Unit-3

Skills of Reading for Communication

Effective Reading
Skillful reading is reading for specific information for a better learning experience in a short span
of time. Though complex, skilled reading is not difficult. It is an art which can be learnt easily
by using a systematic approach and by undergoing formal trainingwhile reading, you employ
different reading speeds and different approaches to them. However, it is also true that different
people have carried speeds of reading and understanding.
Benefits of Effective Reading
1. Effective reading can provide you with a ‘comprehensible input’ from the book or
document that you read.
2. It can enhance your general ability to use other language skills such as listening,
speaking, and writing.
3. It can enhance your vocabulary, that is, you can always learn new words, phrases, and
expressions.
4. Effective reading also helps you keep your mind focused on the material and prevents it
from unnecessary distractions.
5. Moreover, this enables you to extract useful information much more efficiently within a
limited time.
6. It can help you consolidate both previously learned language and knowledge.
7. It helps in building confidence as you start reading longer, and later, voluminous texts.
8. It gives you pleasure and relaxation as books are the best and most reliable friends.
9. Effective reading facilities the development of various other skills, such as making
predictions, comparing and contrasting facts, creating samples, hypothesizing,
reorganizing, the message as transmitted by the text, improving your critical thinking,
and hence developing a sharp acumen with passage of time.
Methods of Reading
There are several methods of reading, with different rates, for different kinds of material and
purposes.
Sub-vocalized reading: It combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if
spoken. It is a bad habit that slows down the pace of both reading and comprehension.
However, some studies show that it helps the readers better, particularly while reading
complex texts.
Speed reading: It is a method for increasing reading speed without a reduction in
comprehension or retention. With effort, you can acquire a speed of as much as 1000 words
per minute.
Photo reading: It is a kind of reading for detecting typographical errors in a printed text.
One can learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to
do so at high rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others. They may largely

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suspend comprehensive while doing so, except when needed to select among several possible
words for a suspected typographical error.
Structure – Proposition - Evaluation (SPE) Mortimer Adler popularized this method in his
book How to Read a Book, mainly for non-fiction treatise, in which one reads writing in three
phases (1) for the structure of the work, (2) for the logical propositions or progression made,
and (3) for evaluation of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method demands
suspended judgment of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.
Survey – Question – Read – Recite – Review (SQ3R)This method involves immaculate
and perfect reading, that is, you read so as to teach what is read or be able to explain or apply
the knowledge obtained in other domains. Through this method, the reader assimilates the
information in such a way that he/she can use it later at an appropriate place or occasion. In
this method, the reader absorbs the information and uses it without having to refer to notes or
the book again.
Multiple intelligences-based methodThismethod draws upon the reader’s diverse ways of
thinking and knowing to enrich his/her appreciation of the text. Reading is fundamentally a
linguist activity. Most readers use several intelligences, such as auditory, visual, and logical
intelligence, while reading, and making a habit of doing so in a more disciplined manner, that
is, constantly or after every paragraph, which results in more vivid and memorable
experience.
Tips for Effective Reading
Following are some of the important tips you must keep in mind about reading
1. Get your eyes checked. Often, very slow reading is related to uncorrected eye defects.
Before embarking on speed reading, make sure that any correctable eye defects you may
not have are taken care of.
2. Get rid of the habit of pronouncing words – if you have – as you read. If you sound out
words in your throat or whisper them, your reading rate is slowed considerably. You
should be able to read most material at least two or three times faster when reading
silently than orally.
3. Find out what you want to know, and for that you need to cut through and assess what is
to be skipped from reading.
4. Your reading rate should vary accordingly to your reading purpose. To understand the
information, for example, skim or scan at a rapid rate.
5. It is always important to stress on qualitative not quantitative reading.
6. Cultivate a positive attitude towards reading. The more you read the more love you
develop towards reading.
7. Even if you find reading to be tedious, try to give your talk an extended stretch of an hour
or so. Don’t give up reading in the first 10-15 minutes itself.
8. Learn to underline the key parts/words/concepts for further references.
9. While reading new ideas and concepts will flash in the mind and the same may be added
in the margin.

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 10. By using different coloured pencils, the importance level of the contents can be realized
for further reading.
11. Try to convert the written information into pictorial format while reading for effective
comprehension of contents.
12. Fix some amount of time daily, exclusively for reading, and over a period of time it will
become a practice.

Recapitulation
• There are four skills that are essential for all, namely speaking, writing, listening, and
reading skills. However reading helps you increase your competence in other language
skills as well.
• Reading speed can be increased up to 1000 words per minute by following certain tips
given in the chapter.
• For developing effective reading, you need to have the desire to improve, to make
conscious efforts to the new techniques and also to have motivation to practice.
• Word-by-word reading, slow eye movement, complex words in the text, and lack of
concentration are the major hurdles in effective reading.
• Reading helps in building confidence besides giving you pleasure and relaxation, as you
start reading extended or longer texts.
• For reading comprehension tests, passages are drawn from different subject areas,
including humanities, social sciences, biological sciences, and physical sciences. Some
are more difficult than others. So, a proper training is required to enhance your reading
ability.
• Vocalization, word-by-word reading, speed reading, SQ3R, SPE, and multiple
intelligences-based methods are various methods that people use while reading but you
should select the suitable method of reading different types of texts.
• As a good reader, you should effectively use skimming, scanning, extensive, and
intensive reading skills.

Employing different Reading Skills

There are four reading skills, namely skimming, scanning, intensive and extensive reading
skills, which help you attempt a reading comprehension passage. Detailed discussion and
elaborate tips on how to judiciously employ these skills have been provided in Chapter 16.
Go through that conscientiously, pick up the nuances of all these skills and use them
appropriately while attempting a reading comprehension exercise.

Understanding the Author’s Point of View

While approaching a passage, it is important for us to identify its nature. Broadly speaking,
the passages can be information based or point-of-view based. There are passages in which
the author intends to inform the reader about some phenomenon. In such passages, the author

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 does not really have a point of view to prove. In other types of passages, however, he/she
may have an opinion or an argument to establish. Understanding the author’s opinion helps
you answer various point-of-view based questions worded in different ways such as
following examples.
1. The author’s primary purpose in this passage is to…
2. With which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to
agree?
3. The author’s argument would be most weakened by the discovery of which of the
following?
4. Which of the following examples could be substituted for the author’s example of …
5. The author’s tone is best described as …
6. The author views his subject with…
7. The author’s presentation is best characterized as …

Identifying the Central Idea

All passages have a central or main idea which becomes very important for us to understand. It
is to because out of the questions asked in a reading comprehension exercise, most of these relate
to the central idea of the passage. Therefore, attempting a passage without understanding the
main or central idea of the passage is like fighting a battle without knowing with whom or what
is being fought for. Let us see how questions related to the central idea of a passage abound in a
reading comprehension exercise and are posed to the reader in a variety of ways.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with..
2. Which of the following statements best expresses the main idea of the passage?
3. The author’s primary purpose in this passage is to …
4. The author in the passage implies that…
5. It can be inferred from the passage that…
6. With which of the following statements would the author of the passage be most likely to
agree?
7. The author’s argument would be most weakened by the discovery of which of the
following?
8. Which of the following examples could best be substituted for the author’s example
of…?
9. Which of the following statements best summarizes the main idea of the passage?

Tips for Identifying the Central Idea

Following are some important instructions for identifying the central idea of any passage:
1. Never read a passage in a laid-back manger. Always attack it vigorously so as to
scavenge it thoroughly.

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 2. A passage – particularly a longer one –is often divided into several paragraphs. Now each
of these paragraphs has a topic sentence which expresses the main concern of that
particular paragraph.
3. Carefully read the beginning of each paragraph.
4. Also carefully/follow the ending of each paragraph since the author is most likely to wind
up his/her main concern in this part of the paragraph.
5. Predicting and anticipating certain views to come up and express themselves also helps
us to move with the central thread of an argument.
6. Paying careful attention to each of the linkers and establishing their function in the
overall tapestry also helps you figure out the movements of ideas.
7. We can understand the central idea of a passage by thinking about a suitable title for the
passage and making an effort to determine its tone as we read it.

Recapitulation
• Reading comprehension is a two-fold process as it requires you to understand the passage
and reproduce or express the ideas as comprehended.
• You need to continuously strive to improve your speed of reading and level of
comprehension.
• To improve your speed of reading you should try to cultivate the habit of reading larger
groups of words and train your eyes to move faster.
• Try to get rid of the habit of regression, that is, rereading the text to ensure clarity of
comprehension.
• Employ different types of reading skills, such as skimming, scanning, intensive and
extensive for different purposes.
• You should try to figure out the central idea of a passage, the author’s point of view, and
discourse features of the passage.
• You may come across many unfamiliar words of which you do not the meaning try to guess
these from the given context.
Subskills of Reading
There are four sub skills of reading
1.Skimming
Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important information or ‘gist’ from the
document or novel that you read. For this, you should make your eyes run over the text,
nothing important information. You may also go through the contents of the chapters
rapidly, picking out and understanding the key words and concepts. Thus, you can use
skimming to go through a current business document or literary work, swiftly and rapidly. It
is not essential to understand each word when you employ skimming while reading. For
example, while reading the newspaper in the morning, you quickly try to get the general

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 news of the day or you go through magazines quickly to discover while articles you would
like to read in more detail.

2.Scanning
Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information. In this type of reading, you allow
your eyes to run over the text, looking for the specific piece of information that you need.
You use scanning when you go through your schedule or meeting plans, look for specific
advertisements, or some specific information in a book, etc. This is the most effective way
of getting information from magazines – scan the table of contents or indexes and turn
directly to interesting articles to arrive at the specific information.
3.Extensive Reading
Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject. It includes reading
of longer texts for pleasure, and business report to know the general trends. In this type of
reading, you should not worry if you do not understand each and every word. You can use
this type of reading to improve your general knowledge of business procedures, or to know
the latest marketing strategy. Also, while you read a novel before going to bed, or magazine
articles that interest you, you use your extensive reading skills.
4.Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract detailed information. It includes
very close and accurate reading for details. You use this skill to grasp the details of a
specific situation. In this case, it is important for you to understand each word, information,
or fact. When you read your text book for understanding the concepts or various theories,
you have to read intensively. You also required to read every single detail when you want to
go for an insurance claim or want to sign a contract. Intensive reading help you understand
and interpret the text, infer its central idea, observe the common thread that runs through it,
and intuit its overall purpose and significance.
NoteMaking
Note Making is a way of recording important details from a source. This source can be any book,
article, meeting or any oral discussion. In note making, the writer records the essence of the
information. It helps us to understand and clarify thinking. Note making saves a lot of time by
going through the notes made.Note making is not just about writing down everything you hearor
read. It is a process of reviewing, connecting and synthesising ideas from your lectures or
reading.Making notes helps you to:

• stay active and engaged during your lectures, reading and revision
• understand what you are learning and clarify your thinking
• be selective and identify key ideas
• remember the material
• organise your ideas and make connections
• plan and structure written assignments

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• review and revise before exams.
Advantages of Note Making
Few advantages of note-making are as follows.
• It has great importance in exams or academic writing.
• It is a record of the main points of a meeting, lecture, or study for future use.
• It helps in keeping the information handy whenever we require it.
• Note making helps in recollecting and recalling the past events said or heard.
• It helps in understanding, concentrating, and provides a permanent record.
• The format helps a writer to go through bulky documents faster.
• It helps in understanding a concept easily, if the notes are in your own words.
• It helps to distinguish between the key points and details.
You can also see our note making techniques tutorial, which explores the different approaches
you can take to note making. You will learn the various options for note making in different
contexts and explore.
All good notes should contain:
• source information (title, author, date etc)
• headings to help you identify the key topics
• key points, examples, names, new ideas
• triggers to make your notes more memorable – such as mnemonics, colour or drawings
• further reading and ideas to follow up later.
Consider developing a system of symbols and abbreviations to help you speed up your note
taking. Common abbreviations in notes include “poss.” for possibly, “esp.” for “especially”, and
“govt.” for government, but you can create a list that works for you.

Three stages of note making

Note making doesn’t only happen when you are reading or attending lectures. There are three
stages to making effective notes: before, during, and after.

1. Before: Prepare by finding out what you need to know and what the purpose of the reading or
lecture is.
2. During: Note down main ideas and keywords. Find techniques that work for you.
3. After: Reflect and review and then organise your notes.

Note Making Format

A note making format involves the selection, analysis, summarization, and organization of
information. There are different note-making formats. Let us make ourselves familiar with them.
1. Split Page Format (A narrative format of note-making method)
In this method, the page is divided into two columns. The first column had the standard notes.
The second column will have a summary. This is the most common format to note down lecture
notes.
2. Diagram or Pattern format (A visual note making format method)
In this method, the information is introduced by a diagram. Related ideas connect the main topic.
This method is visually easier to understand.
3. Mind Map (A visual note making method)

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Here, the main points and all the related points are presented through a map. It contains text and
images both. For a clear understanding, the information is linked in the proper sequence.
4. Outline Format (A visual note making format method)
Here the information is presented as an outline. Proper titles and subtitles are numbered
accordingly for this outline.
5. Question and Prompt Format (A visual method)
Here the main points are highlighted as a series of questions and appropriate answers. It helps in
quickly revising the notes.

Strategies Of Note Making

The use of bullet points is something we commonly come across in various books. The basic
idea behind this practice is providing a gist about something in a way that is not easily
forgettable. The purpose of note-making is the same; to bring the focus of readers on the most
significant information, leaving behind everything else. Now let us read about the strategies one
must follow to make appropriate notes, point by point.
1. Heading/Subheading
To allot a short and best-understood heading and subheading, we need to go through the source
content at least twice.
2. Content
Only write the most applicable content to make your notes truly accurate and also do not forget
to include those important details that you think you will have a hard time recalling later.
3. Readability
There are a few tips that one can use to avoid any ambiguity to make the notes more catchy.
• Do not leave unnecessary spaces to avoid confusion.
• Make use of as many abbreviations as possible, but it should not come out as poor
comprehension.
Reading Different Genres of Texts

As determining the overall purpose of reading is very important, the reader should analyze/study
the kind of text that he/she has to read. This will help him/her identify appropriate reading
strategies. He/she may have to read different kinds of texts with different purpose and varying
levels of reading comprehension. The text or the written message that he/she reads may vary
from a light entertaining short story to a serious discussion about the latest developments in
nuclear physics. Some of the aspects related to different reading activities are discussed below.

Reading Entertaining Messages/Texts

We may read entertaining messages or texts for relation. This is the most common form of
reading and it is casual as we are normally not serious about what we are reading. For example,
when we read a short story or a gossip about a film actress, the purpose is not to receive serious
information but to be entertained. Similarly, we may read a novel, an entertaining write-up, or a
joke for pleasure and enjoyment. Although the output in this type of reading may be some
entertaining information, the reader need not concentrate on the theme, main points, and
supporting details of the text or message.

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Reading General Messages/Texts
We may read general messages or texts, such as newspapers, magazine articles, encyclopedias,
and so on, to improve our general awareness or knowledge about various areas of general
interest. The main purpose of such reading is to broaden our outlook and widen our intellectual
understanding and appreciation of things around us. Although this kind of reading is generally
broad and extensive, the reader has to concentrate on the theme, main points, and supporting
details of the text or message.

Reading Reference Materials

The main purpose of reading or scanning reference materials is to obtain specific information
that might be used in various academic and professional activities. It involves focused reading to
quickly identify a specific listing, an entry, or any other relevant piece of information. This kind
of reading requires effective scanning skills.

Reading Business Documents

Reading different kinds of business documents such as business and project reports, letters,
memos, e-mail messages and so forth, requires our complete attention. The reader must pay
attention to all parts of the document. As this kind of reading is interactive and productive,
facilitating proper interaction and more effective reader-writer relationships, it requires
conscious efforts on the part of the reader and demands concentration, involvement, and
responsibility. Some other examples of this kind of reading include reading administrative
instructions, business proposals, company profiles, and so on.

Reading Scientific and Technical Texts

Reading scientific and technical texts is a complex and multifaceted process. As we are
concerned with the subject-content of what we read as well as language in which it is expressed,
we should try to understand not only linguistic and semantic patterns, but also discipline-specific
information. Comprehension of linguistic and semantic patterns involves visual skills,
perceptual skills, vocabulary skills, skimming skills, critical reading skills, and knowledge of
how linguistic symbols combine to convey meaning. However, the comprehension of discipline-
specific information transfer entails a basic understanding of the subject and familiarity with the
material.
Active and Passive Reading
Reading is not merely a passive process of absorbing the message encoded in the printed word,
but a dynamic communicative process in which the reader approaches the text for a particular
reason. You need to be an active reader rather than a passive one. Active reading refers to a set
of reading practices you may use to help understand the meaning of a written message.

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Active Reading Passive Reading
*The reader pays attention to both content as *The reader pays attention to either content or
well as style style.
*The reader interprets and analyses what he or *The reader does not analyse what he or she
she reads in order to understand both explicit reads
as well as implicit meaning of a written *The reader does not predict and respond to
message context
*The reader pays attention to the writer’s *The reader does not pay attention to the
intention writers intention
*The reader differentiates between ideas, *The reader does not distinguish between
opinions feelings, and facts factual and non-factual information
*The reader infers the meaning of unfamiliar *The reader does not infer the meaning of
words from contextual or internal clues unfamiliar words from contextual or internal
*The reader identifies and evaluates a writer’s clues
attitude *The reader does not identify or evaluate a
*The reader understands and interprets graphic writer’s attitude
information *The reader does not interpret graphics
*The reader draws inferences and conclusions *the reader is only concerned with the literal
meaning of a written message

The passages that are given for reading comprehension in different examinations are drawn
from different subject areas, including humanities, social sciences, life sciences, and physical
sciences. Some are considered more difficult than others.
The passages you will encounter in any examination will most likely relate to one of the
following five topics that will be elaborated here. Each types of passage calls for a slightly
different optimum test-taking strategy .
Science Passages
These passages deal with hard facts of science, and the topics are related to different
branches of science such as biology, chemistry, medicine, etc. They are objective and neutral
in tone. Often, you will observe that the terminology in such write-ups is a little complex,
but the theme is quite tangible. You should approach these types of passages by doing an
initial speed reading/skimming of the text. Your goal in the first reading is simply to
understand how the passage is structured and to analyse its outline. This will help you focus
on the main idea of the passage.
Since science passages are mostly factual and straightforward, they probably provide the
easiest questions you will encounter in reading comprehension. Normally, you are not likely
to see many inference questions drawn on a science passage. You are much more likely to
see several factual questions that can be answered directly from the passage. Thus, science
passages are likely to form the easiest reading comprehension question you encounter.
Social Science Passages

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Typically, these passages deal with topics such as history, politics, psychology, geography,
philosophy, literature, language, art, music, social theories, etc. In other words, social
science is a broad term that includes many subject areas under its roof. This may give a
perspective or outlook on the history of something which you are not aware of, or provide an
insight into psychology or sociology. In other words, they are in contrast to the hard core
science passages and their questions deal more with inferences and less with explicit
information given in the passage. They will probably be the most enjoyable reading
comprehension passages you will read. Despite this, you must read these passages
painstakingly in order to answer the many inference questions they are sure to present.
While reading such texts, you are required to not just read what is explicitly stated but also
figure out what is implicitly suggested. Such passages require you to read between the lines.

Business Passages
Business passages involve very difficult structures. They present questions that require you
to infer information and at times even determine the authors’ mood, views, and opinions.
They need to be read slowly and carefully. Many people think they understand the
economics better than they do. Be especially careful to answer questions based on the
content in the passage (not other things you have read) and be clear on the differing opinions
that the passage presents. Have an in-depth understanding of financial twists and woes,
market trends, foreign exchange, and export and import trade, etc to be comfortable in
reading passages of this type.

Entertainment Passages
This usually discusses a topic related to entertainment, sports, or leisure. The passage could
be a topic such as lifestyle of the rich and famous, the reason for the success of a Hollywood
or Bollywood movie, or current dilemmas in sports, or some trends in adventure sports.

Literary Passages/Poems
At times, you get a literary passage or a poem for reading comprehension. While reading one
such piece of writing you need to understand and appreciate the imaginative and creative use
of language. So you need to develop sensitivity to the author’s attitude or the poet’s vision
while reading their works. You are supposed to understand the themes and sub-themes. Also
identify the element of style such as a humour, pathos, satire, irony, etc.

Approaches to Efficient Reading

You should know that forced acceleration may destroy confidence in one’s ability to read.
The obvious solution, then, is to increase your reading pace as a part of the total
improvement of the whole reading process.

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 Reading and Interpreting Graphic Information
As technical writers use several graphic techniques to presenttechnical information, readers
should be able to understand and interpret these graphic elements.
A table is a very simple graphic aid that organizes data into groups and shows quantitative data
and related information. It may show several variables for a number of items and convey
maximum data in minimum space. In order to interpret and analyse a table, the reader should
concentrate on the information given in the columns and rows.

Graphic Aids Functions

Tables *Organise data into groups and show quantitative
Bar Charts/Diagrams data and related information.
Tree Diagrams/Organizational Charts *Show comparative or contrastive information
Graphs/Line Charts/Line Diagrams *show classificatory data
Flow Diagrams *show the trend or relationship between two
Pie Charts/Diagrams dimensions
Flow Charts *show the steps of a process
*show information related to proportions or
percentages
*present complex processes.

Diagrams and charts are frequently used by technical writers to simplify complex information.
They are used to present comparative, contrastive, or classificatory information. In order to
interpret them, the reader should understand their nature and functions. Diagrams include bar
diagrams, tree diagrams, line diagrams, flow diagrams, and pie diagrams while charts include bar
charts, organizational charts, line charts, pie charts, and flow charts.

Bar diagrams and charts show comparative or contrastive information, convey relative
magnitude, provide comparative analysis, and illustrate information classified into different
groups. Tree diagrams or organizational charts show classificatory data and provide
classificatory analysis. Flow diagrams show the steps of a simple process whereas flow charts
present complex process. Pie diagrams and charts show the relative size of the parts of a whole
and show information related to proportions or percentages.

A graph is another important technique or simplify and present complex information. Graphs as
well as line diagrams and line charts show the trend or relationship between two dimensions,
reveal the distribution of data points in a certain dimension, and show trends in data. Moreover,
they focus on the change in quantity

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 Mechanics of Summarising
Since technical language is concise, it is essential ot know how to write summarises. Writing a
summary is one of the most important study skills needed by professional students. It also helps
in reading as it forces us to focus on what we read. It encourages you active reading and helps
remember the material better. Summarizing also improves our ability to write concisely by
making us aware of the kind of details of expressions that can be avoided to achieve precision in
writing.
The meaning of the word summary is ‘summed up’, or ‘condensed’. Summarizing is an essential
study skill required for study purposes. Students need summarizing skills for various purposes.
Then may have to write an abstract a synopsis, a précis, or an outline. They need to understand
these terms before becoming familiar with the concept of summarizing.
An abstract is a very short version of a long text or passage. Every research article or paper
contains an abstract, which very briefly tells the reader what the article is all about. A synopsis is
generally a brief account of a research plan, which a researcher is supposed to submit before he
or she starts the research work. Precis, which is synonymous with summary, is a brief account of
something without details or formalities. An outline is a sketch in phrases or sentences that
professional writers make before they start writing a professional document like a proposal or a
report.
All the above forms of writing involve the process of summarizing. Now we can define
summarizing as a process of condensing information without changing the original meaning and
focus of a passage. This requires language competence and regular practice.
Summarizing like note making is a productive skill integrating both reading and writing skills. It
involves the following:
Reading Strategy/plan:
A careful reading plan to identify the central idea,
the main points and important supporting details are as follows
Summarising Techniques:
Rejection, selection, substitution.
Outlining and Paraphrasing

Reading Strategy
In order to summarise a text or a passage, a careful reading plan should be adopted to ensure
complete comprehension. The following reading method may be used:
• Glance through the text quickly in order to understand its central idea and main
points. Concentrate on the topic, heading, and sub-headings.
• Then, read the text again carefully in order to understand the details. You should
be able to make a distinction between:
- Main versus secondary points
- Facts versus opinions
- Ideas versus examples and opinions

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 - Important versus less important points
- Relevant versus irrelevant information
- Explicit versus implicit information
• While making a detailed reading of the text , you should analyse it in order to
- Recognize key lexical items and markers of cohesion to identify relationships
among different units within the texts;
- Identify all examples, repetitions, restatements, and unnecessary details in
order to remove them;
- Note phrases and expressions that can be replaced by words or shorter
phrases; and
- Note the logical organization of the passage (the logical order may be changed
without disturbing the meaning)
-
Summarisng Techniques
Mainly three techniques are used in summarizing, that is, selection, rejection and substitution.
Selection
In order to summarise a passage, the reader may select what is important. This process of
choosing the information that is essential to the meaning of the passage is known as ‘selection’.
In order to select the core information, the reader need to concentrate on the central idea or
theme of a passage, main points and major supporting points. He/she may select the following in
a text or passage:
(a) The theme, as expressed in the main heading or title;
(b) The main ideas of each paragraph and a few key phrases that support the main idea;
and
(c) Special terms or new phrases essential to understand the theme

Rejection
Rejection is the process of removing all that is not important. The reader may reject all
information that is unnecessary or redundant. The following are generally not included in a
summary:
(a) Repetitions
(b) Examples and illustrations
(c) Redundant expressions
(d) Minor supporting details

Substitution
In order to summarise a passage, the technique of substitution may have to be used. It may
involve synthesis (combining several sentences into one sentence), sentence substitution
(substituting short sentences for long and clumsy sentences), and one word substation
(substituting one precise word for several words or phrases).

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Synthesis: Synthesis, which is grammar strategy of combining several sentences into one
sentence, may be effectively used in summarizing.

Sentence Substitution (Short sentences may be used to substitute long sentences)

Outlining and Paraphrasing

An outline of the core information given in a passage should be prepared writing a summary of
it. An ‘outline’ is defined as a general statement without details. An outline of a passage or a text
is a sketch containing only the main ideas. Once an outline of the core information has been
prepared, the passage should be reconstructed by paraphrasing the core information.
Paraphrasing refers to the process of rewriting a passage or text in different words
without changing or distorting its original meaning. It involves changes in lexis, structure, and
the logical organization of the core information in a passage without changing its meaning.
Paraphrasing requires various linguistic skills, which include using appropriate
synonyms, replacing sentence patterns by appropriate equivalents, simplifying difficult terms and
expressions for clarity, and modifying paragraph structure and organization without altering the
basic meaning. Paraphrasing has its uses in several writing activities. As technical writing
involves selection of relevant material, evaluating evidence, and drawing appropriate
conclusions, the ability to rephrase technical material in one’s own words is essential. Rewriting
and rephrasing are essential components of effective presentations.

Dos and Dontsof Paraphrasing

• Note down the essential/core information
• Read the core information for identifying all the words and phrases that can be replaced
without distorting the meaning of the passage.
• Restructure the outlines by using different words, phrases, sentence structures, sentence
types and organization.
• Note expressions that can be replaced by changing sentence structure/sentence type.
• Do not replace scientific and technical terms, or standard formal phrases.
• Note the logical structure of the passage. (Micro-structure=the ordering of phrases and
sentences in a paragraph and Macro-structure=the ordering of main points/main
supporting details in a passage.) The logical order can be changed without disturbing the
original meaning.
• All the words and expressions changed.
• A final draft should be prepared.

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 Use of Visual Aids in Technical Communication
Visual aids are an important part of written technical communication. These include illustrations
such as tables, graphs, maps, diagrams, charts, or photographs. Text and illustrations are
complementary in technical communication. These are used extensively in reports, presentations,
and proposals, to support the facts and figures being investigated and presented. Visual
communication has more impact than verbal communication. Using illustrations has many
advantages:
• Arouses interest and focuses on essentials
• Leads the reader to quicker comprehension
• Supports and reinforces words
• Saves much time and effort in explaining and
interpreting complex ideas
• Explains the data in much lesser space but with greater accuracy
• Simplifies numerical data
• Emphasizes and clarifies certain facts and relationships
• Makes the descriptions vivid and eye-catching
• Renders a professional flavour to the communication
Guidelines to use illustrations effectively. The illustrations should be
• neat, accurate, and self-contained
• appropriate to the data
• labelled completely
• self-contained
• integrated with the text
• placed as close to the first reference as possible
• sized appropriately so that they are clear even upon reproduction
• such that they create a good balance between the verbal and the visual

Graphics can be used to represent the following elements in technical writing.

Concepts This element depicts non-physical, conceptual things and their relationships. If you
want to show how your company is organized, that is, the relationships between the different
departments and officials, you could set up an organization chart—boxes and circles connected
with lines that show how everything is hierarchically arranged and related
Objects
Photographs, drawings, diagrams, and schematics are the types of graphics that show objects. If
you are describing a fuel-injection system, you will probably need a drawing or diagram to
explain the system properly.
Numbers
Numbers are used while presenting data and statistics. If you are discussing the rising cost of
housing in a particular city, you could use a table, with the columns showing the data for
fiveyear periods since 1995. The rows could be for different types of housing. You could show
the same data in the form of bar charts, pie charts, or line graphs.
Words
Graphics are also used to depict words. You have probably noticed how textbooks put key
definitions and examples in boxes with words.

Visual aids can be broadly classified into two main categories, namely tables and figures.
All illustrations other than tables are usually categorized under figures.
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In the process of selecting and designing illustrations, choosing the appropriate type is important.
Which type of illustration can be used most effectively to accomplish the desired objective?
What type will present the facts more clearly?
The type of data will often aid in the selection of the appropriate type of media.
Several factors are considered for a decision of this kind, such as the nature of the data, the
anticipated use, and the intended audience. These factors are usually interrelated.

The following preliminary steps must be taken.

• First the material must be arranged in some sort of systematic order: a series, a
distribution, or some other logical arrangement.
• Next, we must be thoroughly familiar with the material and be aware of the implications
of its use.
• The final step involves a decision about the type of illustration to be used.
I. Tables
The most important use of tables is for presenting numerical data.
A table is a systematic arrangement of numbers, words, or phrases in rows and columns, used to
depict original numerical data as well as derived statistics. It permits rapid access to and
relatively easy comparison of information. If the data is arranged chronologically (for example,
sales figures over a ten-year period), the table can show trends—patterns of rising or falling
activity. Of course, tables are not necessarily the most clear or vivid means of showing such
trends or relationships between data—that is why we have charts and graphs (discussed later in
this chapter).
There are three types of tables:
• Dependent: Dependent tables are those whose contents cannot be understood without going
through the text. This type is used for presenting less data
• Independent: Independent tables are the most commonly used ones. Though the text should
explain each table, readers need not go through the text to understand the contents of these tables
• Phrase: Phrase tables are used when the data is in words or phrases instead of numerical figures
Advantages and disadvantages
The tabular form of presentation, while simple for the communicator, has both advantages and
disadvantages. A lot of numerical figures can be depicted through a table. A number of
combinations are possible in the tabular form; for example, numeric and non-numeric data can
be depicted together. However, it also has certain disadvantages: while it is a part of visual
depiction, yet, visually, the details are not evident at a glance. Occasionally, the writer might, in
the process of putting in too much data, make it too detailed and complicated. Finally, there is
very little visual appeal in tables.

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II.Graphs
Graphs are actually just another way of presenting the same data that is presented in tables— in a
more impressive and interesting way. A chart or diagram offers less detail or precision than
tables. Several types of graphs can be used. The various types are rectilinear or line graph, bar
graph, pie graph, scatter graph, pictorial graph, and surface graph.

Line graphs: Line graphs are used to show continuous change with respect to time. For
example, the increase, decrease, or no change in temperature along with time can be depicted
through a line graph. If two or three experiments have been conducted, the three different
readings can be depicted using three lines.

Bar graphs: Bar graphs are effective in emphasizing the comparison of various data items. They
can be used to depict the quantity of different items during the same period or the same item
during different periods. They could be of various types: vertical with singular or multiple bars
stacked or comparative and horizontal. If these graphs depict more than one variable, two colours
or designs are used to highlight the difference between the two variables.

Pie graphs: Alternatively known as a percentage graph or circle graph, a pie graph is a circular
chart divided into sectors, illustrating proportion In such type of graph, the arc length of each
sector (and consequently its central angle and area) is proportional to the quantity it represents.
This is one of the most popular forms used to depict the share of various categories making up a
certain quantity and their correlations to the whole as a percentage.

Scatter graph A scatter graph is used to show the correlation between two variables. Usually,
dots (•) or crosses (×) are used to represent the data. In scatter graphs, the plotted data must lead
to clusters. The absence of clustering refers to the absence of correlation between the two items
represented on the horizontal and vertical axes.

III. Pictograms /pictorial graph Pictograms are similar to bar graphs, with figures or small
pictures plotted instead of bars. The pictures are chosen in accordance with the variables
represented. This graph is self-explanatory; for example, if a graph were to indicate the
population boom in the last five years, human figures could be used, thus illustrating the point
being made by the writer. The advantage of pictograms is that large numbers can be presented by
a single cluster of figures. Much time and effort goes into the design of this graph so as to make
it truly representative of the situation it seeks to address

Area graphs Area graphs can be used to show how something changes over time. Usually, the x
axis represents the time period and the y axis represents the variable being measured. Area
graphs can be used to plot data that has peaks (ups) and valleys (downs), or data that was
collected in a short time period.These graphs also help to compare
trends over a period of time.

IV. Charts: There are two types of charts: organization charts and flow charts.

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Organization charts are generally used to illustrate the various positions or functions of an
organization. Most of the communication channels in an organization are described through such
charts.

Flow charts
Flow charts present a sequence of activities from start to finish. They are normally used to
illustrate processes, procedures, and relationships. The various elements in the chart are
generally depicted through geometrical figures Circular or oval boxes are used to indicate the
start or stop of the procedure, diamond-shaped boxes represent decision-making steps, and
rectangular boxes indicate processing steps. Arrows indicate the process
flow.

V.Drawings and Diagrams

In technical documents, drawings and diagrams are used to depict the objects, processes, circuits,
etc. that are being described. Diagrams can be used to show the normal, sectional, or cut-away
view of an object. Drawings and photographs range from those showing minimal detail to those
illustrating maximal and minute details. For example, a simple line drawing of how to graft a
fruit tree reduces the detail to simple lines representing the hands, the tools, the graft stock, and
the graft.

VI. Photographs
Photographs are often used in feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports. For example,
if you are recommending a photocopier, or if you want to compare various cars, automated teller
machines, etc., you might want to include photographs to support your report. Photographs give
the reader a realistic view of the object.
VII. Maps
Maps graphically represent spatial relationships on plane surfaces. They are used to establish a
frame of reference and to facilitate the understanding of spatial relationships that are difficult to
describe in words, especially to serve as navigational aid. The choice of scale for a map depends
on its purpose and the amount of detail to be shown. It should be an accurate representation of
the geographic details (places, buildings, streets, etc.)

Graphic Organizers

Increasing Understanding by Creating Graphic Organizers:

The process of converting a mass of data/information/ideas into a graphic map gives the student
an increased understanding and insight into the topic at hand. To create the map, the student must
concentrate on the relationships between the items and examine the meanings attached to each of
them. While creating a map, the student must also prioritize the information, determining which
parts of the material are the most important and should be focused upon, and where each item
should be placed in the map.

The creation of graphic organizers also helps the student generate ideas as they develop and note
their thoughts visually. The possibilities associated with a topic become clearer as the student's
ideas are classified visually.

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Uses of Graphic Organizers:
Graphic organizers can be used to structure writing projects, to help in problem solving, decision
making, studying, planning research and brainstorming.

Creating Graphic Organizers:

Graphic organizers can be drawn free-hand or printed. To go to print outs of many graphic
organizers, click on one of the links above or below.

Adding color-coding and/or pictures to a graphic organizer further increases the utility and
readability of the visual display.

The task at hand determines the type of graphic organizer that is appropriate. The following is a
list of common graphic organizers - choose the format that best fits your

How to Choose a Graphic Organizer for Your Topic/Task (click on a graphic

organizer below to go to printable worksheets):

Star: If the topic involves investigating attributes associated with a single topic, use a

star diagram as your graphic organizer. Example: Find in methods that help your study

skills (like taking notes, reading, doing homework, memorizing, etc.).

Spider: If the topic involves investigating attributes associated with a single topic, and

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 then obtaining more details on each of these ideas, use a spider diagram as your

graphic organizer. This is like the star graphic organizer with one more level of detail.

Example: Finding methods that help your study skills (like taking notes, reading,

memorizing, etc.), and investigating the factors involved in performing each of the

methods.

Fishbone: If the topic involves investigating multiple cause-and-effect factors

associated with a complex topic and how they inter-relate; use a fishbone diagram as

your graphic organizer. Example: Examining the effects of improved farming methods.

Cloud/Cluster: If the topic involves generating a web of ideas based on a stimulus

topic, use a clustering diagram as your graphic organizer. Example: brainstorming.

Tree: If the topic involves a chain of events with a beginning and with multiple outcomes

at each node (like a family tree), use a tree as your graphic organizer.

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Example:Displaying the probabilistic results of tossing coins.

Chain of Events: If the topic involves a linear chain of events, with a definite beginning,

middle, and end, use a chain of events graphic organizer. Example: Analyzing the plot

of a story.

Continuum/Timeline: If the topic has definite beginning and ending points and a

number of divisions or sequences in between, use a continuum/timeline. Example:

Displaying milestones in a person's life.

Clock: If the topic involves a clock-like cycle, use a clock graphic

organizer. Example topic: Recording the events in a typical school day or making a

story clock to summarize a story.

Cycle of Events: If the topic involves a recurring cycle of events, with no beginning and

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no end, use a cyclic graphic organizer. Example topic: Documenting the stages in the

life cycle of an animal.

Flowchart: If the topic involves a chain of instructions to follow, with a beginning and

multiple possible outcomes at some node, with rules at some nodes, use a flowchart.

Example: Computer programmers sometimes use flowcharts to organize the algorithm

before writing a program.

Venn Diagram: If the task involves examining the similarities and differences between

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two or three items, use a Venn diagram. Example: Examining the similarities and

differences between fish and whales, or comparing a book and the accompanying

movie.

Chart / Matrix Diagram: If the task involves condensing and organizing data about

traits of many items, use a chart/matrix. Example: Creating a display of key inventions,

who invented them, when, where and why they were invented, etc.

Y-Chart Diagram: If the task involves analyzing and organizing with respect

to three qualities, use a Y-Chart. Example: Fill out a Y-Chart to describe

what you know about an animal, including what it looks like, what it sounds like, and

what it feels like. Or describe a character in a book, including what the character looks

like, sounds like, and how the character feels.

T-Chart Diagram: If the task involves analyzing or comparing with two aspects

of the topic, use a T-Chart. Example: Fill out a T-Chart to evaluate the pros and cons

associated with a decision.

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Fact/Opinion: If the task involves distinguishing the facts vs. the opinions in a theme or

text, use fact/opinion charts. Example: Fill out a fact/opinion chart to evaluate the facts

and opinions presented in a news article.

PMI Diagram: If the task involves analyzing the plusses, minuses, and implicatios of a

decision or an action, use a PMI Chart. Example: Fill out a PMI Chart to help evaluate

the positive, negative and interesting points associated with taking a new job

Decision Making Diagrams: If the task is making a decision, use a graphic organizer

to enumerate possible alternatives and the pros and cons of each. Example: Fill out a

desicion making diagram to help decide which elective courses you'd like to take next

quarter

Semantic Feature Analysis Charts: If the task is comparing characteristics among a

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group of items, use Semantic Feature Analysis . Example: Fill out a Semantic Feature

Analysis chart to compare and contrast the care needed for various pets.

Cause and Effect Diagrams: If the task is examining possible causes and effects in a

process, use a cause and effect graphic organizer. Example: Fill out a cause-and-effect

diagram to trace the steps in a feedback loop..

KWHL Diagram: If the task involves analyzing and organizing what you know and what

you want to learn about a topic, use a KWHL chart. K stands for what you already

KNOW about the subject. W stands for what you WANT to learn. H stands for figuring

out HOW you can learn more about the topic. L stands for what you LEARN as you

read. Example: Fill out a KWHL chart before, during, and after you read about a topic.

Pie Charts: If the task involves showing divisions with a group, use a pie chart
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Example: Draw a pie chart to show what percentages of a population have blue eyes,

green eyes, or brown eyes.

Vocabulary Map: Graphic organizers can be useful in helping a student learn new

vocabulary words, having them list the word, its part of speech (noun, verb, adjective,

adverb, etc.), a synonym, an antonym, a drawing that represents the word, and a

sentence using the word.

Paragraph Structure: These graphic organizers help you organize the structure of a

paragraph, including a topic sentence, sentences with support details, and a conclusion

sentence.

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5 W's Diagram: If the task involves analyzing the Five W's (Who, When, Where, What,

and Why) of a story or event. Example: Fill out a

5 W's Chart to help evaluate and understand the major points of a newspaper story.

Story Map: Story maps can help a student summarize, analyze and understand or

Event

Character Traits: Graphic organizers help the student identify the traits of fictional

characters by looking at events surrounding the character in the text.

Biography Diagrams Graphic organizers are useful to help prepare for writing a

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biography. Before writing, the graphic organizer prompts the student to think about and

list the major events in the person's life.

Animal Report Diagrams: Many graphic organizers are useful to help

prepare for writing a report on animals. Before writing, the student should

think about and list the major topics that will be researched and covered

in the report.

Geography Report Diagrams: These graphic organizers are useful to for

doing a short report on a country or other area. The student draws a map

and flag, and looks up basic information on the area.

Math Diagrams: Many graphic organizers are useful to learn and do math, include

Venn diagrams, star diagrams, charts, flowcharts, trees, etc.

Scientific Method Diagrams: Graphic organizers used to prepare and

organize a scientific experiment.

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