KC21003 Material Technology

Chapter 9

Metal Alloys
- Applications and Processing

Sariah Saalah
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 WHY STUDY Phase Transformations in Metals?

The development of a set of desirable mechanical

characteristics for a material often results from a
phase transformation that is wrought by a heat
treatment.
The time and temperature dependencies of some phase transformations are
represented on modified phase diagrams.

It is important to know how to use these diagrams in order to design a heat treatment
for some alloy that will yield the desired room temperature mechanical properties.

For example, the tensile strength of an iron–carbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76
wt% C) can be varied between approximately 700 MPa (100,000 psi) and 2000 Mpa
(300,000 psi) depending on the heat treatment employed.

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 Learning objectives
 After this lesson you should be able to do the
following:
1. Explain the iron-carbon phase diagram.
2. Name the five cast iron types and, for each, describe its microstructure and note its general mechanical
characteristics.
3. Name six different types of nonferrous alloys and, for each, cite its distinctive physical and mechanical
characteristics. In addition, list at least three typical applications.
4. Name and describe four forming operations that are used to shape metal alloys.
5. Name and describe five casting techniques.
6. Name and describe the two joining techniques
7. State the purposes of and describe procedures for the following heat treatments: Annealing, quenching and
tempered martensite.
8. Decide a heat treatment for some alloy that will yield the desired room
temperature mechanical properties.

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Taxonomy of Metals
do
ftp.hf
Metal Alloys
magnetic
4
Ferrous
agging is
Nonferrous
magnetic

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons Cu Al Mg Ti
<1.4 wt% C
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C
Kasanti
T(°C) microstructure:
1600 ferrite, graphite
d cementite
1400 L
g+L
1200 g 1148°C L+Fe3C
austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

g+Fe3C
a800 727°C Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite Click to understand more
600 0.76 a+Fe3C
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400 =kquIVlL0XZ2KNYXf
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
4
(Fe)
Co , wt%
C
Classification scheme for various ferrous alloys

5
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat austenitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility 6
 Refinement of Steel from Ore
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2 CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C  2CO
and iron ore 3CO+ Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3  CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3  slag

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 Ferrous Alloys
Iron containing – Steels - cast irons

Nomenclature AISI & SAE

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)

where xx is wt% C x 100

example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C

Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr

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 Cast Iron
 Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
 more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
 low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast

 Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C  3 Fe (a) + C (graphite)

 generally a slow process

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 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
g +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200 g 1153°C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• slow cooling
1000
a+g g + Graphite
800
740°C
0.65
600
a + Graphite
400
0 1 2 3 4 90 100
(Fe) Co , wt% C

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 Types of Cast Iron
Gray iron
 graphite flakes
 weak & brittle under tension
 stronger under compression
 excellent vibrational
dampening
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(a) & (b), Callister 7e.
 wear resistant

Ductile iron
 add Mg or Ce
 graphite in nodules not flakes
 matrix often pearlite - better
ductility 11
 *Cont Types of Cast Iron
White iron
 <1wt% Si so harder but brittle
 more cementite
 An intermediary of malleable
iron
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(c) & (d), Callister 7e.

Malleable iron
 heat treat at 800-900ºC
 graphite in rosettes
 more ductile

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 *Cont Types of Cast Iron
Compacted Graphite Iron
 1.7 – 3.0 wt% Si
 3.1 – 4.0 wt % carbon
 Microstructure is between gray
iron and ductile (nodular)
 Strength and ductility
Adapted from Fig. 11.3(d) Callister 7e.
 Higher thermal conductivity
 Better resistance to thermal
shock
 Lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures

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Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.

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Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

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 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower r: 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be: -very low r: 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-lower r: 4.5g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
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Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 7e.
 Metal Fabrication
 How do we fabricate metals?
 Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
 Molding - cast

 Forming Operations
 Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working www.sthis

vs. Cold working
• T high enough for • well below Tm
recrystallization • work hardening
• Larger deformations • smaller deformations

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 Metal Fabrication Methods - I

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.8,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister 7e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot) 18
Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Casting- mold is filled with metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added. Then cast in a mold
– most common, cheapest method
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

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 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., • trying to hold something that is hot
auto engine blocks)
• what will withstand >1600ºC?
• cheap - easy to mold => sand!!!
Sand Sand
• pack sand around form (pattern) of
molten metal desired shape

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 Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Investment Casting Investment Casting

(low volume, complex shapes • pattern is made from wax or
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) plastic has low Tm.
plaster • mold made by encasing in
die formed plaster of paris
around wax
prototype wax • melt the wax & the hollow
mold is left
• pour in metal

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Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Die Casting
(high volume, low T alloys)

• Continuous Casting
(simple slab shapes)
molten
solidified

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 Metal Fabrication Methods - III

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister 7e.
densify (Fig. 11.9 from Iron
Castings
• Heat affected zone: Handbook, C.F.
point contact densification Walton and T.J.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
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 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stress caused by: Make very soft steels for
-plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
-nonuniform cooling below TE & hold for
-phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
Annealing good forming by heating
to get g, then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
• Normalize (steels):
cold working by
Deform steel with large
(recovery/
grains, then normalize
recrystallization)
to make grains small.

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Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 7e.
 Heat Treatments
800
Austenite (stable)
a) Annealing T(°C) TE
A
b) Quenching P
600
c) Tempered
Martensite
B
400 A
Adapted from Fig. 10.22, Callister 7e.

0%
200 M+A
50%
Heat treatment - Types M+A
90%
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10
-1
10 10
3
10
5 c)
25
time (s)
 Hardenability--Steels
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
Adapted from Fig. 11.11,
flat ground Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.11
specimen adapted from A.G. Guy,
Essentials of Materials
(heated to g Science, McGraw-Hill Book
phase field) Rockwell C Company, New York,
1978.)
24°C water hardness tests

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister 7e.

Distance from quenched end 26

 Why Hardness Changes W/Position
• The cooling rate varies with position.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(°C) 0%
600 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 11.13 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.)
400 Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and
Cooling Transformation Diagrams,
M(start) American Society for Metals, 1977, p.
200 376.)
AM

0 M(finish)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s) 27
 Quenching Medium & Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

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 Summary

• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding

--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.

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