Chapter 6: Space Physics

Earth:

Earth is planet.

It rotates about it's tilted axis once every 24 hour. This explains apparent motion of Sun across sky (Sun appears to move
around Earth, but it doesn't. It is the Earth that moves.).

Earth orbits the sun once every 365 days.

Seasons of Earth:

Northern and southern hemisphere experience opp. seasons.

When northern hemi. has summer (as it is closer to Sun and gets more daylight hours), the southern hemi. is winter (as it is
farther away from Sun and gets less daylight hours).

Moon:

Moon is only natural satellite of Earth.

It orbits planet Earth once every month.

Depending on where moon is relative to Earth, it's phase changes.

Day 0 (month start) Day 7 Day 14 (half-month) Day 22 Day 29 (month end)

Orbital Speed:

Cal. Orbital speed: v = (𝑚/𝑠)

Where r is orbital radius, T is orbital period.

Orbital speed is also how fast planet is spinning about itself.

• Orbital radius: Distance between the center of orbit (planet) and object.

• Orbital period: Time taken for object to complete one full orbit.

Note: orbital radius = distance from surface to surface + radius of planet. If orbital radius itself given, no need for radius of
planet.

The Solar System:

Our solar system contains:

• One star - Sun

• Eight named planets by order
• Minor planets orbiting Sun (includes asteroids in asteroid belt and dwarf planets like Pluto)
• Moons orbiting planets
• Smaller bodies like comets and natural satellites
Note: comets orbit Sun, but in elliptical orbit.

• 4 planets closest to Sun, small and rocky.

• 4 planets farthest from Sun, large and gaseous.

Explaining formation of planets in Solar System:

1. Solar system begins as swirling (spinning) ball of dust and gas, called a nebula.
2. Gravity pulls mass to center forming proto-star. This becomes stable star when inward force of gravity equals outward
force of heat from star (Sun).
3. Mass (gas) not pulled to center continues to spin in flat disc called accretion disc.
4. Gravity pulls this dust and gas to make larger rocks that orbit star (Sun), called protoplanets, which later form planets.
Why are 4 planets closest to Sun, small and rocky? Why are farthest 4 large and gaseous?

Heat from Sun (solar winds) forced lighter elements farther away. So, 4 planets closest are formed of heavier and rocky
elements. The farther planets are formed mostly of gases.

Gravitational Field Strength:

Def.: Force per unit mass acting on object in field.

2 factors influence gravitational field strength:

• Mass: More mass, more gravitational field strength on surface of planet (gets weaker beyond it).
• Distance: The larger distance from planet, the weaker field strength.

Sun has most mass of Solar System, so it has strongest gravitational field strength. This is why all planets orbit Sun.

Shape of orbits:

Minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits around Sun - Sun is not exactly in center, unless orbit nearly circular.

In elliptical orbit, the closer planet is to Sun, g.p.e. ↓ and k.e. ↑ , the farther planet is for Sun, g.p.e. ↑ and k.e. ↓

Note: Planets move in elliptical orbit.

Analyzing planetary data:

• Orbital distance:
The larger the distance, the weaker gravitational attraction to Sun.
• Density:
 The lower the density, the larger the size of planet (Gas giants have low density and large volume).
• Surface Temp.:
i. Generally, the further a planet is, the cooler the range of surface temp.
ii. White and black surfaces effect radiation (heating/cooling).
iii. Planets with no atmosphere cannot retain heat, cooling and heating quickly.
• Uniform gravitational field strength:
The greater gravitational field strength on surface, the greater mass of planet.

Sun:

Our sun is medium-sized star. It consists mostly of hydrogen and helium. It radiates most of it's energy in the form of infrared,
visible and ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum.

Stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy. In stable stars, nuclear reaction involves fusion of hydrogen into
helium (releasing energy).

A star is stable when inward force of gravity = outward force of heat from nuclear reaction.

Galaxies:

• Galaxy is made of many billions of stars (and collection of solar systems).

• Sun is star in Milky Way galaxy.
• Other stars in Milky Way much further from Earth than Sun.

Distances in space (Lightyear):

Def.: Distance travelled by light in space in one year (365d). 1lightyear = 9.5 × 10 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠

You get lightyear by, s = vt, speed of light × 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 → 3 × 10 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 (in seconds in 1 year)

Speed of light is 3 × 10 𝑚 𝑖𝑛 1 second.

Life cycle of star:

• Star is formed from interstellar clouds of gas and dust that contain hydrogen.
• Proto-star is an interstellar cloud collapsing and increasing in temp. as result of it’s internal gravitational attraction.
• Proto-star becomes stable when inward force of gravitational attraction is balanced by outward force due to high temp. in
center of star.
• All stars eventually run out of hydrogen - as fuel for nuclear reaction.
• Most stars (medium sized) expand to red giant.
• More massive sized stars expand to red super-giant.
• Expansion happens when most hydrogen in center is converted to helium.
• Red giant expands (of medium sized stars) form planetary nebula with a white dwarf at center.
• Red super-giant explodes as supernova, forming a nebula containing hydrogen and new heavier elements, leaving behind a
black hole or neutron star at center.
• The nebula from supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets.
The Milky Way:

It is 100, 000 lightyears in diameter. There are billions of galaxies in the universe.

Redshift:

Def.: Increase in observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from receding stars and galaxies.

The faster the receding star (or galaxy), the more wavelength is redshifted.

Note: This is evidence of distance between galaxies increasing; so Universe is expanding.

CMBR (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation):

Def.: Microwave radiation of specific frequency, observed at all points in space.

Note: CMBR produced shortly after Universe formed, this radiation wavelength expanded into microwave region of
electromagnetic spectrum as Universe expanded.

Hubble Constant:

Def.: Ratio of speed at which galaxy is moving away from Earth to it's distance from Earth.

Cal. Hubble constant: 𝐻 = (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑) 𝐻 = 2.2 × 10 𝑠 (per second).

• Finding speed: Speed at which galaxy is moving away from Earth can be found from change in wavelength of the galaxy's
starlight due to redshift.

• Finding distance: Distance of far galaxy A can be determined by brightness of a supernova in galaxy A.

Age of Universe:

= represents an estimate of age of Universe. This is evidence for idea that all matter in Universe was present at a single
point.

Finding age of Universe:

1 1
= → 4.54 × 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 → 𝑡𝑜 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 ≈ 14 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑙𝑑 (× 10 )
𝐻 2.2 × 10 (𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠)