Memory

COMPUTER

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Memory
 A memory is acts like a human brain. It is available to hold data and instructions.
Computer memory is the type of storage space built in the computer, where data is
to be processed and instructions needed for processing are stored. The memory is
categorized into high number of small sections called cells. Every memory location
or cell consists a unique address that varies from 0 to memory size -1. For instance,
if the computer comprised of 64k words, then this memory entity has 64 * 1024 =
65536 memory locations. The memory address of these locations differs from 0 to
65535.

 Memory is primarily of three types:

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is the most high speed semiconductor memory type which can speed
up the working of CPU. This works like a buffer between the main memory and the
CPU. This memory is available to store those sections of data and program
which are very frequently required by the CPU. The sections of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory through the operating system, from where
the CPU has accessibility of them.

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Advantages
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory
 Primary memory keeps only those data and instructions on which the computer is
currently processing. It has a fixed capacity and data is lost when power is
disconnected. It is usually made up of semiconductor ICs and registers. These
memories are not as fast as registers. The fetched data and instruction going to be
processed resides in the main memory. It is categorized in 2 subcategories RAM
and ROM.

 Characteristics of Main Memory:

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

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Secondary Memory
 This kind of memory is also called as external memory or non-volatile memory. It
works slower as compared to the main memory. These are installed for holding data/
information permanently. CPU does not access these memories directly, rather they
are accessed through input-output routines. The data hold in secondary memories
are transferred to the main memory for, and then the CPU can access that data. For
instance, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

 Characteristics of Secondary Memory:

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Random Access Memory

 RAM (Random Access Memory) is the kind of internal memory of the CPU for
holding data, program, and program result after processing. This memory is
read/write memory which holds data until
the machine is supplied with power.
As soon as the machine is powered off,
data is dumped.

 Access time in RAM is not dependent

on the address, that is, each storage
location residing in the memory is as
simple to be accessed as other locations
and takes the same duration of time. Data in the RAM can be traversed randomly
but it is comparatively very expensive.

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 RAM is volatile type of memory, i.e. data stored in it is dumped when we power off
the computer or if there is a power failure situation. Hence, it is recommended to
have Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) which can provide enough backup power
as to store data before shut down. The RAM is small in terms of its physical size as
well as in terms of the amount of data it can store.

 RAM is of two types:

 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

 The word static imply that the memory holds its contents as long as the electricity is
being supplied. But data is dumped when the power gets down because of its
volatile nature. SRAM chips equipped with a matrix of 6-transistors and no
capacitors. Transistors are not dependent on power to prevent leakage, hence
SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular intervals.

 In the matrix, there exists an extra space, that is why SRAM consists of high number
of chips as compared to the DRAM for the same capacity of storage space, making
the manufacturing costs comparatively higher. That is why SRAM is utilized as
cache memory and has very fast accessing capability.

 Characteristic of Static RAM:

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 Unlike SRAM, DRAM, must be continually refreshed so that the data should be
maintained. This is achieved by placing the memory on a refresh circuit which
rewrites the content several hundred times every second.

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 DRAM is installed for most system memory as it is comparatively cheap and small.
All DRAMs consists of memory cells, which are composed of single capacitor and
single transistor.

 Characteristics of Dynamic RAM:

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Read Only Memory

 ROM is an acronym for Read Only Memory. The memory from which the data
can be read only but rewriting on it is not possible. This kind of memory is non-
volatile in nature. The data is stored permanently in such memories at the
time of manufacturing. A ROM holds such instructions that are needed to turn on a
computer. This process is called as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only installed in
the computer but also in other electronic devices like washing machine and
microwave oven.

Masked ROM (MROM)

The early ROMs were hard-wired instruments that consists pre-programmed set of
data or instructions. These types of ROMs are called as masked ROMs, which are
comparatively inexpensive.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

PROM is a type of read-only memory that can be amended only once by a user.
The user buys an empty PROM and input the required data using a PROM program. It
consists the small fuses inside which are burnt open during programming. It is possible
to program this memory only once and is not erasable.

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Erasable & Programmable Read Only Memory

(EPROM)
It is possible to erase EPROM by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a period of up to 40
minutes. Normally, an EPROM eraser performs this operation. An electrical charge is
stored in an insulated gate region while programming. The charge is held for more than
10 years as there is no leakage path. In order to erase this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed via a quartz crystal window (lid). This process of exposure to UV light dissipates
the charge. The quartz lid is hidden with a sticker during the normal usage.

Electrically Erasable & Programmable Read Only

Memory (EEPROM)
EEPROM can be programmed and erased using electricity. It is possible to erase and
reprogram it for about ten thousand times. Erasing or programming, both take about 4
to 10 ms (millisecond) time. In EEPROM, any desired location can be separately erased
and programmed. It is possible to erase EEPROMs at the rate of one byte at a time,
instead of erasing the entire chip all at once. That is why the technique of
reprogramming is quite flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified

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Computer Memory Unit

 Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This
storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

 The following table explains the main memory storage units –

S.No Unit & Description

.

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a compo-
nent in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2 A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4 The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small
as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form
of computer words.

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Kilobyte
Kilobyte can be defined as one of the many multiples of the byte memory units. The
prefix kilo- , normally, represents the unit to be ‘Kilo’ and it comes in multiples of
5 ‘1000’. Though in terms of international standards kilo means 1000, in a typical
memory unit, the binary digit are seen as Base 2 and so the ‘Kilo’ here means 1024
of binary digits or bits. In short, 1Kilobyte or 1KB is equal to the 1024 bits or binary
digits.

Megabyte
Similar to the Kilobyte memory unit, the megabyte memory unit is used when the bits
are large in number and when it makes it easy to say it the number to be in lesser
6 length. That is, in international standards the prefix ‘mega-‘ is used for showing the
10^6 or the 1000000. This also means that a typical MB is shown with Base 2, and
so the 1MB or the 1 Megabyte equals to the 1048576 bytes of the memory unit. It can
also be calculated as (1024)^2bytes or the 2^20 bytes.

Gigabyte
The Gigabytes are used to represent the data to be in multiples of 10^9 or
7 1000000000 binary digits, and when the memory unit is in terms of Base 2 then the
storage space is calculated as 2^30 bytes or as 1024^3 bytes. In other words, the
memory units used by the processor that runs on the Base 2 are termed as the Giga-
bytes and is equal to the 1073741824 bytes.

Terabyte
Terabyte are applied when the memory requirement is as high as the 2^40,
8 that is the binary digits exponential to the number 40. It can also be seen as
an equal to the 1024 terabytes and is represented as TB. Or other words
equals to 10^12 bytes in international standards and that can also be termed
as the trillion bytes.

Petabyte
Petabyte can be defined as a memory unit that represents the higher multiples
9. of bytes, next to the Terabyte that comes in PB units. It is equal to the 10^15
bytes in terms of the international standards, or the 1024^5 bytes when the
bytes come with the Base 2.

Exabyte
Exabyte is a memory unit that is equal to the 10^18 equivalent in the interna-
tional standards scale, and the same is equal to the 1024^6 for the memory
10 units that come in the form of Base 2. The unit terms of the Exabyte are EB,
and this EB is the same as the 1 million TB or the 1 billion GB or the 1 thou-
sand PB.

Zettabyte
Similar to other byte sized memory units, Zettabyte can be seen as an equiva-
lent to 10^21, according to the ‘zetta’ representation in terms of the interna-
11 tional standards. The Zettabyte or the ZB also can be seen as 1 thousand of
the EB, 1 million PB, 1 billion TB, 1 trillion GB, etc.

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Yottabyte
As the name says, the Yottabyte unit or the YB represents another memory
unit for the bytes to be in multiples of the other lower byte units or even the
12. bytes. In international standards, it is equal to the 10^24, and for base 2 byte
units the YB is also equal to 1024^8, 1 thousand ZB, 1 trillion TB, etc.

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