:
 Loss of situational awareness
 Operational and nonoperational cockpit distractions
 Complacency
 Lack of technical or operational experience
 Lack of adequate preparation
 Confusion

Types of Operations Vulnerable to CFIT

Three types of general aviation flight operations tend to be more vulnerable to CFIT:
 VFR-only pilots operating in marginal VFR or instrument meteorological conditions.
 Substandard IFR operations in instrument meteorological conditions, while on an IFR flight.
 Low-flying aircraft operating in VFR conditions.
CFIT Risks During Takeoff and Climb

Causes of CFIT During Takeoff and Climb

 Incomplete or inadequate review of the departure.
 Terrain around the departure airport.
 Aircraft performance.
 Density altitude.
 Turbulence Distractions in the cockpit during the departure.
 Failure to plan for an unexpected return to the departure airport.
Intervention Strategies
 Review the departure route, with particular attention to terrain surrounding the airport.
 Carefully review aircraft performance limitations at the reported density altitude to ensure that your aircraft
can clear terrain safely.
 Review weather reports to identify potential areas of turbulence that could affect your flight.
 Preset all communication frequencies, navigation frequencies, and course selectors, if needed.
 Review what you would do if you had to return to the airport unexpectedly.
From the Files of the NTSB
Flight Northwest Flight 255
Date: August 16, 1987
Fatalities: 153 passengers and crew, 2 on the ground
NTSB probable cause: The flight crew's failure to use the taxi checklist to ensure the flaps and slats were extended
for takeoff.
CFIT Risks During Cruise
Causes of CFIT During Cruise
 Misreading or misinterpreting safe altitudes.
 Losing situational awareness and becoming disoriented.
 Flying into deteriorating weather conditions, requiring a descent to maintain VFR below the cloud layer.
 Overestimating aircraft performance capabilities.
 Unplanned diversion to a different destination, resulting in flight over unfamiliar terrain.

Intervention Strategies
 Review aeronautical charts to determine the maximum elevation of terrain and obstructions for the proposed
flight.
 Maintain situational awareness by monitoring the charted terrain depiction.
 Immediately make a 180-degree turn to return to VFR conditions.
 When flying in mountainous terrain, plan carefully with regard to the climb capability of your aircraft in the
applicable density altitude and be aware of strong winds and turbulence that could affect your
maneuverability.
 Devise an “escape route” in the event that you cannot complete your flight as planned.
From the Files of the NTSB
Flight: United Airlines DC-8
Date: December 18, 1977
Fatalities: 3
NTSB probable cause: The approach controller's issuance and the flight crew's acceptance of an incomplete and
ambiguous holding clearance, in combination with the flight crew's failure to adhere to prescribed impairment-of
communications procedures and prescribed holding procedures, were the probable causes of the crash. The
controller's and flight crew's actions were attributed to imprecise habits of communication and imprecise adherence
to radar operations procedures.
CFIT Risks During Descent, Approach and Landing
Causes of CFIT During Descent, Approach, and Landing
 Improperly planning the descent and approach.
 Responding to distractions in the cockpit.
 Neglecting to plan for a go-around.
Intervention Strategies
 Review the terrain features near the airport and plan a safe descent and approach using appropriate
approach speeds and rates of descent.
 Prior to beginning your approach, preset communication and navigation frequencies. Early in your approach,
establish the aircraft configuration, including airspeed and gear and flap positions.
 Review what to do in the event of a go-around.
From the Files of the NTSB
Flight Eastern Airlines Flight 401
Date: December 29, 1972
Fatalities: 101
NTSO probable cause: The failure of the flight crew to monitor the flight instruments during the final four minutes of
flight, and to detect an unexpected descent soon enough to prevent impact with the ground were the primary
causes of this crash. Preoccupation with a malfunction of the nose landing gear position indicating system
distracted the crew's attention from the instruments and caused the descent to go unnoticed.
Taxiing a Tricycle-Gear Aircraft in the Wind
Left Quartering Headwind
Use up aileron on left wing and neutral elevator.
Right Quartering Headwind
Use up aileron on right wing and neutral elevator.
Left Quartering Tailwind
Use down aileron on left wing and down elevator.
Right Quartering Tailwind
Use down aileron on right wing and down elevator.

Taxiing a Tailwheel Aircraft in the Wind

When taxiing a tailwheel aircraft:
 Position the ailerons the same as you do for a tricycle-gear aircraft.
 In a tailwind. hold the elevator control forward (elevator down) the same as in a tricycle-gear aircraft.
 In a headwind. hold the elevator control aft (elevator up) to help keep the tailwheel on the ground.
AIRPORTS
Controlled and Uncontrolled Airports
Controlled
 Operating control tower (towered).
 Operations directed by ATC from the tower.
 Two-way radio required.
Uncontrolled
 No operating control tower (non-towered).
 Operations directed by pilots who determine the active runway and how to enter and exit the traffic.
 Two-way radio not required but recommended.

Runway Numbers and Magnetic Heading

Runway numbers:
Appear upright to approaching aircraft. Correspond to magnetic north reference for that runway, rounded to the
nearest 10 degrees, with the last zero omitted.
Runway Numbers
Any runway between the headings of 010 degrees and 090 degrees is designated with a single-digit runway
number.

Parallel Runways
Parallel runways:
 Share runway numbers.
 Are differentiated by left, right, and center designations that appear below the runway number.

Traffic Patterns
The purpose of traffic patterns is to safely organize arriving and departing air traffic.
Variables that affect traffic patterns include:
 Direction and placement of the pattern.
 Altitude.
 How to enter and exit the pattern.
 Most airports use a left turn standard rectangular pattern with named legs.
Named Legs
Departure (upwind):
 Begins after takeoff.
 Continues along runway centerline until you are clear of the departure end of runway.
Crosswind:
 Begins after the first turn.
 Used to transition to the next leg.
Downwind:
 Begins after second turn.
 Parallel to the landing runway.
Base:
 Begins after third turn.
 Transition from downwind leg to final.
Final:
 Begins at completion of base-to-final turn.
 Continues to the runway.
Lefthand Traffic Patterns
FAR Part 91 requires that you make all turns to the left unless visual markings on the airport indicate right turns or
ATC instructs you to deviate from the standard pattern.

Departing and Entering a Traffic Pattern

When departing an airport pattern, take off into the wind.
After takeoff.
 Climb on the extended centerline of the upwind leg.
 Depart the pattern straight ahead or make a 45-degree turn.
Preferred entry is to the downwind leg, approaching the pattern on a 45-degree course, and joining the pattern at
midfield.
Standard Wind Direction Indicators
At controlled airports, air traffic controllers assign runways based on:
 Local environmental conditions.
 Amount of airport traffic.
At uncontrolled airports, you decide which runway to use, based on the wind direction indicators.
The four standard indicators are:
 Windsock.
 Environment.
 Wind Tee.
 Tetrahedron.

Radio Operator Assistance

At an uncontrolled airport:
 If a radio operator is available, obtain wind direction, wind speed, and the active or favored runway from the
operator.
 If no radio operator is available, rely on the standard wind direction indicators.
The Windsock
The windsock is the most common wind direction indicator. Windsocks:
 Provide the present wind conditions at the airport.
 Align with the wind.
Normally, the small end of a windsock has a slight downwind tilt.
The stronger the wind, the straighter the extension.
In gusty conditions, the windsock whips from side to side.

Estimating Wind Speed with a Windsock

A limp windsock indicates a no-wind condition.
A windsock extended at 45 degrees indicates a wind speed of around 7 knots.
A fully extended windsock indicates a wind speed of 15 knots or higher.
Environmental Wind Direction
Some useful environmental indicators are:
 Flags.
 Smoke.
 Blowing vegetation.
Environmental indicators provide a better overall picture of shifting and gusty wind conditions.

The Wind Tee

The wind tee is another type of wind indicator that:
 Aligns itself with the wind.
 Shows wind direction only-not speed or gustiness.
 Indicates the runway most closely parallel to the direction of the wind.
If collocated with a windsock, the wind tee might be aligned manually to indicate the active runway.
The Tetrahedron
Tetrahedrons:
 Point into the wind.
 Primarily indicate takeoff and landing direction.
 Are usually located near a windsock.
 Are used in conjunction with another wind direction indicator.
 Swing freely in the wind or can be positioned manually.

Using Wind Indicators

Use the wind indicators to determine which runway will allow you to take off into the wind.
If possible, land into the wind.
When approaching an uncontrolled airport:
 Overfly the area at 500 to 1,000 feet above the traffic pattern altitude.
 Look for any traffic.
 Observe environmental indicators.
 Locate the wind direction indicator.
Calm Wind
Use the designated calm-wind runway whenever the wind is five knots or less.

Segmented Circles
A segmented circle is a circular structure located near the runway that includes a landing direction indicator within
its circumference.
Segmented circles:
 Identify the location of the wind direction indicator.
 Indicate, by the presence of "L" extensions, a nonstandard traffic pattern.
To indicate the direction that you turn in the traffic pattern for a given runway, segmented circles use:
 L-shaped extensions.
 Landing strip indicators that indicate runway alignment.
 Traffic pattern indicators, which are aligned with the base leg of the pattern for a specific runway.
 The L symbolizes your base and final legs to the runway.
Wind Direction Indicator
Occasionally, airport personnel will fix the position of the wind direction indicator. If so:
 The indicator indicates landing direction only.
 Use other resources to determine wind direction and velocity.

Landing Direction Based on Segmented Circles

To determine whether to use a left-hand or a right- hand pattern for this runway, note the following:
 The segmented circle and windsock are on the north side of runway 6/24.
 The wind is from the east-northeast.
 Runway 6 is the active runway.
The L extension corresponding to Runway 6 indicates a left turn from base to final, which denotes to a left hand
pattern.
The L extension corresponding to Runway 24 shows that a right turn is required from base to final, which denotes
to a right-hand pattern. If right-hand turns are required for the landing, they will probably be used for departure as
well.
Noise Abatement
Noise abatement procedures reduce the level of noise generated by aircraft over neighborhoods near airports.

Aircraft Noise
Aircraft noise affects more people over a wider area than ground-based noise. Many variables influence how we
perceive noise. Under the right conditions, as little as a 10-decibel increase can seem to double the intensity of a
sound.

Noise Abatement Procedures

Airport noise abatement procedures are:
 Assigned by control tower, if present.
 Included in Airport/Facility Directory.
 Provided by the FBO or on signs near the runway.
Airports Without Noise Abatement
When operating out of airports without noise abatement procedures:
 Use designated runways or restrict operations during specified time periods.
 Recognize noise-sensitive areas such as housing developments and schools.
 Use the lowest power setting possible on approach.
 Use the steepest safe climb on departure.

VFR Markings
Standard VFR runway markings:
 Runway number.
 Dashed white centerline.
Some VFR runways also feature a runway threshold bar.
IFR Runway Markings
IFR runways have several markings in addition to the common VFR runway markings. These can be useful to VFR
pilots as landing references.
Non precision runways feature aiming point markings to serve as a visual aiming point for landing aircraft. These
markings are typically located 1000 feet from the beginning of the runway, but sometimes occur at 1500 feet.
Precision runways include the aiming point markings, but also include side stripe markings which identify the edges
of the runway and touchdown zone markings-which are located every 500 feet for the first 3,000 feet of runway.

Displaced Thresholds
A displaced threshold is a runway threshold located at a spot other than the beginning of the pavement.
A threshold might be displaced because of:
 Obstructions.
 Noise abatement.
On runways with a displaced threshold, the beginning portion of the landing zone is marked by:
 A solid white line.
 White arrows.
You cannot land in a displaced threshold area, but it can be used for taxiing, the landing rollout, and takeoffs.
Blast Pads
The blast pad area is:
 Marked by yellow chevrons.
 Where propeller or jet blasts can dissipate without creating hazard to others.
The stopway is:
 Sometimes referred to as the overrun.
 Used for an aircraft to decelerate and come to a stop in the event of an emergency. Do not use the blast pad
or stopway area for taxiing, takeoff, or landing.

Closed Runways
Closed runways or taxiways:
 Are marked by one or more yellow Xs.
 Might appear usable, but operations cannot be conducted safely.
 Are communicated to pilots through a NOTAM.
The Life and Death of an Airport
Chicago's Meigs Field officially opened on December 10, 1948, in a grand ceremony. Various improvements took
place over the years, including the 1952 opening of a control tower, the 1961 opening of a new terminal building,
and the late 1990s charting of two FAA instrument approaches, which allowed landings in poor weather conditions.
Numerous VIPs, including Presidents John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan, used the airport to maintain security
and to avoid inconveniencing the Chicago traveling public. In a common pattern, Air Force One would land at a
larger area airport, and the President would take a helicopter to Meigs Field to avoid the complications of a Secret
Service escort via Chicago's expressways.
Beginning in the early 1990s, the Chicago-area Tuskegee Airmen provided free aircraft rides every month and
aviation education to Chicago youth at Meigs Field. Thousands of children took their first aircraft rides there until
2003.
Without any prior announcement, in the wee hours of the morning on March 31, 2003, crews under the direction of
Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley secretly tore up the runway by bulldozing large X-shaped gouges into the runway
surface, thus officially closing Meigs Field.
Taxiway Markings
Airports have a network of taxiways that:
 Link airport parking areas, ramp areas, and runways.
 Are identified by a continuous yellow centerline stripe.
Are sometimes defined by solid double yellow lines that visually separate the taxiway from pavement that is not
intended for aircraft use.
Runway hold lines indicate where a taxiway intersects a runway Standard hold lines:
 Consist of two solid lines and two rows of dashed lines.
 Keep aircraft clear of the runway in use.
Your aircraft is clear of the runway when all parts of the aircraft are on taxiway side of the hold line.
Hold lines might not be used at smaller, nontowered airports or airports without instrument approaches.
The Ramp Area
The ramp area, or apron, is:
 The area where aircraft are parked and tied down.
 The busiest part of an airport.
The most important thing to remember is that Air Traffic Control (ATC) does not control ramp area traffic. You are
responsible for keeping your aircraft under control and being aware of your surroundings in the ramp area.

Ramp Area Risk Management

When on the ramp area, keep the following points in mind:
 Operating on the ramp requires constant vigilance.
 Painted markings guide aircraft on the ramp.
 Roadway markings define lanes for ground vehicles, as well as crossing areas also intended for aircraft.
 Aircraft have the right of way over ground vehicles.
 ATC clearance to enter taxiway.
Hand Signals
The 11 basic hand signals are:
 Come ahead.
 Slow down.
 Stop.
 Left turn.
 Right turn.
 Start engines.
 Cut engines.
 Pull chocks.
 Insert chocks.
 All clear or okay.
 Emergency stop.

Night Operations
Night operations use the same hand signals, but with the aid of a lighted wand.
Airport Signage
Information Sign = Black text on yellow background
Mandatory Instruction Sign = White text on red background
Location Sign = Yellow text on black background with yellow border
Runway Distance Remaining Sign = White text on black background
Direction Sign = Single black letter on yellow background. with arrow
Destination Sign = Black text on yellow background, with arrow

Sign Specifications
The size, height, location, and illumination of airport signs are regulated by both the FAA and by the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Information Signs
Information signs advise you about:
 Areas the control tower cannot see.
 Applicable radio frequencies.
 Noise abatement procedures.

Mandatory Instruction Signs

Mandatory Instruction signs denote:
 The entrance to a runway.
 ILS critical areas.
 Areas prohibited to aircraft.
You must stop at all mandatory instruction signs until the control tower gives clearance to proceed.
Location Signs
Location signs identify:
 ILS critical areas for aircraft exiting the runway.
 Runway boundaries.
 Taxiways or runways where your aircraft is located.
Location signs are frequently surface painted.

Runway Distance Remaining Signs

Runway Distance Remaining signs indicate how many feet remain before the end of a runway, expressed in even
thousands.
For example, an 8 corresponds to 8,000 feet of runway remaining.
Direction Signs
Direction signs indicate the direction that you must take to turn onto the indicated taxiway. They are typically
located on the left side of the pavement immediately prior to the intersection.
If you encounter multiple direction signs, keep in mind the following:
 Direction signs are oriented from left to right as you encounter the corresponding taxiways. Arrows point you
in the approximate direction you must go to reach each taxiway.
 Direction sign arrays might not include a location sign that indicates the taxiway you are on.

Destination Signs
Destination signs indicate the general direction to various locations on the airport, including:
 Aprons.
 Terminals.
 Military areas.
 Civil aviation areas.
 Cargo areas.
 International areas.
 Fixed base operator.
Abbreviations are sometimes used as the inscription on the sign for some of these destinations.
Airport Beacons
Civilian Land = Green-White/Green-White.
Military = Green-White-White/Green-White-White.
Heliport = Yellow-Green-White/Yellow-Green-White
Water = Yellow-White/Yellow-White
Daylight operations Indicate below VFR minimums.

Effective Viewing
Beacons at land airports or heliports are most visible when viewed from 1 to 10 degrees above the horizon.
Standard Runway Lights
Runway edge lights:
 Consist of a single row of white lights,
 Border each side of runway.
Some runway edge lights incorporate yellow runway remaining lights, they indicate the last half or the last 2000 feet
of the runway (whichever is less).

Runway Threshold Lights

To locate the threshold and end of the runway:
 Runway end identifier lights (REILS), high intensity white strobe lights, are placed on each side of the
runway.
 Threshold lights span the end of the runway (Green viewed from landing, Red viewed from departure).

Displaced Threshold
If the runway has a displaced threshold, a set of green lights on each side of the white threshold line indicate the
beginning of the landing portion of the runway.
Taxiway Lighting
Identify taxiways at night by the:
 Blue omnidirectional lights that line both edges of the taxiway.
 Steady green taxiway centerline lights.

Runway Guard Lights

Runway guard lights are installed at the intersections of taxiways and runways to make these intersections more
conspicuous. These lights consist of either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side of the
taxiway, or a row of three or five in-pavement yellow lights installed across the entire taxiway at the runway holding
position marking. Some airports might have a row of in-pavement yellow lights installed at taxiway/runway
intersections.

Clearance Bar Lights

Clearance bar lights are installed at holding positions on taxiways to make the holding position more conspicuous.
They might also be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway.
Stop Bar Lights
Stop bar lights are used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter or cross the active runway.
A stop bar is made up of red, unidirectional, steady burning in-pavement lights installed across the entire taxiway.
When lit, the stop bar lights indicate you should not enter the runway. After giving you clearance to enter the
runway, ATC will extinguish the lights.

Runway Centerline Lighting

Runway centerline lighting helps pilots determine the amount of runway remaining:
 White in-pavement centerline lights are spaced at 50-foot intervals.
 Centerline lights between the last 3000 and 1000 feet are alternating red and white.
 The last 1000 feet of lights are red.

Touchdown Zone Lighting

Touchdown zone lights:
 Start 100 feet from the threshold.
 Extend 3000 feet from the threshold or to the runway midpoint.
Taxiway Lead-Off Lights
Taxiway lead-off lights:
 Alternate between green and yellow.
 Show the taxiway lead-off.

Two-Bar Visual Approach Slope Indicators

 On Glide Path = "Red over white you're all right"
 Above Glide Path = "White over white you're out of sight"
 Below Glide Path = "Red over red you're dead"

Three-Degree Path
Two-bar VASI installations provide one visual glide path which is normally set at approximately three degrees, but
the angle can vary depending on obstacles in the approach path. For example, at Van Nuys, CA, the glide path is
3.9 degrees. The type, location, and slope of visual approach indicators are found in the Airport/ Facility Directory
Three-Bar VASI
At larger airports, you might encounter a three- bar VASI system, which incorporates two different glide paths. The
lower glide path is typically set at three degrees, while the higher one usually is one quarter of a degree above it.
Certain transport category aircraft with high cockpits typically use the higher glide path. This ensures that these
aircraft will have sufficient altitude when crossing the threshold. If you encounter a three-bar VASI system, use the
two lower bars, as if it were a standard two-bar VASI.

FAA REGULATION
FAR 91.129(e)(3)
An airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator shall maintain an altitude
at or above the glide slope until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

Proper VASI Alignment

Do not begin a descent using the VASI until you have aligned your aircraft with the runway.
PVASI Lighting Systems
Pulsating VASI
Pulsating White = Above Glide Path.
Steady White = On Glide Path.
Steady Red = Slightly Below Grade Path.
Pulsating Red = Below Glide Path.

FAA REGULATION
FAR 91.129(e)(3)
An airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator shall maintain an altitude
at or above the glide slope until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

Confusing PVASI
Because the PVASI consists of a single light source that can be confused with other light sources, you should be
very careful to properly locate and identify the light signal. Do not confuse these lights with the blinking lights that
indicate the end of the runway.
PAPI Lighting System

The PAPI Lighting System consists of four lights that can change color (red/white) and assume these patterns:
2 White / 2 Red = On Glide Path
3 White / 1 Red = Slightly High
4 White / 0 Red = High
1 White / 3 Red = Slightly Low
0 White / 4 Red = Low

Glide Path Requirements

When you land at a controlled airport on a runway that has a visual approach slope indicator, you must maintain an
altitude at or above the glide path until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.
Staying on the approach path provided by a VASI provides adequate obstacle clearance and helps you touch down
on a specific portion of the runway.
FAA REGULATION
FAR 91.129(e)(3)
An airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a visual approach slope indicator shall maintain an altitude
at or above the glide slope until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.

Approach Lighting Systems

Approach lighting systems:
 Guide aircraft to the runway.
 Help instrument-rated pilots transition to visual references.
 Increase situational awareness for VFR pilots.
 Vary in intensity.
 Are placed before the runway, along the extended runway centerline, beginning as far away as 3,000 feet
from the runway threshold.
Ball of Light
Some systems include sequenced flashing lights, which appear to the pilot as a ball of light traveling toward the
runway at high speed. This ball of light is called "the rabbit". This lighting can be very distracting, especially if
visibility is restricted. When pilots request the tower to "kill the rabbit' they are asking for this lighting to be turned
off.

Pilot-Controlled Lighting
To use the mike to activate pilot-controlled lightning:
 Set your radio to the correct local frequency and key your mike. Key three times within five seconds for the
lowest intensity.
 Key five times for medium intensity.
 Key seven times for maximum intensity.

Fifteen-Minute Timer
For practical and economic reasons, the approach, runway, and taxiway lights at some uncontrolled airports might
be on a timer that turns the lights off 15 minutes after activation. You should also be aware that, at some locations,
other types of airport lighting, such as VASI and identifier lights, might also be pilot-controlled.
Airport/Facility Directory
The appropriate local frequency for activating the lights on the airport is provided only in the Airport/Facility
Directory and is not identified on the sectional charts. To activate the runway lighting at the airport for example,
tune to the CTAF frequency of 120.2.

Light Intensity
You can also modify approach and landing light intensity at monitored or controlled airports by asking the tower or
flight service station to temporarily adjust the lighting for you.

Obstruction Lighting
Obstruction lighting gives advance warning of prominent structures.
Obstruction lighting:
 Is used on cranes, towers, buildings, and power lines.
 Can be either red or white lights.
Remember that guy-wires might extend from the top of a tower to the ground, so be sure that you are well clear of
the obstruction.
Runway Incursions
The FAA defines runway incursion as any occurrence at an airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object
on the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in loss of separation with an aircraft taking off or intending to
take off, landing, or intending to land.
Runway incursions are caused primarily by errors associated with:
 Airport surface movement.
 Clearances
 Communication.
 Situational awareness.
Runway incursions are most likely to occur during ground operations in conditions of low visibility or bad weather.
These conditions can challenge your situational awareness.
Avoiding Runway Incursions
Follow these procedures and precautions to avoid runway incursions:
 Read back, in full, all taxi clearances, especially those involving active runway crossing, hold short, or line-up
and wait instructions.
 Know your precise location and concentrate on your primary responsibilities while taxiing.
 If you are unsure of your position, ask for assistance or progressive taxi instructions.
 Verify that you have takeoff clearance, and check for traffic on final.
 Confirm that you are on the correct runway by checking signage and the numbers painted near the threshold.
After you are lined up on the runway, check that your heading indicator matches the runway number.
 After landing, stay on the tower frequency until ATC instructs you to change frequencies.
 Report confusing or deteriorating airport markings, signs, and lighting, as well as confusing or erroneous
airport diagrams and instructions.
 Accept a clearance from ATC only if you fully understand the clearance and all related procedures.

Hot Spots
Hotspots are areas that have been identified as potentionally dangerous for runway incursions.
Some airports authorities provide charts that identify hot spots.
Planning
During your preflight planning, be sure to review the airport diagram and taxi routes.

Checklist
Complete as many checklist items as possible before taxiing and concentrate on your primary responsibilities. Do
not become absorbed in other tasks or conversation while the aircraft is moving.
Human Factors
Aircraft:
McDonnell Douglas MD-82 and a Cessna 441 Conquest
Injuries:
2 Fatal, 140 Uninjured
Summary:
During the takeoff roll on runway 30R, the MD- 82 collided with the Conquest, which was awaiting takeoff
clearance.
Lessons Learned:
 Understanding airport markings, signs, and lighting, and using proper radio procedures are essential
precautions you can take to avoid runway incursions.
 Maintaining task overload can cause a breakdown in situational awareness. To effectively manage your
workload, you must plan ahead, prioritize tasks, recognize when you are becoming overloaded, and ask for
assistance if you need it.
RADIO CALL
Communicate clearly and unambiguously with the controller. Read back all clearances.
 Cessna 20JA, Centennial Tower, hold short runway 17R, landing traffic.
 Centennial Tower, Cessna 20JA, hold short runway 17R, landing traffic.
If you are unsure of your position, ask for assistance.
 Centennial Tower Cessna 5359, request progressive taxi.
 Cessna 5359, taxi straight ahead to B and turn right. then to B8 and turn left. I'll call your next turn after that.

Land and Hold Short Operations

During a land and hold short operation (LAHSO), an aircraft is cleared to land and stop on the runway-holding short
of an intersecting runway, intersecting taxiway, or some other designated point on the runway. Used only at
selected airports, LAHSO increases airport capacity and maintains system efficiency.
Conducting LAHSO
To conduct LAHSO, you should:
 Have at least a private pilot certificate.
 Be familiar with all available information concerning LAHSO at the destination airport.
 The Airport Facility Directory section of the Chart Supplement includes available landing distance (ALD) and
runway slope for each LAHSO runway.
 Determine which runway LAHSO combinations are acceptable for your airplane's landing performance and
your personal minimums.
 Have the published ALD and runway slope information readily available and ensure that you can land safely
and stop within the ALD with the existing conditions upon arrival.
LAHSO Clearance
ATC:
"Diamond 20JA, cleared to land Runway 27, hold short of Runway 23 for landing traffic, Learjet."
Aircraft:
"Diamond 20JA, cleared to land Runway 27 to hold short of Runway 23.1
Decline the LAHSO clearance if you consider it unsafe.
If you accept a LAHSO clearance:
 Read back the full clearance including the words. "Hold short of runway/taxiway/point."
 Land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway before reaching the hold short line.
 If not possible to exit the runway, stop at the hold short point and wait for further ATC instructions.
If you must go around, tell ATC immediately and avoid conflicts with other traffic.

LAHSO Visual Aids

LAHSO visual aids at the hold short point on the runway consist of:
 Yellow hold-short markings.
 Holding position signs, which show white text on a red background.
 White, pulsing, in-pavement lighting at some large airports.
Wake Turbulence
When an aircraft generates lift, air rotates over the wingtips from the high-pressure areas below the wings to the
low-pressure areas above. This flow results in rapidly rotating whirlpools of air called wingtip vortices, or wake
turbulence.
The strongest wingtip vortices occur when an aircraft is generating lift and is heavy, slow, and in a clean
configuration. The larger the aircraft, the stronger the vortices.
Wingtip vortices tend to sink below and behind the generating aircraft and are most hazardous during light,
quartering tailwind conditions.
Wake turbulence from wingtip vortices can persist for several minutes, depending on wind conditions, before it
settles and dissipates.
Although wake turbulence occurs any time an aircraft is generating lift, these conditions are more hazardous on
takeoff and landing. You must be alert for wake turbulence near airports used by large aircraft.

Jet Blast
Jet engine blast is a related hazard. It can damage or even overturn a small aircraft at close range. A jet under
takeoff power can generate hurricane-force winds as much as 200 feet behind the engines. To avoid excessive jet
blast, you must stay several hundred feet behind a jet with its engines operating, even when it is at idle thrust.
Wake Turbulence Avoidance
When you accept instructions from ATC regarding wake turbulence avoidance:
 You acknowledge that you will ensure safe takeoff and landing intervals.
 You accept the responsibility for providing wake turbulence separation.

Wake Turbulence Avoidance 2

The following practices help you meet your responsibility for avoiding wake turbulence:
 When approaching behind a large aircraft that has just landed, stay above its glide path and touch down
beyond its touchdown point.
 When landing behind a large departing aircraft, touch down well before the aircraft's rotation point.
 When departing behind a large aircraft that has just landed, lift off beyond the aircraft's touchdown point.
 When departing behind a large aircraft that has just taken off, lift off before the aircraft's rotation point and
remain above its flight path.
 Turn clear of the larger aircraft's wake as soon as possible.
 Avoid headings that will cross below and behind a larger aircraft.
 In crosswind situations, fly upwind of the large aircraft's flight path.
Airport Security - Pilot Best Practices
Comply with airport gate security procedures:
 Keep gate codes and lock combinations confidential.
 Close and lock access gates.
 Ensure that other vehicles do not follow you through gates-stop and wait until the gate closes before
proceeding.
 Discuss airport security-related issues with the FBO or airport manager.
 Secure aircraft from unauthorized use Do not leave keys in the aircraft.
 Lock aircraft doors.
 Use auxiliary locks.
Recognizing and Reporting Suspicious Activity
Be alert for individuals who:
 Suspiciously approach multiple aircraft.
 Appear to be breaking into an aircraft.
 Try to avoid others.
 Loiter without a clear purpose.
 Videotape or take photos of aircraft and hangars.
 Load unusual cargo, typically not suitable for GA operations.
Call:
1-866-GA-SECURE (1-866-427-3287) to report suspicious activity.
911 and then 1-866-GA-SECURE to report criminal activity-an immediate threat to persons or property.
Your airport, FBO, or flight school manager to explain the situation.
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
What is Latitude?
To help in designating locations, cartographers created a logical grid system made up of imaginary reference lines
on the earth's surface known as lines of latitude and longitude.
Latitude lines (often called parallels) are parallel to each other and to the equator.
The equator is the imaginary line that circles the earth midway between the north and south poles.

Great and Small Circles

The earth can be divided by imaginary lines that create great circles and small circles.
Great circles are the largest circles that can be drawn on a sphere, such as the surface of the earth. A great circle's
plane passes through the center of the earth, dividing it into two equal parts. The shortest route between two points
on the earth's surface follows the path of a great circle.
In contrast, the plane of a small circle does not pass through the center of the earth.
The equator is a great circle; all other lines of latitude are small circles.
Degrees of Latitude
Lines of latitude are measured from the equator and are designated as north or south of the equator
Latitude lines are identified by degrees ranging from 0 degrees at the equator to 90 degrees at each pole.
At the north and south poles, 90 degrees refers to a single point.

The Angle of Latitude

The degree of latitude correlates to the angle between. the equator and the line of latitude with respect to the
center of the earth.
For example, 45 degrees north latitude corresponds to a 45-degree angle between the equator and the 45th
parallel. The same relationship holds true in the southern hemisphere at 45 degrees south latitude.
Distances remain consistent between each degree of latitude. For example, the distance between the equator and
one degree line of latitude north or south is 60 nautical miles; therefore, the distance between 89 and 90 degrees of
latitude is also 60 nautical miles.
What is Longitude?
Longitude lines (often called meridians) are imaginary reference lines on the earth's surface that run north and
south between the poles.
Lines of longitude cross the equator at right angles.

Meridians and Great Circles

Slicing the globe along lines of latitude north or south of the equator results in smaller and smaller circles.
Slicing the globe along any meridian or line of longitude results in a great circle.

Degrees of Longitude
Lines of longitude are measured from the prime meridian. The prime meridian is designated as 0 degrees of
longitude and passes through Greenwich, England.
Longitude lines are designated as west or east from the prime meridian.
Lines of longitude are identified by degrees. There are 179 equally spaced lines of longitude to the east of the
prime meridian and 179 equally spaced lines of longitude to the west of the prime meridian.
0 Degrees and 180 Degrees
The remaining two lines of longitude are the prime meridian at 0 degrees and its counterpart on the opposite side of
the globe at 180 degrees. Neither of these meridians uses an east or west reference.
The international date line approximately corresponds to the 180-degree line of longitude.

The Angle of Longitude

The general concept used to determine lines of latitude is applied in a different orientation to measure lines of
longitude. The degree designation for a line of longitude correlates to its position in relation to the prime meridian.
This example depicts how a 50-degree angle of longitude east of the prime meridian translates into the 50-degree
east meridian.
Unlike lines of latitude, where the distance between each degree is always 60 nautical miles, the distance between
adjacent lines of longitude varies in length, depending on the latitude-or distance from the equator-at which it is
measured. For example, if measured at the equator, the distance between adjacent lines of longitude is
approximately 60 nautical miles. The distance becomes smaller the farther you are from the equator, falling to 30
nautical miles at latitude 60 degrees, and shrinking to zero miles at either pole.
Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds
An aeronautical chart displays lines of latitude and longitude as a grid pattern.
Degrees of latitude and longitude can be divided into minutes. There are 60 minutes in each degree.
Minutes of latitude and longitude can be divided into seconds. There are 60 seconds in each minute.

Measuring Distance with Latitude

You can use minutes of latitude to measure distance. Each minute is equal to one nautical mile. For example, to
measure the distance between Mentone Airport and Fulton County Airport at Rochester, you can use the latitude
lines. The distance is eight nautical miles. You can verify this by using the nautical miles scale on the chart. Make
sure you do not measure distances using minutes of longitude because those distances will vary depending on
their position with respect to the poles.

Tenths of Minutes
At some point during your flying experiences, you probably will apply GPS technology when navigating with latitude
and longitude coordinates. Most of what you have learned here should transfer directly. One significant difference
is that GPS typically expresses values of less than one minute in tenths or hundredths of minutes rather than in
seconds.
Latitude & Longitude Coordinates
To determine the coordinates for a location on a chart, identify which lines of latitude and longitude intersect at the
location. You always give latitude first when stating coordinates.
To determine a location on a chart from the coordinates, identify the point at which lines of latitude and longitude
intersect

Projection Types
To represent three-dimensional, spherical objects such as the earth on a flat, two-dimensional map or chart,
cartographers developed a technique called projection. This technique is used in creating aeronautical charts to
ensure that the charts accurately portray the earth's topography.
Distortion is inherent in all maps and charts that are created using projection. Different projection types have been
developed to minimize these distortions.
Mercator projections are the basis for many classroom wall maps. On such maps, the distortion of a landmass
increases with its distance from the equator.
Charts based on Lambert conformal conic projections display no significant distortion as long as they depict only a
small area of the earth's surface.
Aeronautical charts are small enough that distortion is negligible with Lambert projection, so that is the projection
technique on which the aeronautical charts you use are frequently based.
Using Aeronautical Charts
World Aeronautical Charts (WACS):
 Are often used by pilots of high-performance airplanes because those aircraft operate at high altitudes and
airspeeds.
 Reduce the total number of charts needed and the need to change charts frequently.
Sectional Aeronautical Charts:
 Are considered by VFR pilots to be good overall navigation charts. Provide enough detail and cover enough
area to be useful for most navigation situations in aviation.
VFR Terminal Area Charts:
 Provide detail to VFR pilots who are flying or planning to fly in Class B airspace.
 Provide a more detailed display of topographical features than do sectional charts.

Sectional Charts and Airspace

In addition to containing topographical information and airport depictions, sectional charts contain aeronautical
information that pertains to navigation and communication facilities, airspace, and obstructions.
For example, sectional charts often display a white border around Class B airspace, as shown on this chart. The
border indicates the boundaries of an available VFR terminal chart that covers the Class B airspace in detail.
VFR Terminal Charts
On the reverse side of selected VFR terminal charts, you will find a VFR flyway planning chart, which shows VFR
routes for transitioning around, and through Class B airspace.
The chart coverage area is the same as that for the associated VFR terminal chart. These charts are designed for
use in conjunction with VFR terminal charts and suctional charts: wever, they are not to be used for navigation.

VFR Flyway Planning Chart Depictions

The many depictions on a VFR Flyway Planning Chart include:
 Ground references.
 VFR flyways and altitudes.
 IFR arrival and departure routes.
In addition to ground references, you will see several types of VFR routes, including VFR flyways, VFR transition
routes, and VFR corridors. A legend on the planning chart identifies the symbols that depict the routes. You can fly
along a VFR flyway in the vicinity of Class Bairspace without actually entering the airspace.
IFR arrival routes are depicted on the planning chart with arrowheads and large aircraft symbols.
IFR departure routes are shown as a line of arrowheads that indicate the direction of departure.
ATC Clearance Requirements
The ATC clearance requirements for VFR flyways, VFR transition routes, and VFR corridors vary in the following
ways:
 An ATC clearance is not required to operate on a VFR flyway.
 Before entering Class B airspace on a VFR transition route, you must obtain an ATC clearance. After
receiving a clearance, you must fly the route as depicted on the chart at an ATC-assigned altitude.
 A VFR corridor is airspace with specific vertical and lateral dimensions that allows you to fly through Class B
airspace without a clearance from or communication with ATC.
These routes are not meant to discourage requests for VFR operations; instead, they are designed to help you
avoid high-traffic areas such as IFR arrival and departure routes.

Determining Chart Currency

Each VFR aeronautical chart that is approved by the FAA displays an effective date and a date on which the chart
will become obsolete for use in navigation.
On the front panel of every chart you'll see the word "effective followed by a date, which indicates the beginning of
the period in which the chart is current.
After the effective date, you will see the word "to" followed by a date, which indicates the end of the period in which
the chart is current. You should not use the chart for navigation or planning at anytime before or after the specified
date range.

Terrain Heights
The interval or distance between contour lines is defined in the contour legend on the front panel of the chart
Widely spaced contours represent gentle slopes; closely spaced contours represent steep slopes.
Spot elevations identify individual points of terrain elevation.
The highest terrain elevation within the area depicted by the chart is noted at the top of the color graph.
The color graph on the front panel of VFR aeronautical charts defines the gradient tints assigned to various
elevations.

Maximum Elevation Features

Maximum elevation figures (MEFs) appear on sectional charts in quadrangles, which are rectangular areas
bounded by lines of latitude and longitude. MEFs are based on the highest known feature within the quadrangle.
Airport Symbols
Airports that have control towers are indicated by blue symbols, while those with no control tower are indicated by
magenta symbols.
As indicated on the legend, an open circle indicates that the airport does not have a hard-surfaced runway.
A circle with an X superimposed over it represents an abandoned airport.
Symbols with tick marks extending from the sides indicate that fuel is available at that airport and that the field is
attended during normal working hours.
If an airport has at least one hard- surfaced runway that is 1,500 feet to 8,069 feet in length, the chart symbol
displays a runway layout inside a circle. Runway orientation in these symbols reflects the runway's approximate
magnetic direction.
At airports with at least one hard-surfaced runway that is longer than 8,069 feet or some multiple runways that are
shorter than 8,069 feet, the airport symbols show the outline of the runways to indicate the general layout of the
airport.
Additional Airport Symbols on Aeronautical Charts
Become familiar with the following symbols:
 The symbol of an anchor identifies a seaplane base.
 Hard-surfaced runways that are closed are still shown to aid in identification.
 Private airports are designated by the letter R enclosed in an open circle. These airports have landmark value
in navigation. Although landing at a private airport requires the owner's permission, you are permitted to use
one in an emergency.
 Military airports have the same appearance as civilian airports and are identified by abbreviations such as
AFB, NAS, and AAF. For example, an airport that is an Air National Guard Base (ANGB).
AIRPORT DATA
FSS = Flight Service Station on field
NO SVFR = Airports where fixed wing special visual flight rules operations are prohibited (shown above airport
name) F.A.R. 91
A Rectangle = Indicates F.A.R. 93 Special Air Traffic Rules and airport Traffic Patterns
(NAM) = Location Identifier
(PNAM) = ICAO Location Identifier (shown outside contiguous U.S.)
R enclosed in a circle = Airport Surveillance Radar (not shown on WAC)
CT-118.3 = Control Tower (CT)-primary frequency
Star = indicates operation part-time. See tower frequencies tabulation for hours of operation
C enclosed in a circle = Indicates Common Traffic Advisory Frequencies (CTAF) (not shown on WAC)
ATIS 123.8 = Automatic Terminal Information Service
ASOS/AWOS 135.42 = Automated Surface Weather Observing System (shown where full-time ATIS is not
available). Some ASOS/AWOS facilities may not be located at airports. (Not shown on WAC)
897 = Elevation in feet
L = Lighting in operation Sunset to Sunrise
*L = Lighting limitations exist; refer to Airport/Facility Directory
110 = Length of longest runway in hundreds of feet usable length may be less.
UNICOM = Aeronautical advisory station ("U" only on WAC)
RP 23,34 = Runways with Right Traffic Patterns (public use) (not shown on WAC)
RP* = Special conditions exist-see A/FD
VFR Advsy 125.0 = VFR Advisory Service shown where full-time ATIS not available and frequency is other than
primary CT frequency.
AOE = Airport of Entry
AIRSPACE
Controlled and Uncontrolled Airspace
In uncontrolled airspace:
 ATC does not normally exercise control of air traffic.
 You are not required to communicate with ATC unless the FAA has a temporary control tower in place.
 You need only a student pilot certificate.
 Equipment requirements are minimal.
 You must conform to VFR minimum visibility and cloud clearance restrictions.
In controlled airspace:
 ATC exercises control of air traffic.
 You are subject to certain operating rules, which often include communicating with ATC.
 You must comply with pilot qualifications.
 Aircraft might require specific equipment.
 You must conform to VFR minimum visibility and cloud clearance restrictions.
Transponders
A transponder is an electronic device that enhances an aircraft's identity on an ATC radar screen. There are three
types of transponders:
 Mode A enables you to set any of 4,096 codes.
 Mode C enables transmission of the aircraft's altitude to ATC radar.
 Mode S includes advanced features to support the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS).
When flying VFR in controlled airspace, set the transponder code to 1200 to indicate to ATC that you are VFR
traffic.
When flying IFR in controlled airspace, an air traffic controller assigns a discrete code to your transponder to
distinguish your aircraft from other aircraft.
It's a Tough Job, But Somebody Has to Do it
The diagram is an excerpt from the FAA Order 7110.65 Air Traffic Control, which is an operations handbook for
ATC. The next time you feel overwhelmed with all that you must know to fly in the airspace system, consider this:
the ATC handbook covers over 1,100 topics ranging from radar separation, disseminating weather information, and
IFR procedures to celestial navigation training, aircraft bomb threats, and derelict balloons.
Air traffic controllers are required to be familiar with the areas of the handbook that pertain to their operational
responsibilities. For controllers at some of the busiest airports, those responsibilities can include a wide variety of
situations. For example, how does a controller direct a formation flight of two or more aircraft? According to the
handbook, formation flights are to be treated as one aircraft What about flyers who refuse to conform to the
standard traffic pattern, such as birds? Controllers are instructed to issue advisory information on bird activity to
include position, species or size of birds, course of flight, and altitude.
What about a more explosive situation? The ATC handbook has it covered. In the event of an emergency landing
of an aircraft with explosive cargo on board, the handbook advises controllers to inform the pilot of the safest and
least congested airport areas. ATC should then relay the information about the explosive cargo to the emergency
equipment crew, airport management, and the appropriate military agencies.
Airspace Classes
The FAA has divided the airspace over the United States into six classes:
 Uncontrolled airspace classes: G
 Controlled airspace classes: A, B, C, D, E
Each airspace class is defined by lateral and vertical dimensions.

Class G Boundaries “Good Old Days”

Class G airspace typically extends from the surface to the base of the overlying Class E airspace:
 Typically, 700 or 1,200 feet AGL.
 14,500 feet MSL in some remote areas.
 1,500 feet AGL when 14,500 feet MSL is lower than 1,500 AGL.
Class G VFR Weather Minimums
At or Above 10,000 ft. MSL:
Distance from clouds: 1,000 ft below, 1,000 ft. above, 1 statute mile horizontal / Flight visibility: 5 statute miles
From 1,200 feet to 10,000 ft. MSL:
DAY: Distance from clouds: 500 ft. below, 1,000 ft. above, 2,000 ft. horizontal / Flight visibility: 1 statute mile
NIGHT: Distance from clouds: 500 ft below, 1,000 it above, 2,000 ft horizontal / Flight visibility: 3 statute miles
Below 1, 200 ft. AGL:
DAY: Distance from clouds: Clear of clouds / Flight visibility: 1 statute mile.
NIGHT: Distance from clouds: 500 ft below, 1,000 ft. above. 2,000 ft. horizontal / Flight visibility: 3 statute miles

Interpreting Class G Airspace on Charts

Most airspace not depicted as Classes B, C, D, or E on VFR aeronautical charts is Class G airspace.
On this chart segment.
Class G airspace extends from the ground to 1,200 feet AGL within the depicted Class E boundary.
All airspace outside of the Class E boundary is also Class G airspace.
The ceiling of the Class G airspace is 15,398 feet MSL, which is 1,500 feet above the terrain near the airport.
Class E Boundaries “Everything Else”
Class E airspace directly overlays the other airspace classes. It extends:
 From the ceilings of Class B, C, D, and G airspace to the base of Class A airspace.
 Above FL600, the ceiling of Class A airspace.
 Four nautical miles on either side of a Victor airway, from 1,200 feet AGL up to, but not including, 18,000 feet
MSL.

RNAV Terminal Transition Routes

RNAV terminal transition routes, or "T" routes, also are classified as Class E airspace. These routes enable GPS-
equipped aircraft operating under instrument flight rules to fly efficiently around or through Class B and Class C
airspace areas.
Pilots benefit from more direct routing through congested terminal environments. In addition, because these routes
do not rely on the performance of ground-based navaids, pilots can fly at lower altitudes than on existing Victor
airways.
You can request vectors along T-routes, as ATC workload permits, with altitudes assigned based upon traffic. VFR
aeronautical charts depict T-routes with blue-screened lines labeled with a T prefix followed by a three-digit
number.
Class E VFR Weather Minimums
At or Above 10,000 ft. MSL:
Distance from clouds: 1,000 feet below, 1,000 feet above, One statute mile horizontal / Flight visibility: Five statute
miles
Below 10,000 ft. MSL:
Distance from clouds: 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, 2,000 feet horizontal / Flight visibility: Three statute miles

Class E Operating Procedures

There are no pilot certification, equipment, or entry requirements when flying under VFR in Class E airspace, and
unless a temporary control tower is in place, you are not required to communicate with ATC.
In Class E airspace, you can expect the following:
 Traffic advisory services on request, ATC workload permitting.
 Weather reporting services from a weather observer or automatic weather observation equipment, when
Class E airspace begins at the surface of the airport.
Class D Boundaries
Class D airspace is the controlled airspace around an airport that has an operating control tower but that provides
no radar services.
Class D airspace boundaries:
 Normally extend from the surface to a designated MSL altitude (usually 2,500 ft. AGL).
 Can include one or more extensions to the lateral boundaries based on the instrument procedures for the
primary airport.
The airspace over an airport is Class D only when the tower is in operation. When the tower closes, the airspace
changes to Class E or a combination of Class E and Class G airspace. Check the sectional chart or the
Airport/Facility Directory to determine the hours of operation.

Class D VFR Weather Minimums

Distance from clouds: 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, 2,000 feet horizontal / Flight visibility: 3 statute miles
Interpreting Class D Airspace on Charts
A dashed blue box within the Class D airspace area of an aeronautical chart contains a number that specifies the
ceiling in hundreds of feet. A dashed blue box that contains a negative number indicates that the Class D airspace
is up to but not including the altitude given.
On VFR aeronautical charts, a blue, dashed line denotes Class D airspace.

Class D Operating Procedures

As a general rule, avoid entering Class D airspace except to take off or land.
There are no special pilot requirements for operating in Class D airspace. However, unless otherwise authorized,
you must communicate with ATC prior to arriving in, departing from, or flying through Class D airspace, so your
aircraft must be equipped with a two- way radio.
If a satellite airport is located within the Class D airspace designated for the primary airport:
 Contact the satellite airport control tower, if it is in operation, for arrival and departure.
 Contact the primary airport's control tower for arrival and departure if the satellite tower is not in operation or if
the airport is nontowered.
 Contact the primary airport's control tower as soon as practicable after takeoff when departing a satellite
airport that does not have a tower.
RADIO CALL
Aircraft: Roswell Tower, Diamond 1234 Juliet.
Tower: Diamond 34 Juliet, Roswell Tower, go ahead.
Aircraft: Diamond 34 Juliet, one zero miles south, request permission to transit Class D airspace northbound at
6,000 feet.
Tower: Diamond 34 Juliet, that's approved, local altimeter setting 3004. Report clear of Class D airspace.
Aircraft: Diamond 34 Juliet, roger, will report leaving your airspace.

Class C Boundaries
Within Class C airspace, ATC provides radar service to all IFR and VFR aircraft.
Participation is mandatory.
Class C airspace consists of two circular boundaries:
 The core surface area covers a 5-nautical-mile radius from the center of the airport and extends from the
surface to 4,000 feet AGL.
 The shelf area covers a 10-nautical-mile radius from the center of the airport. It extends from 1,200 feet AGL
to 4,000 feet AGL.
Class C VFR Weather Minimums
Distance from clouds: 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above, 2,000 feet horizontal / Flight visibility: 3 statute miles

Interpreting Class C Airspace on Charts

Aeronautical charts represent Class C airspace with a solid magenta line that appears in a circle around an airport.
Remember, the inner circle identifies the core area, which has a 5-nautical-mile radius, and the outer circle
identifies the shelf area, which has a 10-nautical-mile radius.
Aeronautical charts also depict the MSL altitudes that define the floor and ceiling of each segment.

Class C Aircraft Requirements

To enter Class C airspace, your aircraft must be equipped with:
 A two-way radio.
 A Mode C transponder (this requirement applies even when you operate above the Class C airspace ceiling
up to 10,000 feet MSL).
 ADS-B Out equipment (applies in Class C and above the Class C airspace ceiling up to 10,000 feet MSL)
NOTE: Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) out equipment became a requirement January 1,
2020. Refer to GL 14-ATC Services for more information regarding the ADS-B system.
Class C Operating Procedures
You must observe these specific operating procedures when flying within Class C airspace:
 Prior to entering the area, establish two-way communication with ATC and maintain contact until clear of the
area.
 When departing a Class C primary or satellite airport that has an operating control tower, establish and
maintain two-way radio communications until instructed by ATC to change frequencies.
 When departing a satellite airport that does not have an operating control tower, contact the primary airport
as soon as practicable after takeoff.
 When flying into a satellite airport, establish and maintain contact with ATC. When ATC discontinues radar
services, switch to the CTAF.
 Contact ATC prior to entering the 10-nautical-mile outer area of Class C airspace.
 Some ATC facilities for Class C airports might not operate full time. When a facility is closed, ATC services
are not available.
Class B Boundaries
Class B airspace separates arriving and departing traffic at the busiest airports in the country.
Class B airspace consists of concentric levels that resemble the layers of an upside-down wedding cake.
Each layer in Class B airspace has:
 Varying lateral dimensions based on the individual needs of the area.
 Varying vertical dimensions, which typically range from the surface up to 10,000 feet MSL
Time to Slow Down
“We were busy with checklists and passenger announcements, while changing to Tower frequency. Tower cleared
us for immediate takeoff, and even though we had not finished our checklists, I taxied our aircraft into position and
started to advance the power for takeoff...After about 1,000 feet of takeoff roll, Tower canceled our takeoff
clearance... [we] asked the Tower why we had our takeoff clearance canceled...the F/O said [that] we're not on the
runway. At that point I realized we had started our takeoff roll on an active taxiway."- excerpt from an ASRS report.
The ASRS study found that each time-pressure incident had a point at which the error occurred and another point
at which the error actually resulted in an incident. Note that the majority of errors occurred during the preflight and
taxi-out stages of flight.
Due to the increased amount of traffic and demands placed on you by ATC at busy airports, you might experience
this hurry-up syndrome. To avoid errors, prioritize tasks and defer nonessential tasks to low workload phases of
flight. Always adhere to your checklists, and if a procedure is interrupted for any reason, return to the beginning of
that task.

Class B VFR Weather Minimums

Distance from clouds: Clear of clouds / Flight visibility: 3 statute miles
Interpreting Class B Airspace on Charts
The vertical boundaries for each layer are designated by an MSL altitude on the sectional chart.
On VFR aeronautical charts, a solid blue line defines Class B airspace.
A white band enclosing the Class B airspace indicates that a terminal area chart is available. Terminal area charts
use the same symbology as sectional charts, but on a larger scale, which provides a more detailed depiction of
topographical features.

VFR Transition Routes, Corridors and Flyways

To accommodate VFR traffic through Class B airspace, VFR transition routes were developed. They are a specific
flight course for transiting the airspace. However, you must still obtain a clearance to enter the airspace.
You can fly along a VFR flyway in the vicinity of Class B airspace without actually entering the airspace. Because
you are not in the actual Class B airspace, you are not required to obtain ATC clearance. VFR flyway planning
charts are published on the reverse side of some VFR terminal area charts.
A VFR corridor is an airspace with specific vertical and lateral boundaries that allows you to fly through Class B
airspace without a clearance from, or communication with, ATC.
Class B Pilot and Aircraft Requirements
To fly, take off, or land within most Class B airspace, you must have at least a private pilot certificate.
In some Class B areas, student pilots may be permitted to conduct flight operations by obtaining specific training
and a logbook endorsement from a certificated flight instructor.
In addition, your aircraft must have the following equipment to communicate with ATC:
 Two-way radio.
 Mode C transponder.
 VOR or TACAN for IFR operations only.
 ADS-B Out equipment.
NOTE: Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B) out equipment became a requirement January 1,
2020. Refer to GL14-ATC Services for more information regarding the ADS-B system.

Class B Operating Procedures

When operating in Class B airspace, you must contact ATC to:
 Obtain clearance to enter Class B airspace.
 Advise them of your intended altitude and route prior to departing an airport in Class B airspace.
 Obtain permission to fly through Class B airspace at an assigned altitude, even after departure from an
airport other than the primary airport.
Class A Boundaries
Class A airspace:
 Begins at 18,000 feet MSL.
 Extends to and includes FL600.
 Covers the majority of the conterminous states and Alaska, as well as the area extending 12 nautical miles
out from the U.S. coast.

FAA REGULATION
Sec. 71.33 Class A Airspace Areas
(a) That airspace of the United States, including that airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles of the
coast of the 48 contiguous States, from 18,000 feet MSL to and including FL600 excluding the states of Alaska and
Hawaii, Santa Barbara Island Farallon Island, and the airspace south of latitude 25°04'00" North.
(b) That airspace of the State of Alaska, including that airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles of the
coast, from 18,000 feet MSL to and including FL600 but not including the airspace less than 1,500 feet above the
surface of the earth and the Alaska Peninsula west of longitude 160°00'00" West
(c) The airspace areas listed as offshore airspace areas in subpart A of FAA Order 7400.9L (incorporated by
reference, see $71.1) that are designated in international airspace within areas of domestic radio navigational
signal or ATC radar coverage, and within which domestic ATC procedures are applied.
Class A Pilot Requirements
To operate within Class A airspace, you must:
 Be instrument rated.
 File an IFR plan.
 Comply with all ATC instructions.

Class A Operating Procedures

When operating in Class A airspace, you must:
 Identify your aircraft to ATC by means of a Mode C transponder and ADS-B Out equipment.
 Set your altimeter to the standard setting of 29.92 In. Hg.
 Have a DME (above FL240).
Special VFR Clearances
Even if you can maintain the VFR minimums defined for the airspace, you can operate only within the areas of
Class B, C, D, or E airspace that extend to the surface around an airport when:
 The ground visibility is at least three statute miles.
 The cloud ceiling is at least 1,000 feet AGL.
You might be able to obtain a special VFR clearance from ATC when:
 The weather is below VFR minimums.
 There is no conflicting IFR traffic.
This clearance enables you to enter, leave, or operate within most Class C, D, and E surface areas and some
Class B surface areas if:
 The flight visibility is at least one statute mile.
 You can remain clear of clouds.
 The ground visibility is at least one statute mile for takeoffs and landings. If ground visibility is not reported,
you can use flight visibility.
Unplanned Flight Into Instrument Conditions
Approximately 25 percent of all general aviation accidents are weather related, as well as nearly 40 percent of all
fatal accidents. The NTSB cites "Continued VFR flight into adverse weather" as the primary cause in many of these
accidents.
How can you avoid an unplanned flight into instrument conditions?
 Define safe weather minimums for yourself and stick to them.
 Set conservative ceiling and visibility values which may be higher than those required by the FARs.
 Start with a thorough weather briefing prior to your flight, and if there is any question about the conditions,
don't go.
 Learn how to obtain weather information enroute so you can keep updated on changing conditions.
 If you do inadvertently enter IFR weather, maintain control of the airplane and make a 180-degree turn back
to VFR conditions.
 If you cannot maintain VFR, do not let your pride keep you from contacting ATC or an FSS for assistance.
Special VFR Clearance Restrictions
ATC does not issue special VFR clearances between sunset and sunrise unless:
 You have a current instrument rating.
 Your aircraft is equipped for instrument flight.
At certain major airports, you cannot obtain a special VFR clearance for fixed-wing aircraft. You can identify these
airports on sectional charts by the phrase NO SVFR.

Airspeed Limitations
Because airspace at lower altitudes tends to be congested, especially in the vicinity of airports, the FAA has
established several aircraft speed restrictions:
 Below 10,000 feet MSL, do not exceed an indicated airspeed of 250 knots.
 When in Class C or D airspace at or below 2,500 feet above the surface and within four nautical miles of the
primary airport, do not exceed 200 knots indicated airspeed.
 Do not exceed 200 knots in airspace underlying a Class B area or in VFR corridors through Class B airspace.
Special Use Airspace
Alert Area (A-###)
Characteristics:
Unusual types of aerial activities, such as parachute jumping, glider towing, or high concentrations of student pilot
training.
Operating Procedures:
Refer to the Special Use Airspace table for altitudes, times of use, and controlling agency. Be particularly cautious
when flying through these areas.
Military Operations Area (MOA)
Characteristics:
Military training and maneuvers, including acrobatic and abrupt flight maneuvers at high speeds.
Operating Procedures:
Exercise extreme caution and avoid flying in MOAS whenever possible. Refer to the Special Use Airspace table for
altitudes, times of use, and controlling agency.
Warning Area (W-###)
Characteristics:
Activity that might be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft over domestic and international waters extending
outward from 3 n.m. off the U.S. coast
Operating Procedures:
Use caution when flying in these areas. Refer to the Special Use Airspace table for altitudes, times of use, and
controlling agency.
Restricted Area (R-###)
Characteristics:
Invisible hazards to aircraft, such as artillery firing aerial gunnery, or guided missiles.
Operating Procedures:
Obtain the controlling agency's permission to fly through a restricted ares Refer to the Special Use Airspace table
for alludes, times of use, and controlling agency.
Prohibited Area (P-###)
Characteristics:
Areas within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited for security or other national welfare reasons.
Operating Procedures:
Obtain the controlling agency's permission to operate within a prohibited area. Refer to the Special Use Airspace
table for altitudes and controlling agency.
Controlled Firing Areas
Characteristics:
Activities that if not conducted in a controlled environment could be hazardous to non-participating aircraft.
Operating Procedures:
Activities are discontinued immediately when a spotter aircraft radar or ground lookout personnel determines an
aircraft approaching the area.

Other Airspace Areas

National Security Area (NSA)
 Designates an area where pilots are requested to avoid flight for increased security of ground facilities.
 Depicted on charts by dashed magenta lines.
 May temporarily prohibit flight by NOTAM.
Local Airport Advisory (LAA)
 Located in Alaska.
 Advises pilots about airport conditions within 10 miles of a nontowered airport with a flight service station.
 Listed at airports where it is available in the Alaska Chart Supplement.
Military Training Route (MTR)
 Designated for low level military training flights in excess of 250 knots.
 Classified as VR for VFR operations and IR for IFR operations.
  Identified by 4-digit numbers at or below 1,500 feet AGL and 3-digit numbers above 1,500 feet AGL.
 Not restricted, but it is good operating practice to obtain current MTR activity information from Flight Service
and exercise caution if operating in the area.
Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA)
 Provides basic radar services and separation between all IFR operations and participating VFR traffic-pilot
participation is voluntary.
 Depicted on VFR sectional and terminal area charts with a solid gray line and altitudes for each segment.
Parachute Jump Aircraft Operating Area
 Designates locations with high parachute activity.
 Published in Airport/Facility Directory listings and as a complete list in the Chart Supplements.
 Depicted on sectional charts by a parachute symbol at frequently used sites.

TFR Purpose
Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) are regulatory actions that temporary restrict certain aircraft from operating
within a defined area in order to protect persons or property in the air or on the ground. TFRs are: Issued in
NOTAMs that specify the dimensions and restrictions. Defined as specific types by the regulations.
Disaster/Hazard, VIP and Emergency Air Traffic Rules
Disaster/Hazard TFR
A disaster/hazard TFR is established near disaster or hazard areas to:
 Protect persons or property on the surface or in the air from a hazard associated with an incident on the
surface.
 Provide a safe environment for disaster relief aircraft operation.
 Prevent unsafe congestion of sightseeing or other aircraft above the incident.
Emergency Air Traffic Rules
These rules allow the FAA to implement temporary flight restrictions if an emergency condition exists, or will exist,
that prevents safe and efficient operation of the air traffic control system.
VIP TFR
VIP TFRs are flight restrictions in the proximity of the President, Vice President, or other government officials.
TFRs – Space Flight, Air Shows/Sports and Security
Space Flight Operations
TFRS in the proximity of space flight operations are:
 Used to provide a safe environment for space launch operations.
 Typically found in Florida, New Mexico, and California.
 Usually used to activate existing special use airspace or airspace adjacent to these areas.
Air Shows and Sporting Events
On a case-by-case basis, the FAA establishes TFRS for air shows and sporting events. Generally, these
restrictions encompass the minimum airspace needed for the management of aircraft operations near the event.
Special Security Instructions
These TFRS address situations determined to be detrimental to the interests of national defense.
An example of this type of TFR is described by a standing NOTAM that:
 Applies to any major league baseball, NFL, or NCAA division one football game, or any major motor
speedway event.
 Prohibits all aircraft operations at or below 3,000 feet AGL within a 3 NM radius of any stadium with a seating
capacity of 30,000 or more people.
 Is in effect from one hour before the scheduled event time until one hour after the event concludes.
TFR NOTAMS
To determine if a TFR affects your flight:
 Obtain NOTAMs from Flight Service during your online or phone briefing.
 Obtain a list of TFRS with graphic depictions at tfr.faa.gov.
TFR NOTAMS contain this information:
 Location of the TFR area.
 Effective dates and times.
 Type of TFR or reason for the TFR.
 FAA coordination facility and telephone number.
 Area dimensions and effective altitudes.
 Operating restrictions and requirements.
 Agency directing relief activities (if applicable) and telephone number.
ADIZs
Air Defense Identification Zones (ADIZs) facilitate early identification of all aircraft in the vicinity of a nation's
airspace boundaries. The AIM and FAR Part 99 specify requirements to enter a United States ADIZ.
For example, to operate within the Contiguous U.S. ADIZ, you must:
 File an IFR or defense VFR (DVFR) flight plan containing the time and point at which you plan to enter the
ADIZ.
 Have a Mode C transponder set to the assigned code prior to entering the ADIZ.
 Maintain two-way communication with the appropriate ATC facility.
 Depart the ADIZ within 5 minutes of the estimated departure time in the flight plan.

Washington DC SFRA Dimensions

The Washington, DC Special Flight Rules Area (SFRA) is airspace where the ready identification, location, and
control of aircraft is required in the interests of national security.
Files from the NTSB
A Piper PA-46-310P was destroyed when it impacted trees and terrain during an approach to landing at Tipton
Airport, MD; the pilot and his passenger were fatally injured. The pilot departed from the airport located within the
Washington D.C. Air Defense identification Zone (ADIZ, now the SFRA), and contacted ATC to obtain his IFR
clearance. The controller informed the pilot that he was violating the ADIZ, that he should land at the departure
airport immediately and that he would provide him with a telephone number "for air defense." The controller then
told the pilot "just turn it off [the transponder], land, and call us on the phone for your clearance." Witnesses said
the airplane was traveling very fast and close to the runway on the downwind leg and entered a steep left
descending turn back towards t the runway, disappeared from view, and then they heard the impact. water tower
The NTSB determined that the accident was caused by the pilot's failure to maintain adequate clearance from
terrain SUBURBAN (W during the approach. Contributing was the pilot's "self- induced pressure to land the
airplane after ATC told him he had violated the ADIZ.
Washington DC SFRA Requirements
Washington DC VOR
If you are planning to fly under VFR within 60 NM of the Washington DC VOR, you must:
 Complete the FAA Special Awareness Training course at FAASafety.gov, print the completion certificate and
present it at the request of an FAA, NTSB, law enforcement, or TSA authority.
 Know that flight is prohibited in the FRZ for general aviation aircraft.
 File a specific SFRA flight plan that includes specific entry and exit points to fly in the 30 NM ring.
 Obtain a discrete transponder code.
 Contact ATC on the assigned or listed frequency.
 Comply with speed restrictions:
-230 knots within 60 NM
-180 knots within 30 NM

SFRA Visual Warning System (VWS)

If you were to stray into the Washington DC SFRA without meeting the requirements, the government might point a
highly focused laser at your aircraft, warning you to turn away and contact ATC on the appropriate frequency or
121.5. This Visual Warning System consists of an alternating red and green signal pattern visible only from an
encroaching aircraft.
Intercept Actions
Intercept Actions
If you penetrate an area with security-related flight restrictions and are intercepted by U.S. military or law
enforcement aircraft:
 Do not adjust your altitude, heading, or airspeed until directed to by the intercepting aircraft.
 Follow instructions from the intercepting aircraft given by visual signals or radio communications until
positively released.
 Attempt to contact the intercepting aircraft or ATC on 121.5 MHZ-provide your aircraft identity, position, and
the nature of the flight.
 Squawk 7700 on your transponder unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
Visual Intercept Signals
Intercepting Aircraft Signal

Approaches from behind, flies to the left,

matches your speed and heading, and
Meaning
rocks its wings or flashes its navigation
lights (night).

You have been intercepted.

Performs a slow level turn. Intercepted Aircraft Response

Turns abruptly across your flight path and Rock your wings to acknowledge. Flash
dispenses flares. your navigation lights (night)
Follow me. Fly this way.

Warning! Turn in the direction of the

Circles the airport, lowers landing gear, and intercepting aircraft immediately. Match the heading and follow.
overflies the runway.

Immediately follow the aircraft after it

Land at this airport. crosses.
  Overfly the runway with your gear  Circle the airport between 1,000 to
up. 2,000 feet AGL.
Land on the runway or if you cannot land
 Flash your landing light.  Wait for further instructions.
safely:

Intercepting Aircraft Signal Meaning Intercepted Aircraft Response

Breaks away by performing a 90° tum Intercepting aircraft understands your You are free to go. Rock your wings to
without crossing your flight path. intentions. acknowledge and proceed on course.
GROUND REFERENCE
MANEUVERS
Determining Wind Direction
Three ways to determine the wind direction prior to starting a ground reference maneuver are to:
 Note the wind direction at the departure airport by observing wind indicators and by listening to recorded
airport information.
 Observe environmental wind indications such as rising smoke, blowing dust, and wave patterns on water or
fields.
 Perform a 360° turn at a constant airspeed and bank angle and note the drift.

Methods to Compensate for Wind

Two methods to compensate for the effects of the wind when you perform a ground reference maneuver are to:
 Crab (turn the nose into the wind) to prevent wind drift.
 Change the angle of bank to compensate for changing groundspeed.
Selecting a Location
Three actions you can take when selecting a location to perform any ground reference maneuver are:
 Choose a site away from populated areas.
 Ensure that there are no obstructions such as towers or power lines.
 Select an emergency landing site within gliding distance.

Actions to Take During Ground Reference Maneuvers

Four actions you should take while performing ground reference maneuvers are to:
 Keep the bank angle less than 45°.
 Maintain altitude by using outside visual references and cross checking the instruments.
 Stay alert for traffic.
 Maintain awareness of your position in relation to an emergency landing field.

Safety Procedures
Before every maneuver, perform clearing turns for collision avoidance.

Steps for Performing a Rectangular Course

Select a field.
 Choose a rectangle bordered by section lines or roads, with sides 1/2 to 1 mile long.
 Ensure that the wind is blowing parallel to the long sides of the field.
Enter the downwind leg.
 Maintain 600 to 1,000 feet AGL.
 Enter at a 45° angle to the downwind leg.
 Fly parallel to the field boundary at a distance of 1/4 to 1/2 mile away.
Turn crosswind from downwind.
 Use the steepest bank angle of the four turns to compensate for high groundspeed.
 Decrease the bank angle as your groundspeed decreases.
 Turn more than 90° to crab into the wind.
Turn upwind.
 Decrease the bank angle as the headwind increases and your groundspeed decreases.
 Turn less than 90° to fly parallel to the field boundary.
Turn crosswind from upwind.
  Use the shallowest bank angle of the four turns to compensate for low groundspeed.
 Increase the bank angle as your groundspeed increases.
 Turn less than 90° to crab into the wind.

Turn downwind.
 Increase the bank angle as the tailwind and your groundspeed increase.
 Turn more than 90° to fly parallel to the field boundary.

Steps for Performing an S-Turn

Select a ground reference.
 Choose a road or fence line long enough to complete two turns.
 Ensure that the wind is blowing perpendicular to the reference line.
Enter downwind perpendicular to the road.
 Maintain 600 to 1,000 feet AGL.
 As you cross the road, immediately roll into a turn.
 Use a relatively steep bank angle to compensate for high groundspeed.
Track a half circle.
 Use a medium bank angle and crab into the wind when flying directly crosswind.
 Once you pass the 90° point, decrease the bank angle as the headwind increases and your groundspeed
decreases.
Cross the reference line upwind.
 Roll out of the turn with the wings level over the road.
 Roll into a turn in the opposite direction.
 Use a relatively shallow bank angle to compensate for low groundspeed.
Track another half circle.
 Use a medium bank angle and crab into the wind when flying directly crosswind.
 Once you pass the 90* point, increase the bank angle as the tailwind and your groundspeed increase.
Cross the reference line downwind.
 Roll out of the turn with the wings level over the road.
 Roll into a turn in the opposite direction if you are starting another S-turn.

Steps for Performing a Turn Around a Point

Select a ground reference point.
 Choose a landmark that is easy to see from all directions.
 Use an intersection of roads to help you maintain orientation during the turn.
Enter the turn downwind.
 Roll into the turn when the reference point is abeam the airplane.
 Use a relatively steep bank angle to compensate for high groundspeed.
Turn crosswind from downwind.
  Decrease the bank angle as the tailwind and groundspeed decrease.
 Use a medium bank and crab into the wind when flying directly crosswind.

Turn upwind.
 Decrease the bank angle as the headwind increases and your groundspeed decreases.
 Use the shallowest bank angle when flying directly upwind.
Complete the first turn.
 As you turn crosswind from upwind, increase the bank angle as the headwind decreases and your
groundspeed increases.
 Use a medium bank and crab into the wind when flying directly crosswind.
 As you turn downwind from crosswind, increase the bank angle as the tailwind and groundspeed increase.
TRAFFIC PATTERNS
Named Legs of a Standard Traffic Pattern
The standard traffic pattern is rectangular and has 5 named legs:
 Downwind.
 Base.
 Final.
 Departure.
 Crosswind.
Left- and Right-Hand Traffic Patterns
Left-Hand Traffic Pattern
 Requires left turns to all of the pattern legs.
 Provides the best view of the landing runway from the left seat.
Right-Hand Traffic Pattern
 Requires right turns to all of the pattern legs.
 Provides a way to avoid obstacles, terrain, airspace, noise sensitive areas, or other runways to the left of the
landing runway.
 Prevents a conflict with left-hand pattern traffic at airports conducting simultaneous operations on parallel
runways.
Collision Avoidance Near an Airport
To enhance collision avoidance within ten miles) of the airport:
 Turn on your landing light.
 Look outside the airplane as much as possible.
 Monitor the CTAF.
 Accelerate to cruise climb speed for better forward visibility as soon as practical when climbing after takeoff.

Descent Planning
To plan for the descent, find the following:
1. Find the difference between your current altitude and the traffic pattern altitude.
current altitude−pattern altitude=difference altitude

2. Calculate the time for descent at your chosen descent rate.

difference altitude
=minutes ¿ descend
descent rate

3. Convert the descent time into a distance from the airport.

current ground speed
=NMper minute
60
 NM per minute∙ minutes ¿ descend ≅ distance ¿ the airport

Traffic Pattern Safety Precautions

 To avoid runway incursions, use techniques such as reading back clearances and asking for progressive taxi
instructions.
 Know when and where to expect wake turbulence and perform wake turbulence avoidance procedures, such
as avoiding the area below and behind other aircraft.
 Be alert for conditions favorable to wind shear, such as a frontal system, a temperature inversion with upper-
level winds in the area, or thunderstorms, and take steps to avoid encountering wind shear.
Steps for Flying a Traffic Pattern at an Uncontrolled Airport
Obtain airport information.
 Review chart and set radio frequencies.
 Listen to an automated weather service station or contact CTAF.
 Overfly airport at least 500 feet above traffic pattern altitude if you cannot obtain current airport conditions by
radio.
Prepare for pattern entry.
 Visualize the pattern entry.
 Perform Before Landing briefing.
 State intentions on CTAF at least 10 miles from airport.
 Begin the Before Landing checklist as appropriate.
Enter the traffic pattern.
  Use a 45 angle abeam the midpoint of the runway on the downwind leg.
 Enter at pattern altitude (normally 1,000 feet AGL).
Fly the downwind leg.
 Fly parallel to runway, maintaining pattern altitude.
 Begin descending for landing when abeam intended touchdown point.
Turn onto the base leg.
 Turn when touchdown point is approximately 45° behind inside wingtip.
 Use approximately 30° of bank.
Turn final.
 Turn at least 1/4 mile from runway threshold.
 Stay aligned with runway centerline.
Climb out on the departure leg.
 Stay aligned with extended runway centerline until beyond the end of runway.
 If staying in the pattern, climb to within 300 feet of pattern altitude before turning crosswind.
Depart the pattern.
 Continue climbing to pattern altitude.
 Fly straight out or turn 45° to pattern side of the runway.
 Monitor CTAF until at least 10 miles away from airport.
Steps for Flying a Traffic Pattern at a Controlled Airport
Obtain airport information.
 Review your chart and set radio frequencies.
 Listen to ATIS.
Prepare for pattern entry.
 Visualize the pattern entry.
 Perform the Before Landing briefing.
 Contact the tower at least 15 miles from the airport.
 Begin the Before Landing checklist as appropriate.
Enter the traffic pattern.
 Check for traffic.
  Enter at the assigned point.
 Report your location to the tower.
Complete the pattern.
 Comply with tower instructions.
 Land after the tower controller clears you to do so.

FLIGHT LESSON 5: GROUND

REFERENCE MANEUVERS
Flight Lesson 5: Ground Reference Maneuvers
 Complete the tasks listed in the Review table of the Mission to gain proficiency.
 Understand the meaning of various airport, runway and taxiway signs, markings and lighting.
 Understand proper flight control placement to use when taxiing in crosswinds.
 Conduct flight at approach airspeed to a normal landing
 Understand the proper flight techniques and the appropriate wind correction techniques for flying a
rectangular course and for operating in the traffic pattern.
 Understand factors that contribute to controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents and preventive techniques
for avoiding CFIT.
 Understand the proper flight techniques and the appropriate wind correction techniques for flying S-turns and
a turn around a point.
Mission of the 5th Flight Lesson
Guidelines of the 5th Flight Lesson
 SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
MALFUNCTIONS

Managing Engine Roughness or Partial Power Loss

Consider taking these corrective actions to manage engine roughness or a partial power loss:
 Adjust the mixture for smooth operation.
 Apply carburetor heat in case of carburetor icing, if applicable.
 Try different power settings.
 Open the alternate air induction source in case of induction icing, if applicable.
 If the engine continues to run roughly after taking corrective action, land as soon as practical.
Managing a Low Oil Pressure Indication
What actions should you take if you notice a low oil pressure indication?
 Check the oil temperature indication. Low oil pressure combined with high oil temperature confirms a loss of
oil and an imminent engine failure. In this case, you must land as soon as possible and be prepared to
perform an emergency landing.

Managing Fuel Starvation

Indications of Fuel Starvation:
 Low fuel pressure or fuel flow reading.
 An unexplained loss of engine power.
Corrective Actions If You Experience Fuel Starvation:
 Switch on the fuel boost pump.
  Switch fuel tanks.

Managing an Alternator Failure

Consider these corrective actions to manage an alternator failure:
 Determine the essential electrical equipment for the flight and the severity of the situation based on factors
such as VFR or IFR conditions, day or night, and distance from an airport.
 Shed electrical load to preserve battery power for essential equipment.
 Notify ATC of the situation and use ATC services such as radar vectors as appropriate.
 Be prepared to land without primary instrumentation, radio communication, lights, or flaps, and to perform a
manual landing gear extension, if applicable.

Pitot/Static System Blockage Indications

If you lose pitot/static system data in an airplane with a primary flight display, typically red Xs cover the affected
instrument.

Indicated Airspeed Indicated Altitude Indicated Vertical Speed

Pitot Ram Air Source and Increases with altitude Unaffected. Unaffected.
Drain Hole Blocked gain; decreases with
altitude loss.

Pitot Ram Air Source Displays zero knots. Unaffected. Unaffected.

Blocked and Drain Hole
Open

Static Source Blocked Decreases with altitude Does not change with Does not change with
gain; increases with altitude gain or loss. vertical speed changes.
altitude loss.

Both Static and Pitot All indications remain

Sources Blocked constant, regardless of
changes in airspeed,
altitude, and vertical speed.

Managing Pitot/Static System Blockage.

If you suspect a possible blockage of the pitot/static system based on instrument indications, consider taking these
corrective actions:
 If the static source is blocked, open the alternate static source.
 If the pitot tube is blocked, apply pitot heat.
 Use outside visual references to control the airplane.
Managing Inoperative Flaps
There are several factors you should consider as you prepare to perform a no- flap approach and landing:
 The glidepath is not as steep as with flaps extended, so the higher nose attitude on final can cause errors in
your judgment of height and distance.
 Floating during the flare is likely.
 Landing distance is substantially increased.

Managing an Open Door in Flight

Consider these factors when managing an inadvertent door opening during flight:
 Stay calm and maintain control of the airplane; an open door is normally not hazardous unless you allow it to
distract you.
 Do not release your shoulder harness in an attempt to reach the door.
 Close the door safely on the ground after landing as soon as practical by performing a normal traffic pattern
and landing.
Managing Smoke or Fire in the Cabin
Consider taking these corrective actions to manage smoke or fire in the cabin:
 Turn off the master switch to remove the possible source of the fire.
 After extinguishing the fire, open the air vents to clear the cabin of smoke and fumes.
 If flames exist, use the fire extinguisher to put out the fire.
 Land as soon as possible.

Emergency Descent Considerations

Configuration
 Configure the airplane as specified in the POH Emergency Descent checklist.
 Use the recommended flap and landing gear positions, power setting, and airspeed.
Airspeed Selection
If the POH does not specify an emergency descent airspeed, select an appropriate airspeed for the conditions:
  A high airspeed might blow out an engine fire.
 A low airspeed places less stress on the airplane structure.
 Maintain an airspeed at or below maneuvering speed in turbulent conditions.
Airspeed Limitations
You must adhere to the airplane's airspeed limitations for the specific configuration and flight conditions. Do not let
the airplane exceed:
 Maneuvering speed (VA)
 Maximum landing gear extended speed (VLE) Maximum flap extended speed (VFE)
 Never-exceed speed (VNE)
Practice Emergency Descents
When performing a practice emergency descent:
 Transmit a radio call to alert other aircraft of your intentions.
 Avoid prolonged practice to prevent excessive cooling of the engine cylinders.

Safety Procedures
Before every maneuver, perform clearing turns for collision avoidance.
For maneuvers such as slow flight and stalls, select an entry altitude high enough for you to recover no lower than
1,500 feet AGL.

Steps for Performing an Emergency Descent

Configure the airplane to descend.
 Reduce the power to idle.
 Place the propeller control (if equipped) to the low-pitch/high-rpm position.
 Extend the landing gear and flaps, as recommended by the POH.
Establish a descending turn.
Bank approximately 30 to 45° to:
 Increase the rate of descent.
 Maintain a positive load factor.
 Scan for traffic below.
 Look for an emergency landing site.

Maintain the bank angle and maximum allowable airspeed.

 Maintain the maximum flap extended speed or applicable speed for your airplane configuration.
 Ensure that you have completed the emergency descent checklist and any other applicable emergency
checklists.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Return to straight-and-level flight.
 Roll out of the bank.
 Gradually raise the nose and add power to maintain the desired airspeed.
  Retract the flaps and landing gear (as appropriate).
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Return to cruise flight or prepare for a landing.
 To return to cruise flight, adjust power to the cruise setting. enrich the mixture if necessary. and trim to relieve
control pressures.
 To prepare for a landing, head toward an appropriate site, configure the airplane for landing. and maintain
approach airspeed.

Risk Reduction
Maintain awareness of landing sites.
 Be alert for suitable emergency landing sites during normal flight operations.
Use checklists effectively.
 Perform Immediate action items from memory and then, if time permits, continue the emergency procedure
by referring to the checklist.
Adjust for altitude.
 Modify the emergency procedure based on the altitude at which the engine fallure occurs,
Establish priorities.
 Focus on landing the aircraft to protect yourself and your passengers rather than on minimizing aircraft
damage.
Be mentally prepared.
 Assume during practice that each simulated emergency might result in a landing.

Steps for Managing an Engine Failure After Takeoff

1. Reduce pitch attitude.
 If you have sufficient runway remaining, land the aircraft on the runway.
 If you do not have sufficient runway remaining, and you have not yet reached a safe maneuvering altitude,
reduce the pitch attitude to establish best glide speed and aim for at landing site straight ahead. Do not
attempt to turn back to the runway.
2. If time permits, follow the steps on the aircraft's emergency checklist.
3. Land straight ahead.
 Extend the flaps as necessary.
 Make only small heading changes to avoid obstacles.

Do Not Turn Back to the Runway

If your engine fails after takeoff, but before you reach a safe maneuvering altitude, do not attempt to turn back to
the runway.
Two significant factors increase the risk of an accident in this situation:
 Insufficient altitude to complete a turn considering the turn radius and rate of descent.
 Steep turns increase the descent rate and stall speed, which is particularly dangerous at slow speeds close
to the ground.

Steps for Performing an Emergency Approach and Landing

Establish a glide.
 Maintain aircraft control.
 Pitch for the best glide speed in the POH.
 Trim to relieve control pressures.
Select a landing site within gliding distance.
 Determine the wind direction and speed.
  Consider the site length.
 Be aware of obstructions.
 Observe the surface conditions.
Turn toward the emergency landing site.
Try to restart the engine.
 Check for obvious problems.
 Perform the appropriate restart tasks from memory.
 Refer to the POH emergency checklist.
Set up the approach to the emergency landing site.
 Maneuver to reach a normal traffic pattern altitude on a downwind leg.
 Declare an emergency on 121.5 or the ATC frequency in use.
 Set the transponder code to 7700.
Configure the aircraft for an emergency landing.
 Shut down the engine and equipment according to the POH checklist.
 Extend the flaps as recommended by the POH.
Perform the landing.
 Touch down on the main wheels first.
 Hold pressure off the nosewheel as long as possible.
 Apply the brakes if necessary.
Route Planning for Survival
Survival after an off-airport landing is also a critical factor, and it begins with your preflight planning.
You can take several actions when planning a route of flight to increase your ability to survive after an emergency
landing:
 Plan a route close to roads, towns, and other areas of civilization.
 Select a route near alternate airports in the event you need to divert.
 Plot a course to stay clear of rough, high terrain or large bodies of water.

Flight Service and ATC

You increase your chances of being located quickly after an emergency landing by using flight service stations
(FSS) and air traffic control (ATC) services.
You should:
 File a flight plan with flight service that includes your exact route of flight.
 Open your flight plan after departure to provide an accurate departure time.
  Update your flight plan with flight service during the flight if the route or estimated time of arrival changes.
 Use radar services, such as flight following to maintain contact with controllers during the flight.

Emergency Locator Transmitter

The emergency locator transmitter (ELT) is a signaling device used by search and rescue operators to find your
aircraft after an emergency landing.
To increase your chances of being located with the ELT:
 Periodically check the aircraft logbooks to ensure that the ELT battery has been checked and replaced
according to FAA regulations.
 After performing an emergency landing, check to determine if the ELT is transmitting by monitoring frequency
121.5.
 Manually activate the ELT if it is not transmitting.

Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear

Survival Kit
 Pack your own or buy a commercial survival kit to keep in the aircraft.
Type of Environment: Terrain and Weather
 Make sure your gear is appropriate for the type of environment along your route.
Emergency Equipment Location
 Stow emergency equipment and survival gear in a location that can be easily accessed but still remain
secure in turbulence or a rough off-airport or water landing.
Passenger Briefing
 Brief your passengers on the location and use of all emergency equipment and survival gear.
Emergency Equipment Instructions
 Keep written instructions with the gear and equipment.
Emergency Equipment Servicing
 Ensure that equipment receives the required servicing, and periodically check and replenish food supplies.
 FLIGHT LESSON 6:
ABNORMAL AND EMERGENCY
PROCEDURES

Flight lesson 6: Abnormal and Emergency Procedures

 Complete the tasks listed in the Review table of the Mission to gain proficiency.
 Conduct flight at slow airspeeds with realistic distractions.
 Understand how to cope with systems and equipment malfunctions using the proper abnormal and
emergency procedures.
  Understand how to maintain positive control of the airplane maneuvering during slow flight solely by
reference to flight instruments.
 Recognize and recover from inadvertent stalls entered from straight flight and from turns.
 Understand how to cope with engine failures by performing simulated emergency approach and landings.
 Understand how to prepare and use emergency equipment and survival gear.
 Understand stalls and spins and their recovery procedures as your instructor demonstrates secondary,
accelerated, cross-control, and elevator trim stalls.
 Conduct climbing and descending turns and turns to headings by instrument.

Mission of the 6th Flight Lesson

Guidelines of the 6th Flight Lesson