NOTICE: This standard has either been superseded and replaced by a new version or withdrawn.

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Designation: E94 – 04

Standard Guide for

Radiographic Examination1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E94; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original
adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript
epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
1.1 This guide2 covers satisfactory X-ray and gamma-ray bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. (See 1.4.)
radiographic examination as applied to industrial radiographic 1.6 If an NDT agency is used, the agency shall be qualified
film recording. It includes statements about preferred practice in accordance with Practice E543.
without discussing the technical background which justifies the 2. Referenced Documents
preference. A bibliography of several textbooks and standard
documents of other societies is included for additional infor- 2.1 ASTM Standards:3
mation on the subject. E543 Specification for Agencies Performing Nondestruc-
1.2 This guide covers types of materials to be examined; tive Testing
radiographic examination techniques and production methods; E746 Practice for Determining Relative Image Quality
radiographic film selection, processing, viewing, and storage; Response of Industrial Radiographic Imaging Systems
maintenance of inspection records; and a list of available E747 Practice for Design, Manufacture and Material
reference radiograph documents. Grouping Classification of Wire Image Quality Indicators
(IQI) Used for Radiology

iTeh Standards
NOTE 1—Further information is contained in Guide E999, Practice E801 Practice for Controlling Quality of Radiological Ex-
E1025, Test Methods E1030, and E1032.
amination of Electronic Devices
1.3 Interpretation and Acceptance Standards— E999 Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radio-
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Interpretation and acceptance standards are not covered by this
guide, beyond listing the available reference radiograph docu-
graphic Film Processing
E1025 Practice for Design, Manufacture, and Material
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ments for castings and welds. Designation of accept - reject
standards is recognized to be within the cognizance of product
Grouping Classification of Hole-Type Image Quality Indi-
cators (IQI) Used for Radiology
specifications and generally a matter of contractual agreement E1030 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Me-
between producer and purchaser. tallic Castings
1.4 Safety Practices—Problems of personnel protection ASTM E94-04E1032 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Weld-
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against X rays and gamma rays are not covered by this ments
document. For information on this important aspect of radiog- E1079 Practice for Calibration of Transmission Densitom-
raphy, reference should be made to the current document of the eters
National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measure- E1254 Guide for Storage of Radiographs and Unexposed
ment, Federal Register, U.S. Energy Research and Develop- Industrial Radiographic Films
ment Administration, National Bureau of Standards, and to E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
state and local regulations, if such exist. For specific radiation E1390 Specification for Illuminators Used for Viewing
safety information refer to NIST Handbook ANSI 43.3, 21 Industrial Radiographs
CFR 1020.40, and 29 CFR 1910.1096 or state regulations for E1735 Test Method for Determining Relative Image Qual-
agreement states. ity of Industrial Radiographic Film Exposed to
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the X-Radiation from 4 to 25 MeV
safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the E1742 Practice for Radiographic Examination
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- E1815 Test Method for Classification of Film Systems for
Industrial Radiography
1
2.2 ANSI Standards:
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc-
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.01 on Radiology PH1.41 Specifications for Photographic Film for Archival
(X and Gamma) Method.
Current edition approved Jan. 1, 2004. Published February 2004. Originally
3
approved in 1952. Last previous edition approved in 2000 as E94 - 00. DOI: For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
10.1520/E0094-04. contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
2
For ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code applications see related Guide Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
SE-94 in Section V of that Code. the ASTM website.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

1
 E94 – 04
Records, Silver-Gelatin Type, on Polyester Base4 5.1.7 Image quality indicators (IQI’s),
PH2.22 Methods for Determining Safety Times of Photo- 5.1.8 Screens and filters,
graphic Darkroom Illumination4 5.1.9 Geometry of part or component configuration,
PH4.8 Methylene Blue Method for Measuring Thiosulfate 5.1.10 Identification and location markers, and
and Silver Densitometric Method for Measuring Residual 5.1.11 Radiographic quality level.
Chemicals in Films, Plates, and Papers4
T9.1 Imaging Media (Film)—Silver-Gelatin Type Specifi- 6. Radiographic Quality Level
cations for Stability4 6.1 Information on the design and manufacture of image
T9.2 Imaging Media—Photographic Process Film Plate and quality indicators (IQI’s) can be found in Practices E747,
Paper Filing Enclosures and Storage Containers4 E801, E1025, and E1742.
2.3 Federal Standards: 6.2 The quality level usually required for radiography is
Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1020.40, 2 % (2-2T when using hole type IQI) unless a higher or lower
Safety Requirements of Cabinet X-Ray Systems5 quality is agreed upon between the purchaser and the supplier.
Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910.96, At the 2 % subject contrast level, three quality levels of
Ionizing Radiation (X-Rays, RF, etc.)5 inspection, 2-1T, 2-2T, and 2-4T, are available through the
2.4 Other Document: design and application of the IQI (Practice E1025, Table 1).
NBS Handbook ANSI N43.3 General Radiation Safety Other levels of inspection are available in Practice E1025 Table
Installations Using NonMedical X-Ray and Sealed 1. The level of inspection specified should be based on the
Gamma Sources up to 10 MeV6 service requirements of the product. Great care should be taken
in specifying quality levels 2-1T, 1-1T, and 1-2T by first
3. Terminology determining that these quality levels can be maintained in
3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms used in this guide, production radiography.
refer to Terminology E1316. NOTE 2—The first number of the quality level designation refers to IQI
thickness expressed as a percentage of specimen thickness; the second
4. Significance and Use number refers to the diameter of the IQI hole that must be visible on the

iTeh Standards
4.1 Within the present state of the radiographic art, this
guide is generally applicable to available materials, processes,
radiograph, expressed as a multiple of penetrameter thickness, T.
6.3 If IQI’s of material radiographically similar to that being

the recording media. (https://standards.iteh.ai)

and techniques where industrial radiographic films are used as

4.2 Limitations—This guide does not take into consider-

examined are not available, IQI’s of the required dimensions
but of a lower-absorption material may be used.
6.4 The quality level required using wire IQI’s shall be
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ation special benefits and limitations resulting from the use of
nonfilm recording media or readouts such as paper, tapes,
equivalent to the 2-2T level of Practice E1025 unless a higher
or lower quality level is agreed upon between purchaser and
xeroradiography, fluoroscopy, and electronic image intensifi- supplier. Table 4 of Practice E747 gives a list of various
cation devices. Although reference is made to documentsASTM thatE94-04
hole-type IQI’s and the diameter of the wires of corresponding
may be used in the identification and grading, where appli- EPS with the applicable 1T, 2T, and 4T holes in the plaque IQI.
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cable, of representative discontinuities in common metal cast- Appendix X1 of Practice E747 gives the equation for calcu-
ings and welds, no attempt has been made to set standards of lating other equivalencies, if needed.
acceptance for any material or production process. Radiogra-
phy will be consistent in sensitivity and resolution only if the 7. Energy Selection
effect of all details of techniques, such as geometry, film, 7.1 X-ray energy affects image quality. In general, the lower
filtration, viewing, etc., is obtained and maintained. the energy of the source utilized the higher the achievable
radiographic contrast, however, other variables such as geom-
5. Quality of Radiographs etry and scatter conditions may override the potential advan-
5.1 To obtain quality radiographs, it is necessary to consider tage of higher contrast. For a particular energy, a range of
as a minimum the following list of items. Detailed information thicknesses which are a multiple of the half value layer, may be
on each item is further described in this guide. radiographed to an acceptable quality level utilizing a particu-
5.1.1 Radiation source (X-ray or gamma), lar X-ray machine or gamma ray source. In all cases the
5.1.2 Voltage selection (X-ray), specified IQI (penetrameter) quality level must be shown on
5.1.3 Source size (X-ray or gamma), the radiograph. In general, satisfactory results can normally be
5.1.4 Ways and means to eliminate scattered radiation, obtained for X-ray energies between 100 kV to 500 kV in a
5.1.5 Film system class, range between 2.5 to 10 half value layers (HVL) of material
5.1.6 Source to film distance, thickness (see Table 1). This range may be extended by as
much as a factor of 2 in some situations for X-ray energies in
the 1 to 25 MV range primarily because of reduced scatter.
4
Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St.,
4th Floor, New York, NY 10036. 8. Radiographic Equivalence Factors
5
Available from U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents,
732 N. Capitol St., NW, Mail Stop: SDE, Washington, DC 20401.
8.1 The radiographic equivalence factor of a material is that
6
Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S. Depart- factor by which the thickness of the material must be multi-
ment of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, VA 22161. plied to give the thickness of a “standard” material (often steel)

2
 E94 – 04
TABLE 1 Typical Steel HVL Thickness in Inches (mm) for classification of film systems is provided in Test Method
Common Energies E1815. ANSI Standards PH1.41, PH4.8, T9.1, and T9.2 pro-
Thickness, vide specific details and requirements for film manufacturing.
Energy
Inches (mm)
120 kV 0.10 (2.5) 10. Filters
150 kV 0.14 (3.6)
200 kV 0.20 (5.1)
10.1 Definition—Filters are uniform layers of material
250 kV 0.25 (6.4) placed between the radiation source and the film.
400 kV (Ir 192) 0.35 (8.9) 10.2 Purpose—The purpose of filters is to absorb the softer
1 MV 0.57 (14.5)
2 MV (Co 60) 0.80 (20.3)
components of the primary radiation, thus resulting in one or
4 MV 1.00 (25.4) several of the following practical advantages:
6 MV 1.15 (29.2) 10.2.1 Decreasing scattered radiation, thus increasing con-
10 MV 1.25 (31.8)
16 MV and higher 1.30 (33.0) trast.
10.2.2 Decreasing undercutting, thus increasing contrast.
10.2.3 Decreasing contrast of parts of varying thickness.
10.3 Location—Usually the filter will be placed in one of
which has the same absorption. Radiographic equivalence the following two locations:
factors of several of the more common metals are given in 10.3.1 As close as possible to the radiation source, which
Table 2, with steel arbitrarily assigned a factor of 1.0. The minimizes the size of the filter and also the contribution of the
factors may be used: filter itself to scattered radiation to the film.
8.1.1 To determine the practical thickness limits for radia- 10.3.2 Between the specimen and the film in order to absorb
tion sources for materials other than steel, and preferentially the scattered radiation from the specimen. It
8.1.2 To determine exposure factors for one metal from should be noted that lead foil and other metallic screens (see
exposure techniques for other metals. 13.1) fulfill this function.
10.4 Thickness and Filter Material— The thickness and
9. Film
material of the filter will vary depending upon the following:

iTeh Standards
9.1 Various industrial radiographic film are available to 10.4.1 The material radiographed.
meet the needs of production radiographic work. However, 10.4.2 Thickness of the material radiographed.
definite rules on the selection of film are difficult to formulate
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10.4.3 Variation of thickness of the material radiographed.
because the choice depends on individual user requirements. 10.4.4 Energy spectrum of the radiation used.
Some user requirements are as follows: radiographic quality 10.4.5 The improvement desired (increasing or decreasing
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levels, exposure times, and various cost factors. Several
methods are available for assessing image quality levels (see
contrast). Filter thickness and material can be calculated or
determined empirically.
Test Method E746, and Practices E747 and E801). Information
about specific products can be obtained from the manufactur- 11. Masking
ers. ASTM E94-0411.1 Masking or blocking (surrounding specimens or cov-
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9.2 Various industrial radiographic films are manufactured ering thin sections with an absorptive material) is helpful in
to meet quality level and production needs. Test Method E1815 reducing scattered radiation. Such a material can also be used
provides a method for film manufacturer classification of film to equalize the absorption of different sections, but the loss of
systems. A film system consist of the film and associated film detail may be high in the thinner sections.
processing system. Users may obtain a classification table from
the film manufacturer for the film system used in production 12. Back-Scatter Protection
radiography. A choice of film class can be made as provided in 12.1 Effects of back-scattered radiation can be reduced by
Test Method E1815. Additional specific details regarding confining the radiation beam to the smallest practical cross

TABLE 2 Approximate Radiographic Equivalence Factors for Several Metals (Relative to Steel)
Energy Level
Metal
192 60
100 kV 150 kV 220 kV 250 kV 400 kV 1 MV 2 MV 4 to 25 MV Ir Co
Magnesium 0.05 0.05 0.08
Aluminum 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.35 0.35
Aluminum alloy 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.35 0.35
Titanium 0.54 0.54 0.71 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Iron/all steels 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1
Zinc 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Brass 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0
Inconel X 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Monel 1.7 1.2
Zirconium 2.4 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0
Lead 14.0 14.0 12.0 5.0 2.5 2.7 4.0 2.3
Hafnium 14.0 12.0 9.0 3.0
Uranium 20.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 3.9 12.6 3.4

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 E94 – 04
section and by placing lead behind the film. In some cases 13.2.3 Gold, tantalum, or other heavy metal screens may be
either or both the back lead screen and the lead contained in the used in cases where lead cannot be used.
back of the cassette or film holder will furnish adequate 13.3 Fluorescent Screens—Fluorescent screens may be
protection against back-scattered radiation. In other instances, used as required providing the required image quality is
this must be supplemented by additional lead shielding behind achieved. Proper selection of the fluorescent screen is required
the cassette or film holder. to minimize image unsharpness. Technical information about
12.2 If there is any question about the adequacy of protec- specific fluorescent screen products can be obtained from the
tion from back-scattered radiation, a characteristic symbol manufacturers. Good film-screen contact and screen cleanli-
(frequently a 1⁄8-in. (3.2-mm) thick letter B) should be attached ness are required for successful use of fluorescent screens.
to the back of the cassette or film holder, and a radiograph Additional information on the use of fluorescent screens is
made in the normal manner. If the image of this symbol provided in Appendix X1.
appears on the radiograph as a lighter density than background, 13.4 Screen Care—All screens should be handled carefully
it is an indication that protection against back-scattered radia- to avoid dents and scratches, dirt, or grease on active surfaces.
tion is insufficient and that additional precautions must be Grease and lint may be removed from lead screens with a
taken. solvent. Fluorescent screens should be cleaned in accordance
with the recommendations of the manufacturer. Screens show-
13. Screens ing evidence of physical damage should be discarded.
13.1 Metallic Foil Screens: 14. Radiographic Image Quality
13.1.1 Lead foil screens are commonly used in direct 14.1 Radiographic image quality is a qualitative term used
contact with the films, and, depending upon their thickness, to describe the capability of a radiograph to show flaws in the
and composition of the specimen material, will exhibit an area under examination. There are three fundamental compo-
intensifying action at as low as 90 kV. In addition, any screen nents of radiographic image quality as shown in Fig. 1. Each
used in front of the film acts as a filter (Section 10) to component is an important attribute when considering a
preferentially absorb scattered radiation arising from the speci- specific radiographic technique or application and will be

iTeh Standards
men, thus improving radiographic quality. The selection of lead briefly discussed below.
screen thickness, or for that matter, any metallic screen 14.2 Radiographic contrast between two areas of a radio-
thickness, is subject to the same considerations as outlined in
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graph is the difference between the film densities of those
10.4. Lead screens lessen the scatter reaching the film regard- areas. The degree of radiographic contrast is dependent upon
less of whether the screens permit a decrease or necessitate an both subject contrast and film contrast as illustrated in Fig. 1.
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increase in the radiographic exposure. To avoid image unsharp-
ness due to screens, there should be intimate contact between
14.2.1 Subject contrast is the ratio of X-ray or gamma-ray
intensities transmitted by two selected portions of a specimen.
the lead screen and the film during exposure. Subject contrast is dependent upon the nature of the specimen
13.1.2 Lead foil screens of appropriate thickness should be (material type and thickness), the energy (spectral composition,
ASTM E94-04
used whenever they improve radiographic quality or penetram- hardness or wavelengths) of the radiation used and the intensity
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sensitivity or both. The thickness of the front lead screens and distribution of scattered radiation. It is independent of
should be selected with care to avoid excessive filtration in the time, milliamperage or source strength (curies), source distance
radiography of thin or light alloy materials, particularly at the and the characteristics of the film system.
lower kilovoltages. In general, there is no exposure advantage 14.2.2 Film contrast refers to the slope (steepness) of the
to the use of 0.005 in. in front and back lead screens below 125 film system characteristic curve. Film contrast is dependent
kV in the radiography of 1⁄4-in. (6.35-mm) or lesser thickness upon the type of film, the processing it receives and the amount
steel. As the kilovoltage is increased to penetrate thicker of film density. It also depends upon whether the film was
sections of steel, however, there is a significant exposure exposed with lead screens (or without) or with fluorescent
advantage. In addition to intensifying action, the back lead screens. Film contrast is independent, for most practical
screens are used as protection against back-scattered radiation purposes, of the wavelength and distribution of the radiation
(see Section 12) and their thickness is only important for this reaching the film and, hence is independent of subject contrast.
function. As exposure energy is increased to penetrate greater For further information, consult Test Method E1815.
thicknesses of a given subject material, it is customary to 14.3 Film system granularity is the objective measurement
increase lead screen thickness. For radiography using radioac- of the local density variations that produce the sensation of
tive sources, the minimum thickness of the front lead screen graininess on the radiographic film (for example, measured
should be 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) for iridium-192, and 0.010 in. with a densitometer with a small aperture of # 0.0039 in. (0.1
(0.25 mm) for cobalt-60. mm)). Graininess is the subjective perception of a mottled
13.2 Other Metallic Screen Materials: random pattern apparent to a viewer who sees small local
13.2.1 Lead oxide screens perform in a similar manner to density variations in an area of overall uniform density (that is,
lead foil screens except that their equivalence in lead foil the visual impression of irregularity of silver deposit in a
thickness approximates 0.0005 in. (0.013 mm). processed radiograph). The degree of granularity will not affect
13.2.2 Copper screens have somewhat less absorption and the overall spatial radiographic resolution (expressed in line
intensification than lead screens, but may provide somewhat pairs per mm, etc.) of the resultant image and is usually
better radiographic sensitivity with higher energy above 1 MV. independent of exposure geometry arrangements. Granularity

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 E94 – 04

Radiographic Image Quality

Radiographic Contrast Film System Radiographic Definition
Granularity
Subject Film • Grain size and Inherent Geometric
Contrast Contrast distribution Unsharpness Unsharpness
within the
Affected by: Affected by: Affected by: Affected by:
film emulsion
• Absorption • Type • Degree of • Focal spot
• Processing
differences of film screen-film or source
conditions
in specimen • Degree of contact physical size
(type and activity
(thickness, development • Total film • Source-to-film
of developer,
composition, (type of thickness distance
temperature
density) developer, • Single or • Specimen-
of developer,
• Radiation time, double emulsion to-film
etc.)
wavelength temperature coatings distance
• Type of
• Scattered and activity • Radiation • Abruptness of
screens (that is,
radiation of developer, quality thickness
fluorescent,
degree of • Type and changes in
lead or none)
agitation) thickness specimen
• Radiation
• Film density of screens • Motion of
quality (that is,
• Type of (fluorescent, specimen or
energy level,
screens (that is, lead or none) radiation
filtration, etc.
fluorescent, source
• Exposure
lead or none)
quanta (that is,
intensity, dose,
Reduced or
etc.)
enhanced by:
• Masks and
diaphragms
• Filters
• Lead screens
• Potter-Bucky

iTeh Standards
diaphragms

FIG. 1 Variables of Radiographic Image Quality

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is affected by the applied screens, screen-film contact and film
processing conditions. For further information on detailed
NOTE 4—A nomogram for the determination of Ug is given in Fig. 3
(inch-pound units). Fig. 4 represents a nomogram in metric units.

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perceptibility, consult Test Method E1815.
14.4 Radiographic definition refers to the sharpness of the
Example:
Given:
Source-object distance (do) = 40 in.,
image (both the image outline as well as image detail). Source size (F) = 500 mils, and
Radiographic definition is dependent upon the inherent ASTM un-E94-04Source side of specimen to film distance (t) = 1.5 in.
sharpness of the film system and the geometry of the radio- Draw a straight line (dashed in Fig. 3) between 500 mils on the F scale and
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graphic exposure arrangement (geometric unsharpness) as 1.5 in. on the t scale. Note the point on intersection (P) of this line with
illustrated in Fig. 1. the pivot line. Draw a straight line (solid in Fig. 3) from 40 in. on the do
scale through point P and extend to the Ug scale. Intersection of this line
14.4.1 Inherent unsharpness (Ui) is the degree of visible
with the Ug scale gives geometrical unsharpness in mils, which in the
detail resulting from geometrical aspects within the film-screen example is 19 mils.
system, that is, screen-film contact, screen thickness, total
thickness of the film emulsions, whether single or double- Inasmuch as the source size, F, is usually fixed for a given
coated emulsions, quality of radiation used (wavelengths, etc.) radiation source, the value of Ug is essentially controlled by the
and the type of screen. Inherent unsharpness is independent of simple do/t ratio.
exposure geometry arrangements. Geometric unsharpness (Ug) can have a significant effect on
14.4.2 Geometric unsharpness (Ug) determines the degree the quality of the radiograph; therefore source-to-film-distance
of visible detail resultant from an “in-focus” exposure arrange- (SFD) selection is important. The geometric unsharpness (Ug)
ment consisting of the source-to-film-distance, object-to-film- equation, Eq 1, is for information and guidance and provides a
distance and focal spot size. Fig. 2(a) illustrates these condi- means for determining geometric unsharpness values. The
tions. Geometric unsharpness is given by the equation: amount or degree of unsharpness should be minimized when
establishing the radiographic technique.
Ug 5 Ft/do (1)
15. Radiographic Distortion
where: 15.1 The radiographic image of an object or feature within
Ug = geometric unsharpness, an object may be larger or smaller than the object or feature
F = maximum projected dimension of radiation source, itself, because the penumbra of the shadow is rarely visible in
t = distance from source side of specimen to film, and a radiograph. Therefore, the image will be larger if the object
do = source-object distance. or feature is larger than the source of radiation, and smaller if
NOTE 3—do and t must be in the same units of measure; the units of Ug object or feature is smaller than the source. The degree of
will be in the same units as F. reduction or enlargement will depend on the source-to-object

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 E94 – 04

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ASTM E94-04
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FIG. 2 Effects of Object-Film Geometry