Introduction 8 + AC- DC Machines + Motor /Generator + Rotor/Stator + Windings EMEC: 5 Change in flux associated with the mechanical motion da Winding Types se i FEE €GGKe Terms used in armature winding © Conductor © Tum © Coil © Pole pitch : Slots/pole © Coil pitch : itis the distance in slots between the centers of the two sides ofa coil © Slot angle y= 180%slots/pole PI2 (Bp, )= Og ponentsWi 9 Types + Whereas most single-layer windings are fulkpitch windings, the two-layer, windings are generally designed on an armature as a ‘chorded or fractional-pitch windings. + Fractional-pitch coils are used in order to ¥ save copper ¥ Reduce the MMF harmonics produced by the armature winding Reduce the EMF harmonics induced in the windings, without reducing the magnitude of the fundamental EMF wave to a great extent. * For the three reasons cited, fractional-ptch windings are almost universally used in ac synchronous generator armatures. Construction Paras oon, \- AME op appara yy Fafa (Ni/2}e0s0 a a ie) Construction Diets wrdng ur leet snot oe =o MMF & B Distribution on ac machines + Anac machine with: cylindrical rotor & salient-pole rotor As higher the No. of slots around the surface, more closely the slots are located, a better approximation achieved mmf distribution> pratal machines touted ‘all sdes span canbe less than ‘80 -shorpith oration ‘leh or charded winding tor is wound ts winding the ‘same a stor Stator 3.phase windingSpeed and frequency Voltage generated ‘The frequency of generated voltage depends on the no. of field poles and on the speed at which these poles are rotated E,/cond=P@/I/n (flux cut/time taken in one rev) + In one revolution , an armature coil is cut by * Po-2f P/2.N and P/2 S poles. + E,Jcond =2f 6 + One cycle is generated when a field pole pair + Exuiphase “2f 62; Z is no. of conductors or coil sides passes over an armature coil hence * Baviphase “46 ON, + No. of cycles/revolution=P/2 + Exnsipnawe 4-44f N,N : No. of tums/phase + Cycles/see=(P/2)*n ; n is speed in rev/s + f-NP/120, N is in rpm Emf Equation ee | ‘The emf induced per coil is given by: =-whee,ep The rms value of this emf: a= ane, rn 9-94) oF 9) evr For a distributed winding Ej = SKI EB Effect of pitch factor on EMF Advantages of chorded pitch win Fall pitch coil © Itsaves copper of end connections © Coil span = Pole pitch (180°) © The emfs of two coil sides are in phase © Reduction in resistance and inductance ofthe winding due tothe ¢ peat induced ina coil is equal to arithmetic sum of emf induced in lesser length of the coil ends each coil side Short pitched coil © There will be a phase difference between the two coil sides . So © Due to elimination of high frequency harmonies eddy current and emf induced in a coil is vector sum of the emfs induced in each coi side © The distorting harmonics can be reduced hysteresis losses are reduced , thereby increasing the efficiency " ¥ " Y 6 Therefore the emf induced in a short pitched coil is smaller than the full pitched coilPitch factor - Distributed winding Pitch factor (Kp) is defined as the ratio of vector sum of the induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of induced emfs per coil phasor sum of the EMP of the too col sides Urithmatio sum of the ERPs of the fro coil sides © If all the coll sides of any one pole are bunched in one slot , the winding is said to be concentrated winding. The total voltage is the arithmetic sum of emf induced in all the coils in one phase under the pole. © In order to obtain better wave shape the coils are not bunched in one slot. They are distributed in number of slots. This winding is known as distributed winding Distribution Factor Concentrated windings have te following disadvantages, + They fall to use the entire inner periphery of the stator iton efficiently + extremely deep slots are required. This causes an increas roquired fo setup the airgap fux. I results in increase in leakage flx and the armature reactance. They result in low copper-torion ratios by not using the armature iron completely. + They fall to reduce harmonics as effectively as distributed windings. For these reasons, it is advantageous to distibute the armature winding, using mote slots and a uniform spacing between slots, tan to concentrate the windings in afew deep slots. ‘ety be the lt ange (80"/ pole itch) _mbe then of slots/olephase amy bethe phase spread angle ‘Theenf indeed in one ple pomp = Here m=3, if the m value Is more than A,8,C,D curve forms a portion of circle with radius ‘r” Derivation of Distribution factor © From Fig AB = E, = 2.r.sin y /2 © Vector sm = AD = E, = 2 sin (my /2) Vector sum of coil emf's Ky= Arithmetic sum of emf = 2rsin (my/2)/(m * 2rsin 7/2) Ky=sin (my /2)/msin y/2Lecture Objective: To understand and apply basic techniques of AC circuit analysis. Pure Resistive circuit Complex Numbers/Phasors ania Resistance/Inductance/capacitive circuit analysis “The voltage and curent phasors ‘are in same phaseWG riasor Retationsnips: Phasor Relationships: Pure Inductive circuit Pure Capacitive circuit Rolatonsp boweon sinusoids © FReiatonship otween sinusoids ee ei 1 ao wo. O10) wo) © Ina capacitor the curent leads the voltage by 90° “The voltage loads the curent by 80° “The curent lags the votage by 90° F-m Power in single phase Circuits i +Power in Resistive Components “Series R-L Circuits ; , Power in Capacitors “Series R-C Circuits and RLC Circuits Power in Inductors sImpedance/Voltage Triangle *Circuits with Resistance and Reactance “Active and Reactive Power vgetn-lfPower in Inductive CircuitsPower triangle + When a circuit has resistive and reactive parts, the resultant power * RU circuit ‘ has 2 pars: F The firsts dissipated in the resistive element. This is the active . on aa power, . ~The second is stored and retumed by the reactive element. This - is the reactive power, Q, which has units of volt amperes reactive or var + While reactive power isnot dissipated it does have an effect on the aris => Lean bet A~ Bvt, POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Fh Ret Mes > Ube Pg santa SEA rs ce dr ot > a:258" > Brass iiest + S _ a Tam 5 SATAN Tyas 8p => UBale oo ge = area A cs A —— coc > Gpenea wo Tur eens sane cial pu Ter 3it ToT, s 272 Lies ass deseo nas 228-8" 213 -[ 103 4435-[210r 6684] B16 Tor power fae correction improvement) ‘Ada capacitor in Parallel tothe load to compensate forthe reactive power ‘rawn and thus improve the pf Find Quy coresponding tothe new pf and taking P tobe same and then got C from VIK= Quihere Qs Chey "Que Asie phase sore dtvers 1008 oa oad operating a 08 lagging over fico I oer ‘omprvethe ssn’ elie, power ator mprotement carson) hee beh ‘anes in rll with he loa, alee Ue eacive poner be div eed by the caps (cosere iden edr ois the sure power facia 095 lagging, adda the paver tigi. Also nd he ale of he eapctane if he source vole and fegerey se 100 V (rns) and Ha respectively. Assune the source volageto Be acount and the sour inpedance swell sth lie impedance between source an la 100 095 = 105.3 kVa 43.13 KVAR of Xe=-0a or 4mFPower Factor Correction in 3 Phase Circuits geans23 WVAR Q,=7SKVAR = Pion, log= 2285 VAR P= P5= p= 100 wang! | simi to single phase case race |p Cit apeckort sstncreae — ow pf power actor pana Reactive Power tobe added “To use capacitors this value Should bevenatbe cont =n, TF en = EL = Pian, of Iugping > 0>0 PowerMeasurement n3 Phase Creuits Power Measurement using Two Wattmeter method Power Measurement using 1 Wattmeter method Power Measurement using Two Wattmeter method total instantaneous power few Yay thn Vie Play Vay 1 = fay Was Ye) i “(ae “Yin) Sine Yaw tia Vay ~ Yaw “Cinw tian) W, 4 W, = iy Vy tine awe te Ye =-¥,-1, e049) 1 Ty “8(F ag) Fo fay 08120" =5-4,-1, con(s0"—0) Bo, -1, eos 80+ 9) e280") HAV, 1, 200830" cons yd, e056 =V5 2089 A3-¥,-1, [e0s(30°-g)-cos(30°+ 9] =V3-V, +1, -2-sin30°-sing 5-0-7, )=3-¥, 1, sin @=V5-V, +1, sin 6MAGNETIC FIELDS + Fercomognetie Materia~ that has the property of atrating ater pieces of such materials ‘permanent magnet a ferromagnetic material Just as we have the Electr Feld associated with sationary charge, we have magnetic field assocated wih a moving charge (current) Manet tines of Fores ~ Imaginary lsed lenge that origin rom the noth ole and end at e the south pole ofthe magnet uta ¥ The tangent ata point on these lines gives the direction of Magnetic tines of tne magnetic eld MAGNETIC FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY CARRYING CURRENT conductor carrying current produces a magnetic eld Magnetic fax denoted as), isthe artount of magnet fed passing through asurace, MCORUCON carving a current | produces a magnet (ouch a¢ a conducting coi, around itn a elindraly radial pattern as shown The! unt of magnetic uct she weber) —, : Magnetic flux => =B A Magnetic Fed at ral distance rom the condictoris ven by O=magetifiue= f Beta = Zed —_wlspereabity ofthe mem Har tow aa Te drectin of he magnifier by he Ht hand rl wich 5 b slots that if you old the conductor in your sight han with thumb ono ) pain Inthe det ofthe erent, then heaton n which the Zz fingers cu gives you the erection ofthe magnetic fd ; s. Cg era . ue of electrical cute a MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A TOROID MAGNETIC CIRCUITS. tf we bend the ron cove inthe form of ang, we got Y shag cuts ne toroid ¥ The magnetic fel atthe center ofthe toroid aver The masneta motive fore of exum curent by gH carvingsolis = = Ni 2ar G ot eesti dfnes the ese th wich magnet ld can beset up inte ater 7 ATi RELATIVE PERMEABILITY j =ape ie nLeer ¥ Ws thera of permet ofthe mesiumto the pereabiy of ree space uP a “Ferromagnetic materials have high values of relative permeability (21000) i R= ATW luctance ofthe magnetic circuit UR, = permeance of the magnetic circuitIron cores with an air gap Core with an sir gap Equivalent magnetic circuit ‘Magnetization curves 5 ‘The airgap wil have some fF. : 9, reluctance tat willbe in 7 big Mi series with the reluctance of —sLyy SC; Oe the iron cre. ¥ ‘ringing of he fx ines cece when ‘the alr gap length s somewhat age More fox concentrate inthe Inner portion af the care than the outer portion can TE) ict Pe HYSTERESIS LOOP ¥ Aplet of 8v/sH isa magnetization cure 8 saturation 8 wwe Linear HYSTERESIS Demag Matra Th sgn Fut Day (8) ed when no eer Magner Fel iad onside demognetzed mail ona us poly amagetng elie to magnet tine it) HYSTERESIS LOSS 7 TMs increased agin butn the ve decor, = + Thisvalue of Mis caled the coereive force Permanent magnets have high coercivity ¥ FAs made-—ve enough, materi saturates + On increasing from ts max-vevalue, we then ata patel value of, the Residual Magnetism goes away and B becomes 0 (pole butin the opposite dveetion cine) oe reach pin that nccates negative residual magnets + The resulting loo salle a hysteresis loop and the phenomenon Hysteresis ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION When a magnetizing materials perodically magnetized and demagnetited using an alternate current, Energy is asotbed by the material hat gets converted to heat ¥ Gneraylost perce f HB (Ares under the BA curve) ¥ Power loss duetonysitess~ K,(B.,)°F and n depends onthe core meter ~ loss isirecty proportional to freavency Use cores made of rateils that have ‘thin ystress oop ¥ EMF (electo Motive-Forca) induced na mult-tun col when the magnti fax psig rough he colar wth ve Fo covered by Mal ain EBL then ut seetsonterteteines of total Mux linkages withthe col J oS Chest dosed ad has catretfons ‘The polarity ofthe voage induced by 2 ranging fue tends to appose the change in flux that produces the induced voltageINDUCTANCE OF AN INDUCTOR MAGNETICALLY COUPLED COILS Consider an inductor fed by a time varying current. An EME is induced across the Inductor governed by the equation a Lata (On solving the above equation, we geta relation a L=N AS@=NI/Rwe get 1 =N2/R —* aetecance uctkages fr ampere {Henry = 4 Weber per ampere Consider anion core that hasa primary cil and a secondary eit ¥-ACSine waves ed tvough the premary cll ~The currentin the primary col produces 2 mogneticildanchence tuxlnes AS, ve) The magnetic ux has a sinusoidal nature and is this variable lx travels through the ¥ This variable facts the secondary eo and induces EM in twhichflowsthe “loads connected across the i secondary, tie varying eaerent ‘lows inthe secondary cll, MUTUAL INDUCTANCE “Suppose the primary winding having Inductance has Ny turns ar secondary wining having Inductance Ly has My urns Sine atime varying currentinthe primary induces a voltage across the secondary, we say that the 2 cols are magnetically coupled ‘The ux tat setup inthe care an acount of the current inthe primary given by \/R—> Reluctance Nealecting fox leakages, the same foxlinks the secondary cal nducing an EMF acossit 49 Neae Motual Inductance between the cols ‘NiN2/R a = doy dit Pn ea ‘Mutual Inductance = Mux produced by yn al 1 @, Ly= elf inductance afl 15 lx produced by Jin coil 2 inductance fell 2 1M = mutual inductance betwen the colle me ¥ ‘There may be connections to beth windings Sandi, both ean be non 2e10 ¥ sa result tha passes throught produces avoage Ly fgg and that passes through induces voltage Mise eros the primary + Toa votageaeross he primary eek Milan MalaCIRCUIT REPRESENTATION sSiialy the voltage aross he secondary windings vy= Lg hg + May gy Thetvanstormer canbe representedby3 AM la = M Y Mag Myce MENG / uncoupled inductors as shown here Asa transformer works on AC the currents and voltages areal phasors We ™ “an represent the transformer equations as fliows - V, = fly, fom Vp folgls + fom coresponds to = Jil in the frequency domain ‘COUPLING COEFFICIENT enerny stored ‘isthe measure ofthe magnet coupling Betwoen the 2 ea in “tn 1 nats ete fete onan w= 2 byi,200 + 2Li208) + MEL ¥ Coupling coecent depends upon ¥ Permeability af he core materi ¥ Number of turns in each cll Relative position andthe dimensions ofthe 2 ais ¥ Loosely Couned TF > ke (almost (Ae Core TF) * Tighty Coupled TF -> ke almost ton Core T/F) ATM pica crn system ee 2, sii ‘ape OR os Parra} a ee TT TawaeyLow Votage 2200 1-Phase (or) 415V 3-Phase up to 1000 Vtts Medium Voliage = 1000V'to 35x High Voltage ‘30K to
aS Fay NOP pas 4, 4ANF Oyu aad miitmir=0 Meal a e “cota anos aptamer an ote Impedance transformation Teh ae ES E-aT= -(hyn-en-mReal / Practical Transformer Practical Transformers ~ Factor Need eb Considered ‘Tosi snot et afl ott mec forall puss A tever mde shoul uae |) Winkie estas, (2) Ledage ees (5) ects tet mgnetepemestiiy ofthe core mers (4). Coe bs, (5). capchane de te ceri ccupling enc indus sca a hic eaten) . BEI grotcing inductance -odetng Ma Equivalent Model for the Core We can model the core of the wansformer as an inductor Forneasocorercance,weatian in parallel with a resistance Toccls se ad pea a Elena: we 7 ‘Model for the Core R Hd ez ‘The resistance represents the power losses due to Eddy current ety at ? and Hysterisis, ‘The magnetizing inductor represents the magnetic effect of the 7 7 tums in the windings, the reluctance and geometry of the core. ba nase rebonsnp ot lindced er, and excing cent3B Name plate ratings and losses i Circuit Parameters Determination Theesuivaenticuit parameters aa trenformer cane determined by perform ‘The cores and magnetizing curents ae ing two tests: the open-circuit test ond the short-circuit test. Ope Tet and ‘Thus the coneloes resistance andthe magnetizing reactance a viewed from the low-voltage ide are —i ok oe Me ~ Ra Lo Pe Ver. Vi and were where Qe VEE Circuit Parameters Determination The equivalent circuit parameters of trenslermer cn be determined by peforn- ing two tests he open-circuit est an the short ic test. yaa‘The coreloss and magnetizing current are K= Leos) and = he in) ‘Thus, the coreoss resistance and the magnetizing reactance as viewed from the low-voltage side are Ye VE hey Poe Me VE sed kao oe vere = VENTE Expt. -1 (Panel No 1 and 2) open (0) Cire diagram Fig. 0C Test conducted from LY sde () Open Cheat (OC) Test ‘Cone tlm in |) epg t HV id ps and LV tbe ciel ton is Sih the alt and tee flowing eins ‘The coreloss and magnetizing currents are = hc08 06) and Je = fs sin(d,) “Thus, the corelss resistance and the magnetizing reactance as viewed from the Regs low-wage side are pitty sed, Vie 4M Noles - - s & men, ks Ye VE Nolutpom Be ad KeEeg ees) ; . where Q = VE=PF Short-Circuit Test eRe a me et. In this ae the wattle records the copper loss at full load. I Vy, fy and Pyare the ceadings onthe vltmetr, ammeter, and wattmeter, v », aM Via Rane Bane Kn Vein Ri ig, 14 $C Yes: conducted from HV side ‘Transformer Rating :25VA, a5vnievGo Short Creat SO Tet ‘Conc te et om 1 sid with Lh dn he agra ig 1.40.7 cicuse food cumentotte union ture Woage et soos 3 after tag: [Speco Te ppp bined tom ss “Tm evra wheeze vlgeonupaiion sn ten ers spf stern a aaeaperly sco wnastonera Rentingt Avptes vanes. Vac In this case, the wattmeter records the copper loss at full load. am ; Rants Tw By Ru impedances, and 3- its voltage regulation ee = 90855 Tp * 00x02 bid Following data taken from the primary sde of the transformer: [Ssencreat Tos Satna (@) Find the equivalent creutreferred toHV. side (b)Find the equivalent crcuitreferredtoL.Vside (c) Caleulate the ul-load voltage regulation at 05 lagging PF 1.0, ‘and at 0 leading PE (6) Find the effisency at fulload with PFO lagging Per Unit Calculations xctation admittance yo econ. nL ay 9 1SKIO ZB Short Cress mpesance ane Equivalent series impedance Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1 '®A key problem in analyzing power systoms is the large number of transformers. = It would be very difficult to continually refer impedances to the ‘ifferent sides ofthe transformers ‘© This problem is avoided by a normalization of all variables: per unit analysis. actual quai quantity in per unit = base value of quantity 41. Pick HfYVA base fr the ence system, Sp 2. Pick volage base for each diferent vliage level, Vs. Vollage bases are related by wranstormer tums ratos, Voltages ate Ine fo neural 3. Calculate the current base, la = SVs Calculate the impedance base, Z,= (VaFlSy 0" Valla 5. Convert actual values to per unit per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have unitsThree Phase Per Unit Three Phase Per Unit, colt Procedure is very similar to 14 except we use a 36 VA base, and Use line to ne voltage bases 1. Pick a 39 VA base for the entire system, Si,” Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, Vs Voltages ar line to line. 3. Calculate the impedance base Vi 3 Vaan) sie 3si 2 Vaan se Ze Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase! 4. Calculate the current base, I, Si 3 sit sit ViVni2 V8NBV en Youn Exactly the same current bases as with single phase! 3 iy 5. Convert actual values to per unit Pu 4 100 BY, 1100230, 50 manore haz on HY wang asc of 1 and sage acoso 0401 The ZY wining as reste of 006 oa lege rescce of 00 2 rad he pune wong rene, racine and mpd fered BY ad LY ede amet these pve ‘Slee po ae th me wheter refed to BV oc LV ede efi 0 TEV winding, we Twig wiki) Solon Hs 1, LV sai 2 WE OD Lng hentiqs(l+jaoa WA)e ~ tox ~ a= (016+ 00) 0 = as sp any= 2222 9505996 31 + 0208) 7 Satay =059 0 Sexist Zuy=si+si (BAF 1504+ 006+ 009 2 dvyn SAMSON «oy + 0052) 92 04+ 0005, = 2630) (tice) Efficiency a + Transformer fieney no Feexi00% y= —Fae— 100% af howe, | Pe + at, dy feo, (PR) + LosesinTanstormer: 1-Copperlosses 2-Corelosses po Helas0s8, Vphp 080, +(P. + F Rep) Solving it farther, we gt Rass ‘Thus, the maximum efficiency occurs at a load at which variable load loss equals the constant core (no-load) loss. Peore Loss = Peu LossAll day Efficiency se ran Voltage Regulation ‘Most Transformers are connected permanently so core losses are always present ‘The time that the transformer was on load has to be calculated when determining efficiency PB coma ee Yen wen feoe ex sheConaltion for Max and zero Vig a “ Sy=30KVA Peg = HOW P= 220W Calculate in a1 75% Load, unity PE sys = UPA POWER 499 Sy, =0.75x30=22.5 ‘Output + Losses Cup, = (0.75) «840 = 472.5 25 ‘6 100 1° 254075) x0.84]e022 225 ne as yoarsvoa Example A SAVA, single phase ool of 100 watt, The daly raat on of con the tronfrma as acs e 00 7AM w1PM -34Watproe ieM wera ‘sawarhas : SPM miaM ‘saengros i TAM rai No load Determine the all day efflency of the transformer. n% % Load P,= Py =Max TAM. 1PM, BVA ‘Ohmic tones fr 6 hours =(200) (5) = 100 w Daily eneray lost as core loss = 49% 24 «96 yy OPE 9660 kWh, 1PM. 106 PM, VA load ‘Total kWh lost = 1.970 + 0.960 «295 Wh, Daily Wh outpat = [96 +28 r6x7 +0) 701Wh Ohmic eee fr § hou All day 9 =1 — 5-Day loses in kWh Daly ourpt = SPM to LAM: AVALod = 8 ses) WR 9598 or 96.90%, Ohmic lose for 7 rs TAM 7AM; Obie aee 0 Dally oneray let chins 1000 0 605.6) 928 rnExcitation Phenomenon in ER Transformers “The No-load current ina tranaformer I non-sinusoidal Reason: Hysteresis and saturation nonlinearities of core material Y, is the rated voltage applied to primary. Since, resistive drop I,Ry ls negligible, applied voltage and induced a.m are sinusoidal Flux nthe co inusoldal. “he fax yottage by 80" the a ‘The no load current waveform can be obtained graphically from the hysteresis curve (®-1, curve) and no lone currant ois zor. Att =, flxis ro an, = ly att = ty I, = he whle increasing fux and = ly while decreasing {ue to hysteresis) af = |. When fx ie maximum ®,,. the current | is also at Its maximum Lax. The cutent |, again Becomes zero at © =@. ER Excitation Phenomenon in Es Excitation Phenomenon in Transformers Transformers In the steady state, the flax undergoes a cycle of magnetisation and demagnetisatin due to sinusoidal vollage V, and traces a 6 hysteresis loop. The negative half will be symmetical to positive half of |, as hysteresis loop is also symmetrical. It can be seen that the |, waveform is non-sinusoidal and having some peaks. It is odd symmetical i. current and flux achieve their maxima simultaneously, but current zeros are advanced with respect to flux. ase of soil magnetising coment The no load current has fundamental and odd harmonics. The strongest is the third harmonic which is about 40% of fundamental ‘And I, leads flux © by a small angle ay, Due to dp, |, has two components |, and I, a8 discussed earlier. This phase shit of ais caused due to hysteresis nature ® -|, curve, Switching Transient r-m Switching Transient ee Applied voltage has zero valve at When the voltage is applied to the transformer, the core flux and ‘ening wage nag ze the corresponding exciting current undergo a transient before reaching steady-state values. The severty of the switching transient is related to the instant when the voltage wave is switched on. Steady state value of fx at this Instant fs “Or, while the fax ean only start with Zero value. Transient flax component originates so. that the resultant ‘ux has zero vahie atthe Instant of evitehing ‘The flue transient wil go through a maximum value of 20m, Phenomenon called doubling ‘tect, The transformer switching transiont is referred {0 a8. tho Inmush curentSwitching Transient Inrush Current (0 ey ow hate Dus to retentivity core will Ihave some rosidual fx > With this high maximum flux, magnetization curve shows passage of enormous magnetizing current, (looks like short circuit in part of cycle) > excess current exist, therefore power system & transformer must be able to withstand these currents, Harmonics "Harmonics are mutiples of the fundamental frequency of a wave. Generally, non-linear loads lke the power electronic converters ‘components cause harmonics in a circuit. Harmonics. in transformer occur due to the effect of saturation and Hysteresis which are to produce non-sinusoidal current if the applied voltage Js sinusoidal. Upon saturation, the flux waveform is flat topped and contains mainly 3rd harmonic component. Harmonics A prehe LV Harmonics Autotransformers /Variac Harmonies can be madelled in a system separately as a source with a frequency an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency (60 Hz in Fig). ‘A model including harmonics can be seen as a source sending a 60 Hz sine wave to a load and a source bank at the load with teach source sending an integer multiple of 60 Hz sine wave. ‘The primary and secondary windings of a two winding transformer have induced emt in them de toa eomman mutual kx and hence aren phase. ‘Tho currents drawn by those two windings are out of phase by 180». This prompted the use of apart ofthe primary as secondary. This I equivaont Lo fusing the secondary turns into primary tums. ‘The fused section need to hava a cross sectional ara of the conductor to carry (LL) ampere, ‘This ingonious thought le to the invention ofan auto transformer.loses, smaller exciting cument and beter voltage regulation compare to its wo winding countpar. Al tis ison account ofthe fact that in an autotransformer & ‘ar ofthe energy transfer thro the condition process ‘ewo-ining vag and mis ‘As moose lug nd tis X N Povey) Advantages of Auto transformer over transformer ets coapr the VA rags of et. As 2 wong loon (pe TaN ‘Wh ed a srs Ome F Fal ») 4) B) ee oa [ratra| rome => A nas® WA Gan _ HAN N)*Uh, 10 cross sectional ar For, comparison, both must have same input (sl) and output vl) and same valiage ratio Vulva. Therefore, an ordinary transformer must have volage V1, V2 and curents I? and 12 or ts primary and Secondary winings rospectvely. For samo poak fux donsity and ‘This means that an auto transformer requires lesser quantity of copper given by the rato of tums. This rato therefore denotes the savings ‘copper. Ae N2 approaches Ni the savings Become. significant Thus aulovaneformers become ideal cholo for clase rallo transformations. The Savings in material Is obtained, however, at a price which is, electrical isolation between primary and secondary has to be convalesced. ‘Also; Lossor Leakage x, lowor ohmic loss0s and lowor core loss0s The apparent power advantage: Ex The autotransformer see ia tex, ‘ouput (up orp Example: A 100 VA, 120/12 V transformer wl be connected to form a step-up autotransformer P vith he primary voltage of 120 V, 7 ‘2 What willbe the secondary votage? 5. What willbe the maxomum power rating? ‘ ) What wil bo the powor rating advantage? 4 ' Tho secondary vokage: 192V b. The max sri winding curent: 100/12=8.33.A 1182x8,33" 1100 VA, ‘The socondary apparent power: «The power rating advantage: 11Introduction: 3 phase T/Fs Bank of Three Single phase Transformers > It is economical to use the three-phase system rather than single phase system for generation, transmission and utilization of electrical energy, > Itis imperative that three-phase transformers are used in these systems. > The construction of the three-phase transformer can either be: i. ABank of three Single-phase Transformers ji. Single three-phase Transformer with common core >it is easier to transport these units. Hence, find underground (mines) usage } It offers the advantage of a de-rated open-delta operation when one unit becomes inoperative. > The three magnetic circuits are independent om i Cw) Common Core Construction a > The single three-phase transformer unit costs about 15% less than that of bank. > The single unit occupies less space. Connections Star-Star Connection > The primary (input) side of a three-phase transformer can be connected in a star or delta configuration, >The secondary (output) side of a three-phase transformer can also be connected in a star or delta configuration. > This allows four basic connection patterns: i. StarStar ii. Delta-Detta il, Star-Delta iv. Delta-Star > ‘The winding connections are as shown. > Based on the phasor diagram, based on the phase difference between votages coresponding to a single phase, a O° or 180° connection can be obtained. > Small HV TF as miniises the Tursiph and Insulation requirement “om om | weDelta-Delta Connection 3 Star-Delta Connection 8 > The winding connections are as shown, >The winding connections areas shown > 180° connection or phase opposition can be brought (Stepping down to medium level. about by interchanging the terminals at the secondary, > Its observed that the corresponding line voltage on the delta side lags by -30° to the line voltage on the star side. > The phasor relationship is similar in case of the TI. respective line-line vollages. 88 { 3 Delta-Star Connection 3B Open Delta Connection i > The winding connections are as shown > one ofthe phases is disconnected, the resulting connection . oo wl is known as open-delta ® It is observed that the -30° connection will now be the » The VA rating is 1/V3 times the rating of the normal +30° connection and vice versa nection A 8 6 > A defective single-phase transformer in a Delta-Delta three hase bank can be disconnected and removed for repair. Partial service can be restored using the remaining single- los! J Tad phase transformer open-Delta until a replacement transformer nt a co, is obtained, oon me a re i aw ———— St La ha 3 Choice of Connections i Between Star/Delta: In star connection with earthed neutral, the maximum voltage of the phase winding is 1/V3 times the line voltage. So, for high voltage transformers, this is about 10% cheaper in terms of insulation costs. Delta connection is used wherein the line currents are required to sum upto zero or only positive and negative sequence currents are to flow. This could also be achieved by grounding star-points, but is not recommended on account of flow of ground current for unbalanced secondary loads. Fed from Three phase sourceChoice of Connections Zigzag Connection Advantages Star-Star: This is economical for small HV transformers as it minimizes the turns/phase and winding insulation. A neutral connection is also possible. However, it is rarely used because of the difficulties associated with exciting current. Delta-Delta: This is used for large LV transformers as it needs more turns/phase. A large load unbalance can be tolerated However, there is no star-point, But open delta operation is possible. Star-Delta: This is the most commonly used connection. The neutral point available is used for grounding on the HV side In distribution systems, star side is used to allow mixed phase and 1-phase loads. However, the phase shift must be accounted for in power system interconnections. Isles cost for grounding purpose: is typical te least cost than ¥-D and Sent > Third narmonie suzpresion: The grag conneston in power sytoms ls rap ple namo Gr ht) cavers Hare, We sal gay nr acs at prevent them fom raveling upetar,whera they can prods undesrabe elects > Ground curt sslaton: I we need 2 neal fr greunding of for Supping slg ‘hace Ino to neal sa wen working wth 8 are, onqounded power ayer grag connection may be fe ber aon because bh leat tral winding impedance goin tothe ground han when using Siar pe anor + Limits circulation of triplen harmonics (3rd, 6", 9, etc) + Can be used without a Delta connected or 5-legged core + Elimination of secondary winding results in smaller footprint, lower cost (25-30%) The zigzag transformer contains six coils on three cores. The first coll on each core is connected contrariwise 10 the second coil on the next core. The second coils are then all tied together to form the neutral and the phases are connected to the primary coils. Each phase, therefore, couples with each other phase and the voltages cancel out vay! Zig Zag Connection: Zig Zag Transformer vayeWinding connection designations “First Symbol: for High Vollage: Always captal eters. fed sar, NeNeuiral eta Conditions for Parallel Operation Certain conditions have to be met before two or more transformers are connected in parallel and share a common load satisfactorily. ‘They are, +The voltage ratio must be the same. “The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base should be the same. “The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating current between the transformers. “The phase sequence must be the same and no phase difference must exist between the voltages of the two transformers. Parallel Operation omcotgenus nrc evar bere Parallel Operation of Transformer ‘Two or more transformers are connected to the same supply bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bariload on the secondary side. Such requirement is frequently encountered in practice. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement. ‘The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating augmentation of the capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then be pressed into service. Ideal parallel operation between Transformers accurs when (1) there are no circulating currents on open circuit, and (2) the load division between the Transformers is proportional to their KVA ratings, These requirements necessitate that any - two or more three phase ‘Transformers, which are desired to be operated in parallel, should possess: ‘The same no load ratio of transformation;(aveld circulating current) ‘The same percentage impedance; (limited disparity is alowed) ‘The same resistance to reactance ratio; (Power factor will change) ‘The same polarity;(net voltage around local loop is 28r0) ‘The same phase rotation; (YIY and Yidelta can not be)Parallel Operation Parallel Operation Division of Load ‘wo tansformers wih equal vltage ratio have boon modeled above, From the steady-state ercult analysis, eR ce %.0=7% (9, coom ing 8°43 art Sas) <5, +5 0) Parallel Operation Parallel Operation Division of Load Unequal Voltage-Ratios yea, Siem ‘ASmalldifrence in voltage ratios can be tolerated inthe parallel ‘he mcr wb eit ht dg eV ie. Te maim ‘pes hV nee al wa ototg ae even by 4 Sied= 72, . soon su BB saeyt so SNS Gad) ‘then Soa) ~ Sta) 5, (nme) ar — 480 ©08(0+ a4 480°) = 08 (8+ 120% 05 =4,, sin as 120°) =o, sin gar + 120°} ee ee ee ry 1 20° ty sin a Ty : min 2 a 128 1-060) eq sina} Sepak Sania aft=0 t=90 ad er) ToRQUEEg Induction Machine DOUBLE REVOLVING FIELD THEORY B= Be cos wf bere Bis the maximum Nox density in the motor Resolution of pulsating vector inte to equal and oppositely revolving vector. ‘The synchronous speed of the evolving field in the counterclockwise direction is then -N, The per-unt slip in the forward Clockwise direction s y= NoMa ly Me ® Ny, ‘The per-unit slip inthe backward (counterclockwise) direction is MIN Q goer etes [Note tha at standstil, Ny = Oands = 5, 1 Single Phase Induction Motor Tonge Speed-torque characteristic ofa single-phase induction motor. ‘An equivalent circuit of single phase induction mtr at est‘An equivalent circa of «single phae indction motor a any sip avec OT Sige Blase haleetbn Bl pol ae Ft OR TS 0G + Ka) i, = n+ ym ~ 05 PalRu@ - 9 + 24) BB 8 Ra =) 4 + Kd UFZ, = Ry + j%;jethe impedance ofthe stator winding the input impedance wt ere “The stator winding current is ew p-% 3, “The power input i Py = RADA) = Vil con 0 here isthe powerfactor angle by which the current lags the applied voltage Vy The stator copper les fe ‘When we subiract the stator copper loss from the otal power input we are let with the ar-gap power: However the sir-gap power datibted between Sted with such revaving field, we have to determine the ote currents in th Eftchen tye evn coont inthe feed rechten hy= hg — Bie Sinny he rset in he Baka branch ye ba jaa ee ene the agp poston othe rwanda aca evan de ne ay = RS ge = HR f= Taha ee Sine Ry and y ae the equivalent resistances inthe forward an backwa branches of he rotor rut the power varsfered tothe oor must also be cn " sumed by these resarces, In other words, we can also compute the ai-gap ht powers as ” Pay forthe forward branch and eck forthe backward branch, Fa ‘There airgap power is he = Pay ~ Pap Simplified equivalent circuit of a xingle phase induction motor‘here Pe the rotational las ofthe motor In dls case, the rotational los con- The mechanical power developed by the motor is shes tect wt indo mh cen msc pond om Py = (1 ~ Pog = Totty = Ty(l ~ sho, ek Hence, the torque developed by the single-phase motor is Finally, the motor efficiency isthe rato ofthe power available atthe shat F 42 ‘the tla power input Pa Py =~ Pag = Talog = TH 0, ‘We cult al fave computed the orue developed bythe forward andthe backyasd vevaling elds Hence, the torque developed by the single-phase motor le Pog Ty fat “The power available atthe shafts : ty = Pa Pia PsP, Teer dived ents Tea Ty Ta Phase Split in IM S| S’ (0) fam : +; Synchronous Machines EUpeo F-m i = A Synchronous machine is one of the important types of electric machines. = All generating machines at power stations are of synchronous kind and are known as alternators. = The frequency of emfs and currents on the stator is -i1 conventional power plants use synchronous generators for given by > converting power to electrical form co “The rotor gets locked to the RMF and rotates unlike induction ‘motor at synchronous speed under all load condition They operate at a better power factor and higher efficiency than P = number of poles ‘equivalent induction machines N, = speed of rotor in rpm. Physical Description | Synchronous Machine Construction i = Consists of two sets of winding * 3 phase armature winding on the stator distributed with ‘centers 120° apart in space * field winding on the rotor supplied by DC = Two basic rotor structures used * salient or projecting pole structure for hydraulic units (low speed) Te salen poe otra usd non and macu-saad generators because ne winsene + Cylindrical rotor structure for thermal units (high speed) loss is smal at hese speeds “The ena ols esloyed in 82-0 poe, high-speed turbo goraratr. = Salient poles have concentrated field windings = Cylindrical rotors have steel rotors with distributed windings Principle of Operation ‘The current flowing through the field colls will set up stationary magnetic poles of alternate North and South ‘ a 3-phase currents flowing in the armature winding produce a Jasali | rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed. i.e, there will be moving North and South poles established in the stator S due to the 3-phase currents i.e at any location in the stator 3 t there will be a North pole at some instant of time and it will » become a South pole after a time period corresponding to half @ cycleGeneration of emf | Generation of emf 8 Force on conduc Instantaneous Voltage, producing where Be lux density in Tesla (Wbim?) |= active conductor langth (n) v= relative linear velocity between the conductor and the field (mvs) Bly Volts Induced EMF e En Equation BE espero nacnne oc MN ‘The emf induced per coil is given by: The rotor has distributed windings which produce an approximately sinusoidally distributed mmf wave in space rotating at synchronous speed along with the -w£@, cso) rotor. fost ron tent niscrnaapae, = Naseer (onan wee 7s, ‘Soe hy f The rms value of this emf: és a= ane, hia 4-016) 4) Sele — hick For a distributed winding: a) 5, =Vink JN y0, és i str ee to coer err Soda owe Operating Modes ee | Three Phase Circuit Equivalent i (Ry +X.) [Generating Mode} at h(Ra+iX) [Motoring Mode} E, w ‘Syachonous mache per pas equivalent eruits 1 (@) generator and (0) moter reference directionsEB Determination of Voltage Regulation 9 g Synchronous Reactance As the load is thrown off keeping the field current constant, IR, is neglected, E, = V, + ,X, the terminal voltage rises to: Vin pu-cortant Under short-circuit condition (I, = Igo, Vi = 0) The percentage voltage regulation at specified power factor is given by: E,=V, (rated) X 100% But E, = Voc (open-circuit voltage with armature V; (rated) current zero with same field current), with linearity assumption: OCC/SCC Ckt diagram ee | Open Circuit Characteristics = The synchronous machine is driven at the synchronous speed using a prime mover when the stator windings are ‘armature open circuited. ss Circuit * The rotor winding current is varied, and stator winding - terminal voltage is measured. 5 = The relationship between the stator winding terminal voltage and the rotor field current obtained by the open circuit test is known as the open circuit characteristic of the synchronous machine. Open-Circuit and Short-circut Characteristics ‘ air exp line tint) frame trent 3 ae a rated armature curent © eee ee 3 : as ==Short Circuit Characteristics | SCC Circuit E7180, case = teed A of bo , : e fs “ison ius) (Phaser dagam| (a Crit Short Circuit Characteristics | Field Regulator Short ‘ircuit Losses £,=h4 SOX, ¥ (rated) / V3 Ise 4, (adjusted) = (corresponding 0 Vrated on oce) Short Circuit Ratio a The losses comprise of: = PR loss in armature winding due to flow of short circuit current * Local core loss caused by armature leakage flux * Core loss due to resultant air-gap flux. (Small) = Windage and friction loss ‘Another parameter used to describe synchronous machines is the short-circuit ratio (SCR). The SCR of a generator defined as the ratio ofthe field eurrent required for the rated voltage at open circuit 0 the feld current required for the rated armature current at short crc SCR is just the reciprocal of the per unit value of the saturated synchronous reactance calculated by gory el (0003 —Short Circuit Ratio 3 Operating Characteristics wx « ser=% ‘and slopes of OCC and SCC are scewren 2s waa 7 ve Meus & 7" x, /- ‘edjused) ane = His TT wae Sarco) Operating Characteristics 3 ‘Operation at Constant Load and variable exctation “1 Characteristics Power Ange) : § ‘At constant load, i ws B Bos ‘ E;sin 5~ 7% const i Ao ail noo") VJ, cos = P, = const 3 % sat : Pato eligram a gen- erating machine at Steady-state stability Ti ‘SetarRectans) Operation at Constant Load a | Generating MachineV-Curves “The machin supplies a lagging power fctr current when over-excte. ‘The machine supplies a leading power facor current when under-excite, The machine draws leading power factor current when over-evcited. ‘The machine draws a lagping power fctorcurtent when under-oxcited, Ey (ouin) = 2 wz. | eseeess , Inverted V Curves 8 Synchronous Condensers a aad er pe mahi cn a ap a cet) i = A synchronous condenser is a synchronous motor, whose shaft is not connected to anything and spins freely. Its purpose is not to convert electric power to mechanical power, but to adjust conditions on the electric power transmission grid. = An over-excited synchronous motor has a leading power factor. * This makes it useful for power factor correction of industrial loads as both transformers and induction motors draw lagging currents from the line. ‘At no-load with losses assumed negligible, a synchronous ‘motor operates at 6 =0 zero power factor leading current rf oreersited) zero power factor lagging current p< ¥5 wnderessitd) Behaves Ike variable nductr/capacitor Improves PE (@)As capactor (venable) b) Asinauer (va¥able) ‘owrexies) o > (inderexcie)Synchronizing to Infinite Bus 3 Synchronizing to Infinite Bus i "AS he owofegunse ae not exactly eal, Be aT se a cass | ge Set ae Ss ae se ‘The instant of switching om (synchronization i Aktemined wach tht eto vag te lot \ Wee ABC and ae repeat he wo dirt Necessary conditions for synchronisation: paca mma fs + Thevms line voltages ofthe machine and 1B must be equal 1+ The same procedure has 10 be followed for a ‘ + Themachiae and IB must hve the sme phase sequence. ‘etn! ht Be ily a +The phase angles ofthe two similar phases must be equal +The machine frequency is equa tthe TB frequency + syneecape nan nue a ean e we fr eben Lamp Bright-Dark Method | =e + Inthis metho, the lamps are connected asymmetrically as shown (i). ‘wo sets of star vectors will rotate at unequal speeds f the frequencies of the two machines are ferent It the phase sequence is correct, the lamps brighten and grow dim In sequence, + Synchronization i done at the moment the unetessed lamp L1 is in the Inde ofthe dark period. When the uncrossed lamp is dark, then other two erossed lamps L283 are cimly but equally bright