Computer Communications Networks CYB 204

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

A computer network is designed to send information from one

point to another. This information needs to be converted to
either a digital signal or an analog signal for transmission.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion

We said that data can be either digital or analog. We also said

that signals that represent data can also be digital or analog.
Let’s see how we can represent digital data by using digital
signals. The conversion involves three techniques: line coding,
block coding, and scrambling. Line coding is always needed,
block coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.

Line Coding

Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital

signals. We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers,
graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in computer
memory as sequences of bits. Line coding converts a
sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data
are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital
data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.

Characteristics of Line Coding

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Signal Element Versus Data Element

Let us distinguish between a data element and a signal

element. In data communications, our goal is to send data
elements. A data element is the smallest entity that can
represent a piece of information: this is the bit. In digital data
communications, a signal element carries data elements. A
signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital
signal. In other words, data elements are what we need to
send; signal elements are what we can send. Data elements
are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.
We define a ratio r which is the number of data elements
carried by each signal element.
Figure below shows several situations with different values of
r.

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Data Rate Versus Signal Rate:

The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent
in 1s. The unit is bits per second (bps). The signal rate is the
number of signal elements sent in 1s. The unit is the baud.
There are several common terminologies used in the
literature. The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the

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signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation

rate, or the baud rate.
One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate
while decreasing the signal rate. Increasing the data rate
increases the speed of transmission; decreasing the signal
rate decreases the bandwidth requirement. In our vehicle-
people analogy, we need to carry more people in fewer
vehicles to prevent traffic jams. We have a limited bandwidth
in our transportation system.
We now need to consider the relationship between data rate
and signal rate (bit rate and baud rate). This relationship, of
course, depends on the value of r. It also depends on the data
pattern. If we have a data pattern of all 1s or all 0s, the signal
rate may be different from a data pattern of alternating 0s and
1s. To derive a formula for the relationship, we need to define
three cases: the worst,
best, and average. The worst case is when we need the
maximum signal rate; the best case is when we need the
minimum.
In data communications, we are usually interested in the
average case. We can formulate the relationship between data
rate and signal rate as

S =c * N * (1/r) baud where N is the data rate (bps); c is the

case factor, which varies for each case; S is the number of
signal elements; and r is the previously defined factor.

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Example
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element (r = 1). If the bit rate is 100
kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and l?

Solution
We assume that the average value of c is (1/2). The
baud rate is then S =c * N * (1/r) = (1/2) * 100,000 *
1 = 50,000 = 50 Kbaud

Channel Bandwidth and Capacity

Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the permissible speed of data transfer
between devices within a network. It indicates the amount of
information that can be transmitted across the network over a
certain period of time. The higher the bandwidth, the faster
the data transmission speed.

Bandwidth is typically measured in bits per second (bps) or its

derivatives, such as kilobits per second (Kbps), megabits per
second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).

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Channel Capacity
By capacity of a channel, it means the capacity of the
transmission medium (wire or link). Capacity is the number of
bits the transmission medium can hold.

Types of Communication Channel

There are three types of communication channels in computer
networking −

Simplex channel − Signals can only be sent in one way using a

simple communication connection. As a result, the channel's
complete bandwidth can be used during transmission.

Half-duplex channel − A half-duplex communication channel

can send signals in both directions simultaneously, but only in
one (one at a time). It can be thought of as a simplex
communication channel with a switchable transmission
direction.

Full-duplex channel − A full-duplex communication link can

simultaneously send signals in both directions.
Communication efficiency is considerably improved by using
full-duplex communication channels.

For example, when the transmission medium is operating in its

maximum capacity, the number of bits it is holding at that
time is called capacity of the transmission medium.

How can we represent it mathematically,

i. If the length of the transmission medium is longer, its

capacity will be higher.

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ii. It also depends on the area of cross section of the

medium.
iii. If the bandwidth is 1 bps, then every second it can
take 1 bit. After every second it will move forward so that
next bit could occupy the space. Therefore, the final time
in which it will occupy all the bits will be its propagation
delay.

The capacity of the channel depends on two things:

1. Bandwidth
2. Propagation delay

Capacity = bandwidth * propagation delay (in case of half

duplex)

Capacity =2 * bandwidth * propagation delay (in case of full

duplex)

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the capacity of a communication channel with a

bandwidth of 10 MHz and a propagation delay of 2
milliseconds. Assume the communication is operating in full-
duplex mode.

Solution:

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- Bandwidth (B) = 10 MHz = (10 * 106) Hz

- Propagation Delay (D) = 2 milliseconds = (2 * 10-3) seconds

Using the formula for full-duplex communication channel

capacity:

Capacity = 2 * Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Substitute the given values:

Capacity = 2 * (10 * 106 Hz) * (2 * 10-3 seconds)

Capacity = 2 * 106 * 2 * 10-3

Capacity = 4 Mbps

So, the capacity of the communication channel is 4 Mbps

(megabits per second).

If the bandwidth is given in bps (bits per second), you can still
use the same formula for capacity, but you'll need to adjust

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the units accordingly. Let's modify the example to use

bandwidth in bps:

Example 2
Calculate the capacity of a communication channel with a
bandwidth of 20 Mbps (20 million bits per second) and a
propagation delay of 5 milliseconds.

Solution:

- Bandwidth (B) = 20 Mbps = (20 * 106) bps (bits per second)

- Propagation Delay (D) = 5 milliseconds = (5 * 10-3) seconds

Using the formula for full-duplex communication channel

capacity:

Capacity = 2 * Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Substitute the given values:

Capacity = 2 * (20 * 106 bps) * (5 * 10-3 seconds)

Capacity = 2 * 20 * 106 * 5 * 10-3

Capacity = 200 * 106 * 5 * 10-3

Capacity = 1000 Mbps

So, the capacity of the communication channel is 1000 Mbps

(megabits per second).

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EXAMPLE 3
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying
an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?

Solution

To find the throughput of the network, we first need to

calculate the total number of bits that can be transmitted in a
minute, then divide that by the total time taken.

Given:
Bandwidth = 10 Mbps
Frames per minute = 12,000
Bits per frame = 10,000

First, let's calculate the total number of bits transmitted per

minute:

Total bits per minute = Frames per minute × Bits per frame

= 12,000 frames/minute × 10,000 bits/frame

= 120,000,000 bits/minute

Now, let's convert the bandwidth from Mbps to bits per

minute:

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Bandwidth = 10 Mbps = 10,000,000 bits/minute

To find the throughput, we'll take the minimum of the total bits
per minute and the bandwidth, as throughput cannot exceed
the capacity of the network:

Throughput = min(Total bits per minute, Bandwidth)

= min(120,000,000 bits/minute, 10,000,000

bits/minute)

= 10,000,000 bits/minute

So, the throughput of this network is 10,000,000 bits per

minute.
Example 5
To find the maximum data rate achievable for the telephone
channel with a bandwidth of 3 kHz and a signal-to-noise ratio
exceeding 30 dB, we can use the Shannon-Hartley theorem:

C = W * log2 (1 + SNR)

Given:
- Bandwidth (W) = 3 kHz = 3 * 103 Hz
- Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) > 30 dB

First, convert the SNR from decibels (dB) to linear scale:

SNR (linear) = 10(SNR (dB) / 10)

For SNR > 30 dB:

SNR (linear) = 10(30/10) = 103 = 1000

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Now, plug the values into the Shannon-Hartley theorem:

C = 3 * 103 *log2 (1 + 1000)

C = 3 * 103 log2 (1001)

C ≈ 3 * 103 * 9.97

C ≈ 29.91 * 103

C ≈ 29910 bps

So, the maximum data rate achievable for this telephone

channel is approximately 29.91 kbps (kilobits per second).

Local Area Network (LAN) technologies

Local Area Network (LAN) technologies are essential for

connecting devices within a limited geographic area, such as
a home, office, or campus. Two widely used LAN technologies
are Ethernet and Token Ring, each with its own
characteristics and advantages.

1. Ethernet:
- Description: Ethernet is the most commonly used LAN
technology. It employs a bus or star topology and uses Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) as
its access method. This means that devices on the network
listen for traffic, and if the line is clear, they can transmit. If

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two devices transmit simultaneously, they detect the collision

and back off, retransmitting after a random time interval.
- Speeds: Ethernet has evolved over time to support various
speeds, including 10 Mbps (Ethernet), 100 Mbps (Fast
Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps (10 Gigabit
Ethernet), 40 Gbps, and even 100 Gbps.
- Media Types: Ethernet can run over different types of
physical media, including twisted-pair copper cables (e.g., Cat
5e, Cat 6), coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables.
- MAC Addressing: Ethernet uses Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses, which are unique identifiers assigned to
network interface controllers for communication on the
physical network segment. MAC addresses are typically
expressed as 48-bit hexadecimal numbers, and they are used
for addressing and delivering data frames within the LAN.

2. Token Ring:
- Description: Token Ring is a LAN technology that uses a
ring topology. Devices are connected in a logical ring, and a
token circulates around the ring, granting the right to transmit
data. Only the device holding the token can send data,
ensuring collision-free transmission.
- Speeds: Token Ring typically operated at speeds of 4 Mbps
or 16 Mbps.
- Media Types: Token Ring networks traditionally used
shielded twisted-pair copper cabling.
- MAC Addressing: Token Ring also uses MAC addresses for
addressing devices on the network. However, unlike Ethernet,
where devices compete for access to the network, Token Ring
devices must wait for the token to be passed to them before
they can transmit data.

Both Ethernet and Token Ring have been widely used in the
past, but Ethernet has largely become the dominant LAN

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technology due to its scalability, simplicity, and higher

speeds. However, understanding both technologies provides a
comprehensive view of LAN technologies and their evolution.

Switched Ethernet, shared Ethernet and Client-Server

Communication

1. Switched Ethernet:
- Description: In switched Ethernet, each device on the
network is connected to a switch port. Switches use MAC
addresses to forward data only to the port where the
destination device is located, resulting in more efficient data
transmission compared to shared Ethernet.
- Advantages:
i. Reduced collisions: Each device has its own dedicated
bandwidth, reducing the likelihood of collisions and improving
network performance.
ii. Better security: Switches create separate collision
domains for each port, isolating traffic and enhancing network
security.
iii. Scalability: Switched Ethernet networks can easily
scale to accommodate more devices without significant
performance degradation.
- Disadvantages:
i. Cost: Switched Ethernet typically requires more
hardware (switches) than shared Ethernet, leading to higher
initial setup costs.
ii. Complexity: Managing and configuring switches in a
switched Ethernet network can be more complex compared to
shared Ethernet.

2. Shared Ethernet:

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- Description: Shared Ethernet, also known as Ethernet hubs

or legacy Ethernet, relies on a shared medium where all
devices on the network share the same bandwidth. When one
device transmits data, all other devices on the network
receive the data, regardless of whether it's intended for them.
- Advantages:
i. Simplicity: Shared Ethernet networks are relatively
simple to set up and manage compared to switched Ethernet
networks.
ii. Cost-effectiveness: Shared Ethernet requires fewer
hardware components (hubs) than switched Ethernet,
resulting in lower initial costs.
- Disadvantages:
i. Lower performance: Shared Ethernet networks can suffer
from collisions and congestion, leading to lower overall
network performance, especially as the number of devices
increases.
ii. Security concerns: Since all devices on the network can
see each other's traffic, shared Ethernet networks are less
secure than switched Ethernet networks.

3. Client-Server Communications:
- Description: Client-server communication is a networking
model where one device (the client) requests services or
resources from another device (the server) over the network.
The server provides the requested resources or services to
the client in response to the client's requests.
- Advantages:
i. Centralized resources: Client-server architectures allow
for the centralization of resources and data, making it easier
to manage and secure.
ii. Scalability: Client-server architectures can easily scale
to accommodate a large number of clients and provide
services efficiently.

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iii. Specialization: Servers can be specialized for specific

tasks, such as file storage, database management, or web
serving, optimizing performance and resource utilization.
- Disadvantages:
i. Single point of failure: If the server experiences
downtime or failure, clients may lose access to critical
resources or services.
ii. Network latency: Client-server communication relies on
network connectivity, which can introduce latency, especially
in wide-area networks (WANs) or over long distances.
iv. Management complexity: Managing and maintaining
server infrastructure, including security, backups, and
updates, can be complex and require specialized skills.

Note: switched Ethernet offers better performance and

security compared to shared Ethernet but comes with higher
costs and complexity. Client-server communication provides a
scalable and efficient model for accessing resources and
services over the network but introduces concerns such as
single points of failure and network latency.

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