Republic of the Philippines

North Eastern Mindanao State University

Surigao del Sur
Lianga Campus

INTERMOLECULAR

a. Hydrogen bonding
b. Dipole-dipole
c. lon-dipole
d. Polarity
e. Physical Properties of Organic
compounds affected by IMFA
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
Introduction:

Intermolecular forces of attraction, often simply referred to as intermolecular

forces, are the forces of attraction that exist between molecules in a substance.
These forces are responsible for the physical properties of substances, such as
boiling point, melting point, density, and solubility. They are weaker than the forces
of chemical bonds within a molecule, but still play a crucial role in determining the
behavior and properties of substances.
There are three main types of intermolecular forces: London dispersion
forces, dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonding. London dispersion forces are the
weakest and occur between all molecules, whether polar or nonpolar. Dipole-dipole
forces occur between polar molecules, and are stronger than London dispersion
forces. Hydrogen bonding, the strongest of the three, occurs when a hydrogen atom
is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) and is
attracted to another electronegative atom in a different molecule. Understanding
these forces is key to understanding the properties and behaviors of different
substances.

Learning Objectives:

1. Understand the role of hydrogen bonding in determining the unique

properties of substances, such as water's high boiling point and the stability
of DNA strands.
2. Differentiate and explain the interactions between polar molecules through
dipole-dipole forces, which contribute to the physical properties and behavior
of substances.
3. Explore the interactions between ions and polar molecules through ion-dipole
forces, which play a crucial role in solubility and the behavior of electrolytes
in solutions.
4. Learn how molecular polarity affects intermolecular forces, influencing
properties like solubility, boiling point, and the behavior of substances in
different environments.

Activity:
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is NOT a type of intermolecular force of attraction?
a. Hydrogen bonding
b. Dipole-dipole
c. London dispersion forces
d. Covalent bonding

2. Which of the following elements is commonly involved in hydrogen bonding?

a. Carbon
 b. Nitrogen
c. Sodium
d. Aluminum

3. Dipole-dipole interactions occur between:

a. Polar and nonpolar molecules
b. Nonpolar and nonpolar molecules
c. Polar and polar molecules
d. Ionic and polar molecules

4. Which of the following substances exhibits hydrogen bonding?

a. Methane (CH4)
b. Ethanol (C2H5OH)
c. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
d. Sodium chloride (NaCl)

5. Ion-dipole forces occur between:

a. Two ions
b. Two polar molecules
c. An ion and a polar molecule
d. Two nonpolar molecules

6. The strength of London dispersion forces generally depends on:

a. The size of the molecules involved
b. The polarity of the molecules involved
c. The temperature of the system
d. The pressure of the system

7. Which of the following molecules is polar?

a. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
b. Methane (CH4)
c. Water (H2O)
d. Oxygen (O2)

8. Which intermolecular force is responsible for the high boiling point of water?
a. Hydrogen bonding
b. Dipole-dipole interactions
c. London dispersion forces
d. Ion-dipole forces

9. The physical properties of organic compounds, such as boiling point and

solubility, are primarily influenced by:
a. Covalent bonding
b. Ionic bonding
c. Intermolecular forces of attraction
d. Metallic bonding

10. Which of the following statements about intermolecular forces is true?

a. They are stronger than intramolecular forces.
b. They only occur in solids.
 c. They are responsible for the formation of chemical bonds.
d. They determine the physical properties of substances.

Abstraction:
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction are forces of attraction between unlike
charges, partially positive and negative dipoles, that occur between two molecules.
They differ from bonds in that they are not as strong and
occur between two adjacent or neighboring molecules and not within the molecule
itself. They do form, just like bonds, due to the attraction of opposite charges.
IMFAs are typically noted with a dotted line while bonds are solid lines.

What are Intermolecular Forces?

Intermolecular forces, often abbreviated to IMF, are the attractive and
repulsive forces that arise between the molecules of a substance. These forces
mediate the interactions between individual molecules of a substance.

Intermolecular forces are responsible for most of the physical and chemical properties of
matter.
Forces also exist between the molecules themselves and these are collectively
referred to as intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces are mainly responsible for the
physical characteristics of the substance. Intermolecular forces are responsible for the
condensed states of matter. The particles making up solids and liquids are held together
by intermolecular forces and these forces affect a number of the physical properties of
matter in these two states.

Types of Intermolecular Forces

An intermolecular force is an attractive force that arises between the positive

components (or protons) of one molecule and the negative components (or
electrons) of another molecule. Various physical and chemical properties of a
substance are dependent on this force. The boiling point of a substance is
proportional to the strength of its intermolecular forces – the stronger the
intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point. By comparing the boiling points of
different substances, we can compare the strengths of their intermolecular forces.
This is because the heat absorbed by the substance at its boiling point is used to
break these intermolecular forces and to convert the liquid into vapour.

The intermolecular forces depend on the following

interactions:
1. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
 Dipole-dipole interactions are attractive forces among polar molecules.
Polar molecules have permanent dipoles that are formed due to differences in
the electronegativities of the atoms that are associated with a covalent bond.
The partially positive portion of one molecule is attracted to the partially
negative portion of another molecule.

Example: Dipole-dipole interactions occur in HCl molecules. Chlorine is

comparatively more electronegative than hydrogen and it, therefore, acquires
a partial negative charge (whereas hydrogen acquires a partial positive
charge). The dipole-dipole interaction then takes place between the HCl
molecules.

2. Ion-Dipole Interactions

These interactions are similar to dipole-dipole interactions except for

the fact that they arise between ions and polar molecules. Example: When
NaCl is mixed with water in a beaker, the polar H2O molecules are attracted to
the sodium and chloride ions in the beaker. The strength of this interaction
depends on:

 The magnitude of the dipole moment

 Size of the polar molecule
 The size and charge of an ion

3. Ion Induced Dipole Interactions

In this type of interaction, a non-polar molecule is polarized by an ion
placed near it. The non-polar molecules, upon obtaining a charge, behave as
induced dipoles. This interaction between an ion and an induced dipole is
known as ion-induced dipole interaction.

4. Dipole Induced Dipole Interaction

These interactions are similar to ion-induced dipole interactions.

However, the differentiating factor is that non-polar molecules are transformed
into induced dipoles due to the presence of a polar molecule nearby.

5. Dispersion Forces or London Forces

It operates for a short distance and it is the weakest force. This kind of
force arises due to the movement of electrons thus creating temporary
positive and negative charged regions.
a.) Hydrogen bond

Molecules with hydrogen atoms bonded to electronegative atoms such as O,

N, and F (and to a much lesser extent, Cl and S) tend to exhibit unusually strong
intermolecular interactions. These result in much higher boiling points than are
observed for substances in which London dispersion forces dominate, as illustrated
for the covalent hydrides of elements of groups 14–17 in Figure 12.6.512.6.5.
Methane and its heavier congeners in group 14 form a series whose boiling points
increase smoothly with increasing molar mass. This is the expected trend in
nonpolar molecules, for which London dispersion forces are the exclusive
intermolecular forces. In contrast, the hydrides of the lightest members of groups 15–
17 have boiling points that are more than 100°C greater than predicted on the basis
of their molar masses. The effect is most dramatic for water: if we extend the straight
line connecting the points for H2Te and H2Se to the line for period 2, we obtain an
estimated boiling point of −130°C for water! Imagine the implications for life on Earth
if water boiled at −130°C rather than 100°C.

The Effects of Hydrogen Bonding on Boiling Points. These plots of the boiling points of the covalent
hydrides of the elements of groups 14–17 show that the boiling points of the lightest members of each
series for which hydrogen bonding is possible (HF, NH3, and H2O) are anomalously high for
compounds with such low molecular masses.

Group 14 is in purple, group 15 is in green, group 16 is red, and group 17 is blue. Graph of boiling
point against period.
 Why do strong intermolecular forces produce such anomalously high boiling
points and other unusual properties, such as high enthalpies of vaporization and high
melting points? The answer lies in the highly polar nature of the bonds between
hydrogen and very electronegative elements such as O, N, and F. The large
difference in electronegativity results in a large partial positive charge on hydrogen
and a correspondingly large partial negative charge on the O, N, or F atom.
Consequently, H–O, H–N, and H–F bonds have very large bond dipoles that can
interact strongly with one another. Because a hydrogen atom is so small, these
dipoles can also approach one another more closely than most other dipoles. The
combination of large bond dipoles and short dipole–dipole distances results in very
strong dipole–dipole interactions called hydrogen bonds, as shown for ice in Figure
below. A hydrogen bond is usually indicated by a dotted line between the hydrogen
atom attached to O, N, or F (the hydrogen bond donor) and the atom that has the
lone pair of electrons (the hydrogen bond acceptor). Because each water molecule
contains two hydrogen atoms and two lone pairs, a tetrahedral arrangement
maximizes the number of hydrogen bonds that can be formed. In the structure of ice,
each oxygen atom is surrounded by a distorted tetrahedron of hydrogen atoms that
form bridges to the oxygen atoms of adjacent water molecules. The bridging
hydrogen atoms are not equidistant from the two oxygen atoms they connect,
however. Instead, each hydrogen atom is 101 pm from one oxygen and 174 pm from
the other. In contrast, each oxygen atom is bonded to two H atoms at the shorter
distance and two at the longer distance, corresponding to two O–H covalent bonds
and two O⋅⋅⋅H hydrogen bonds from adjacent water molecules, respectively. The
resulting open, cage like structure of ice means that the solid is actually slightly less
dense than the liquid, which explains why ice floats on water, rather than sinks.
b.) Dipole-dipole

Polar covalent bonds behave as if the bonded atoms have localized fractional
charges that are equal but opposite (i.e., the two bonded atoms generate a dipole). If
the structure of a molecule is such that the individual bond dipoles do not cancel one
another, then the molecule has a net dipole moment. Molecules with net dipole
moments tend to align themselves so that the positive end of one dipole is near the
negative end of another and vice versa, as shown in Figure 12.6.1a

Figure 12.6.1: Attractive and Repulsive Dipole–Dipole Interactions. (a and b) Molecular orientations in
which the positive end of one dipole (δ+) is near the negative end of another (δ−) (and vice versa)
produce attractive interactions. (c and d) Molecular orientations that juxtapose the positive or negative
ends of the dipoles on adjacent molecules produce repulsive interactions. (CC BY-SA-NC;
anonymous)

These arrangements are more stable than arrangements in which two positive
or two negative ends are adjacent (Figure 12.6.1c). Hence dipole–dipole
interactions, such as those in Figure 12.6.1b, are attractive intermolecular
interactions, whereas those in Figure 12.6.1d are repulsive intermolecular
interactions. Because molecules in a liquid move freely and continuously, molecules
always experience both attractive and repulsive dipole–dipole interactions
simultaneously, as shown in Figure 12.6.2. On average, however, the attractive
interactions dominate.
Figure 12.6.212.6.2: Both attractive and repulsive dipole–dipole interactions occur in a liquid sample
with many molecules. (CC BY-SA-NC; anonymous) The green arrows pointing towards each other
represent attraction. The gray arrows pointing away from each other represent repulsion

c.) Ion-dipole

An ion-dipole force is an attractive force that results from the electrostatic

attraction between an ion and a neutral molecule that has a dipole.

 Most commonly found in solutions. Especially important for solutions of ionic

compounds in polar liquids.

 A positive ion (cation) attracts the partially negative end of a neutral polar
molecule.

 A negative ion (anion) attracts the partially positive end of a neutral polar
molecule.

 Ion-dipole attractions become stronger as either the charge on the ion

increases, or as the magnitude of the dipole of the polar molecule increases.
 A lone dipole may also interact with a single ion to form an ion-dipole
interaction. For example, the partially positive dipole of hydrogen in water as it
interacts with a fully charged chloride anion. When sodium chloride, NaCl, is added
to water to form a solution, the sodium and chlorine dissociate and form the Na+
cation and the Cl – anion. The chloride ion is then attracted to the positive dipole of
hydrogen and the sodium ion is attracted to negative dipole of oxygen. Because the
interaction is between a fully charged ion and a partially charged versus two partially
charged dipoles, ion-dipole interactions are the strongest IMFA, even greater than
hydrogen bonds.

d.) Polarity

You have already seen that covalent bonds are polar when they link two
different atoms. In a polar bond, one atom is positively charged and the other is
negatively charged. A molecule (or polyatomic ion) is polar when one side of the
molecule is more positive (or more negative) than the other. This occurs when the
polarities of the bonds do not cancel out.

For example in CO2, each carbon-oxygen bond is polar, but CO2 is a

nonpolar molecule. The molecule is linear, so the two bonds point in opposite
directions. They are equally polar, so their effects cancel out. The two sides of the
molecule are identical; neither one is more negative than the other.

On the other hand, OCS is a polar molecule. This molecule is also linear, but
the C=O and C=S bonds are not equally polar, because O is more electronegative
than S. In this molecule, the oxygen side is more negative than the sulfur side.
 Water is also polar, but for a different reason. In this case, the two bonds are
equally polar, but they do not cancel each other out, because they do not point in
opposite directions. Water is a bent molecule, so the O–H bonds are roughly 109.5˚
apart (actually about 105˚). In the drawing below, the left side of the molecule is
positively charged and the right side is negatively charged.

s a general rule, molecules that are distorted are also polar. The only
exceptions are linear molecules in which the outer atoms are dissimilar; these
molecules are not distorted, but they are polar. OCS (above) is an example.

e.) Physical Properties of Organic compounds affected by IMFA

Intermolecular forces determine bulk properties such as the melting points of

solids and the boiling points of liquids. Liquids boil when the molecules have enough
thermal energy to overcome the intermolecular attractive forces that hold them
together, thereby forming bubbles of vapor within the liquid.

In Organic Chemistry, the understanding of physical properties of organic

compounds, for instance boiling point (b.p.), molecular polarity and solubility, is very
important. It provides us with helpful information about dealing with a substance in
the proper way. Those physical properties are essentially determined by the
intermolecular forces involved. Intermolecular forces are the attractive force between
molecules and that hold the molecules together; it is an electrical force in nature. We
will focus on three types of intermolecular forces: dispersion forces, dipole-dipole
forces and hydrogen bonds.
Physical Properties and Intermolecular Forces

The comprehension of intermolecular forces helps us to understand and

explain the physical properties of substances, since it is intermolecular forces that
account for physical properties such as phases, boiling points, melting points,
viscosities, etc. For organic chemistry purposes, we will focus on boiling point (b.p.)
and solubility.

Boiling point (b.p):

The boiling point trend of different substance directly correlates with the total
intermolecular forces. Generally speaking, the stronger the overall intermolecular
force applied to a certain substance, the higher the boiling point of the substance.
Boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid phase of the substance vaporizes
to become a gas. In order to vaporize a liquid, the intermolecular forces that hold the
molecules together must be overcome. The stronger the forces, the more energy is
needed to overcome the forces, and a higher temperature is required, thus leading to
a higher boiling point.

Example:

Solubility:

A general rule for solubility is summarized by the expression “like dissolves

like”. This means that one substance can dissolve in another with similar polarity,
and as a result, with similar intermolecular forces. More specifically:

 Nonpolar substances are usually soluble in nonpolar solvents.

 Polar and ionic substances are usually soluble in polar solvents.

 Polar and nonpolar substances are insoluble to each other.

 Determining the polarity of a substance has already been summarized in an
earlier part of this section (below). Water, methanol and ethanol are examples of
very polar solvents that can form Hydrogen bonds. Ether, ketone, halide and esters
are polar solvents as well, but not as polar as water or methanol. Non-polar solvents
include hydrocarbons like hexane, benzene, toluene etc.

For some organic compounds, however, it may not be that easy to simply call
it polar or non-polar, because part of the compound may be polar, and another part
may be nonpolar. This is often described as hydrophilic or hydrophobic.

 Hydrophobic (hydro, water; phobic: fearing or avoiding) meaning it does not

like water, or is insoluble in water;

 Hydrophilic (hydro, water; philic: loving or seeking) meaning it likes water, or

is soluble in water.

Evaluation:

1. Explain the role of hydrogen bonding in determining the physical properties of

substances and provide an example of a compound that exhibits hydrogen
bonding.

2. Compare and contrast dipole-dipole interactions and London dispersion

forces in terms of their strength, occurrence, and impact on the physical
properties of substances.

3. Discuss the significance of ion-dipole forces in solubility and the behavior of

electrolytes in solutions, providing an example to illustrate your explanation.

4. Describe how molecular polarity is determined and discuss its relationship

with intermolecular forces, providing an example of a polar and nonpolar
molecule.

5. Analyze the impact of intermolecular forces, such as hydrogen bonding and

London dispersion forces, on the physical properties of organic compounds,
 specifically focusing on boiling point, melting point, and solubility, and provide
examples to support your analysis.

Assessment:
Test I.
Direction: MULTIPLE CHOICE. Write the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following intermolecular forces is the strongest?

a. Hydrogen bonding
b. Dipole-dipole interactions
c. London dispersion forces
d. Ion-dipole forces

2. Which of the following molecules can form hydrogen bonds?

a. CH4
b. H2O
c. CO2
d. NH3

3. Which of the following substances exhibits dipole-dipole interactions?

a. Methane (CH4)
b. Ethanol (C2H5OH)
c. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
d. Sodium chloride (NaCl)

4. Which of the following molecules is nonpolar?

a. H2O
b. CO2
c. NH3
d. HCl

5. Which intermolecular force is responsible for the high boiling point of water?
a. Hydrogen bonding
b. Dipole-dipole interactions
c. London dispersion forces
d. Ion-dipole forces

6. Which of the following statements about London dispersion forces is true?

a. They occur between polar molecules.
b. They are only present in solids.
 c. They are the weakest intermolecular force.
d. They are responsible for the formation of chemical bonds.

7. Which of the following substances is most likely to exhibit ion-dipole

interactions?
a. NaCl dissolved in water
b. CO2 dissolved in water
c. CH4 dissolved in water
d. O2 dissolved in water

8. Which of the following molecules is polar?

a. CO2
b. CH4
c. H2O
d. O2

9. Which intermolecular force is responsible for the physical properties of

organic compounds, such as boiling point and solubility?
a. Covalent bonding
b. Ionic bonding
c. Hydrogen bonding
d. Intermolecular forces of attraction

10. Which of the following statements about intermolecular forces is true?

a. They are stronger than intramolecular forces.
b. They only occur in solids.
c. They are responsible for the formation of chemical bonds.
d. They determine the physical properties of substances.

Test II.

Direction: Illustrate the following.

Which molecule(s) has a net dipole moment?

a. H2S

b. NHF2

c. BF3