DEPARTMENT MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

LAB MANUAL

SUBJECT NAME Instrumentation And Control Systems Lab

SUBJECT CODE 2070384
COURSE-BRANCH B. Tech - Mechanical Engineering
YEAR-SEMESTER IV - I
ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-2024
REGULATION MLRS-R20

MARRI LAXAMAN REDDY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
MISSION AND VISION OF THE INSTITUTE:

Our Vision:

To establish as an ideal academic institution in the service of the nation the world and the humanity
by graduating talented engineers to be ethically strong globally competent by conducting high
quality research, developing breakthrough technologies and disseminating and preserving
technical knowledge.

Our Mission:

To fulfill the promised vision through the following strategic characteristics and aspirations:

 Contemporary and rigorous educational experiences that develop the engineers and
managers;

 An atmosphere that facilitates personal commitment to the educational success of students

in an environment that values diversity and community;

 Prudent and accountable resource management;

 Undergraduate programs that integrate global awareness, communication skills and team
building across the curriculum;

 Leadership and service to meet society’s needs;

 Education and research partnerships with colleges, universities, and industries to graduate
education and training that prepares students for interdisciplinary engineering research and
advanced problem solving;

 Highly successful alumni who contribute to the profession in the global society.

Vision and Mission statements of the Department of Mechanical Engineering:

Vision Statement:

“The Mechanical Engineering Department strives immense success in the field of education,
research and development by nurturing the budding minds of young engineers inventing sets of
new designs and new products which may be envisaged as the modalities to bring about a green
future for humanity”

Mission Statement:

1. Equipping the students with manifold technical knowledge to make them efficient and
independent thinkers and designers in national and international arena.

2. Encouraging students and faculties to be creative and to develop analytical abilities and
efficiency in applying theories into practice, to develop and disseminate new knowledge.
 3. Pursuing collaborative work in research and development organizations, industrial
enterprises, Research and academic institutions of national and international, to introduce
new knowledge and methods in engineering teaching and research in order to orient young
minds towards industrial development.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVE

PEO 1: Graduates shall have knowledge and skills to succeed as Mechanical engineers for their
career development.

PEO 2: Graduates will explore in research.

PEO 3: Mechanical Graduates shall have the ability to design products with various
interdisciplinary skills

PEO 4: Graduates will serve the society with their professional skills
PROGRAM OUTCOMES

A. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals and an engineering specialization for the solution of complex engineering
problems.
B. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, research, review the available literature and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural science and engineering sciences.
C. Design and development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specific needs with appropriate
considerations for public health safety and cultural, societal and environmental
considerations.
D. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data and synthesis
of the information to provide valid conclusions.
E. Modern tool usage: Create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources and modern
engineering and IT tools including predictions and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
F. The Engineer and society: Apply reasoning, informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practices.
G. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in society and environmental context and demonstrate the knowledge of and need
for sustainable development.
H. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commitment to professional ethics, responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
I. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader
in diverse teams and in multi-disciplinary settings.
J. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with the society at large, such as being able to comprehend,
write effective reports, design documentation, make effective presentations, give and
receive clear instructions.
K. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
L. Life – long learning: Recognize the need and have the preparation, ability to engage in
independent and life – long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES:

PS01: Students acquire necessary technical skills in mechanical engineering that make them
employable graduate.
PSO2: An ability to impart technological inputs towards development of society by becoming an
entrepreneur.
COURSE OBJECTIVES:

1. Explain the various physical parameters viz., displacement, temperature, pressure, stress,
strain, force, torque, power, speed, acceleration, vibrations, flow, level, etc.
2. To address the underlying concepts and methods behind instrumentation and control
systems.
3. Instruments required for measuring various parameters are studied in detail
4. Determine various physical parameters that can be effectively used for measurement other
physical quantities as a secondary input
5. Design and develop solutions for complex problems of designing system components to
meet the needs of a specific instrument
6. Understand in detail instrument characteristics, errors and their elimination

COURSE OUTCOMES:

ME 384.1 Analyse errors, integrate and interpret different types of measurements.

ME 384.2 Understand how physical quantities are measured and how they are converted to
electrical forms.

ME 384.3 Evaluate the measurement of speed in engineering applications and importance of

speed measurement in instrumentation.

ME 384.4 Visualize the areas affected with pressure in equipment and calibrate the pressure
measuring devices.

ME 384.5 Comprehend the level of liquid in any container and the various applications of
measurement of flow.

ME 384.6 Able to analyse Instrumentation and Control systems and their applications of
various industries.
 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENTS

1. Every student should obtain a copy of the laboratory manual

2. It is important that all students arrive at each session on time.
3. Dress code: Students must come to the laboratory wearing:
 Trousers.
 half-sleeve tops.
 Leather shoes.
 Half pants, loosely hanging garments and slippers are not allowed.
4. Students should come with thorough preparation for the experiment to be conducted.
5. Students will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the practical
record fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment conducted in the
previous class.
6. Experiment should be started only after the staff-in-charge has checked the experimental
setup.
7. All the calculations should be made in the observation book. Specimen calculations for one
set of readings have to be shown in the practical record.
8. Wherever graphs are to be drawn, A-4 size graphs only should be used and the same should
be firmly attached to the practical record.
9. Practical record and observation should be neatly maintained.
10. They should obtain the signature of the staff-in-charge in the observation book after
completing each experiment.
11. Theory regarding each experiment should be written in the practical record before
procedure in your own words.
 LABORATORY SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1. Laboratory uniform, shoes & safety glasses are compulsory in the lab.
2. Do not touch anything with which you are not completely familiar. Carelessness may not
only break the valuable equipment in the lab but may also cause serious injury to you and
others in the lab.
3. Please follow instructions precisely as instructed by your supervisor. Do not start the
experiment unless your setup is verified & approved by your supervisor.
4. Do not leave the experiments unattended while in progress.
5. Do not crowd around the equipment’s & run inside the laboratory.
6. During experiments material may fail and disperse, please wear safety glasses and maintain
a safe distance from the experiment.
7. If any part of the equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your supervisor.
Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could further damage the equipment and
harm yourself and others in the lab.
8. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work and cleanup
after your work.
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Calibration of transducer for temperature measurements.

2. Study and calibration of LVDT transducer for displacement measurements.

3. Calibration of strain gauge

4. Calibration of thermocouple for temperature measurements.

5. Calibration of capacitive transducer for angular displacement.

6. Study and calibration of photo and magnetic speed pickups for the measurement of speed.

7. Calibration of resistance temperature detector for temperature measurements.

8. Study and calibration of Rota meter for flow measurement.

9. Study and use of a Seismic pick up for the measurement of vibration.

10. Study and calibration of McLeod gauge for low pressure.

11. Measurement and Control of Temperature Loop of a Process Using Resistance Temperature

Detector With SCADA.

12. Measurement and Control of Flow Loop of a Process Using SCADA Systems.

13. Measurement and Control of Level Loop In a tank Using Capacitive Transducer with SCADA.

14. Measurement and Control of Pressure Loop Using SCADA System.

15. Calibration of pressure gauges.

[Type text]

1. CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGES

Objective: To Find Out the Pressure of A Given Experiment

Out Come: Will Be Able to Analyze How to Measure the Pressure of a Give Experiment
AIM:
To calibrate the given pressure cell

APPARATUS:
Pressure cell, Dial type pressure indicator, Hydraulic dead weight, Pressure
gauge Tester to develop the pressure, Digital pressure indicator.

THEORY:
Pressure is defined as force per unit area and is measured in Newton per square
meter (Pascal) or in terms of an equivalent head of some standard liquid (mm of
mercury or mater of water). A typical pressure gauge will measure the difference in
pressure between two pressure. Thus a pressure gauge is connected to the hydraulic
line and the gauge itself stands in atmospheric pressure. The gauge reading will be the
difference between the air pressure and the atmospheric pressure and is called gauge
pressure. The absolute pressure (the actual pressure within the air line) is the sum of
the gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure transducer is basically an electro mechanical devices, especially
manufactured and designed or wide range application in pressure measurement. The
pressure transducer comprises of diaphragm and an inputs to facilitate pressure
measurement. The strain gauges are bonded directly to the sensing member to provide
excellent linearity, low hysteresis and repeatability. Fluid medium whose parameter
has to be measured is allowed to deflect the diaphragm (sensing member), which is a
single block material and forms an integral part of the pressure transducer. It is made
up non-magnetic stainless steel and thus has the advantage of avoids the yielding
effects and leakage problems. The slight deflection of the diaphragms due to the
pressure provided an electrical output.
The material most commonly used for manufacture of diaphragms are steel,
phosphor bronze, nickel silver and beryllium copper. The deflection generally follows
a linear variation with the diaphragm thickness.

SET UP:

Setup comprises of one Hydraulic Dead weight Pressure gauge tester fitted with
analog pressure gauge and pressure cell to be calibrated. Along with calibrated dead
weights.

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DIGITAL PRESSURE INDICATOR:

Pressure indicator comprises of induct power supply, which provides power for
strain gauge excitation. Signal conditioning and amplifying circuits access input from
the strain gauges, linearisus and amplifies the signal level. The output of the amplifier
is controlled to required level and calibrated to read the pressure in N/Sq Mt. any stray
forces on the sensor can be balanced by balancing the strain gauge bridge through
potentiometer in the front panel till the display reads zero. The system operates by
230V AC supply.

PANEL DETIALS:

POWER: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument, indicates
with red light.
ZERO: Ten turn potentiometer. The display can be adjusted to read Zero when no
force is applied.
CAL: Single turn potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this
potentiometer such that the display gives full scale for given range of sensor.
TO SENSOR: Sensor is connected to the indicator through a four core cable with 5
pin socket at sensor end and respective colour connectors.
MAINS INPUT: Power cable. Power cable to be connected to the mains supply of
230V 50Hz.
FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the instrument to
protect the instrument from internal electrical shorting.
CAUTION: Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains
supply.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the pressure cell to the pressure indicator given cable.

2. Connect the instrument to mains i.e. 230V. Power supply and switch on the
instrument.

3. Adjust the zero pot of the indicator to indicate zero.

4. Close the release valve of pressure gauge tester and apply the 5/10kg dead
weight on flange.

5. Slowly rotate the screw road in clockwise direction with the help of handle until
flange lift up (so that pressure is developed up to applied load). Now observed

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the digital reading. If it is not showing zero then make it zero by rotating ZERO
knob. Now instrument is calibrated.

6. Apply the load (up to 10Kgs) on the flange and give pressure by rotating the
screw rod.

7. Note down the readings of dial gauge and pressure indicator, simultaneously in
every step.

8. Calculate the error if any and % error.

TABLUR COLUMN:

Sl. No Pressure in Pressure in Correction Error % Error

Dial gauge, Digital Pc – Pg Pg – Pc (Pg – Pc)/ Pg
Pc kg / cm2 indicator, Pg *100
kg / cm2

SPECIFICATIONS:

Capacity: 10 Kg / cm2
Type: Strain gauge type
Sensing element: Resistance’s strain gauges
Overload: 10% rated capacity
Excitation: 12V D.C
Resistance in Ohms: 350 Ohms typical
Operating temperature: 10o C to 50o C

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. what are applications of advantages a dead weight tester and gauge comparator?
2. how would you select a pressure gauge for a process?
3. Name a few pressure switch manufacturing companies.
4. what is the output of pressure switch?
5. explain the contact on high and low pressure alarm switches and explain ?
6.What is the principle of Thermistor?
7. What is calibration?
8. How Thermistor used for Temperature measurement?
9.What are the advantages of Thermistor?
10. What is the replacement for temperature measurement if Thermistor is not there?
.

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2. CALIBRATION OF RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR FOR

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Objective: To Find Out the Temperature of A Given Experiment

Out Come: Will Be Able To Analyze How to Measure the Temperature of a Give Experiment

AIM:
To calibrate the given RTD by using Thermometer

APPARATUS:
Temperature sensor (RTD), Heating coil to heat water in water bath, Digital
temperature Indicator & Thermometer.

THEORY:

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or

resistive thermal devices (RTD), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable
change in electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they
are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance
thermometers (PTR). They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many
industrial applications below 600oC, due to higher accuracy and repeatability. There
are many categories like carbon resistors, film and wire wound types are the most
widely used.
Carbon resistors are widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very
reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable from at
extremely low temperatures. They generally do not suffer from significant
hysteresis or strain gauge effects.

Film thermometer have a layer of platinum on a substrate, the layer may be

extremely thin, perhaps one micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively
low cost and fast response. Such devices have improved performance although
the different expansion rates of the substrate and platinum give “strain gauge”
effects and stability problems.

Wire – wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide
temperature ranges.

Coil elements have largely replaced wire wound elements in industry. This
design has a wire coil which can expand freely over temperature, held in place
by some mechanical support which lets the coil keep its shape.

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ADVANTAGES

High accuracy

Low drift

Wide operating range

Suitable for precision applications.

PANEL DETALIS:

POWER ON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument, with red
light indication.
MIN: Single turn potentiometer. The display can be adjusted to read minimum
temperature, when no voltage output from the sensor is measured.
MAX: Single turn potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this pot
such that the display reads same as in the given reference temperature. i.e.
Thermometer temperature reading.
SELECTOR: Two-position selector switches to select thermistor or RTD sensor.
TERMINALS: Screw type terminals are provided to connect the given Thermister &
RTD sensor.
MAINS SUPPLY: Power cable. Power cable to be connected to the mains supply of
230V, 50Hz.
FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the instrument to
protect the instrument from internal electrical shorting.
CAUTION: Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains
supply.

PROCEDURE:
1. Turn the selector switch to the desire position according to the given sensor
probe (Thermister / RTD).

2. Connect the given sensor to the temperature display unit.

3. Place the sensor probe and the thermometer into a beaker containing water at
room temperature.
4. Connect the power supply to the temperature indicator.

5. Record the room temperature from the thermometer.

6. Adjust the MIN setting knob of the temperature indicator until the display
shows the room temperature.

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7. Connect the power supply to hearting coil and heat the water in the bath.

8. Set the temperature of thermocouple to the thermometer reading when the water
is boiling, using MAX knob.

9. Now the given thermocouple is calibrated with reference to thermometer.

Record the thermometer reading and the temperature indicator reading
simultaneously at regular intervals.

OBSERVATION AND TABULAR COLUMN:

RTD and Thermometer

Sl. no Temp. of Water by Temp. of Water by Correction Error % Error

o
RTD, Ta oC C Ta - Tm Tm - Ta (Tm - Ta) /
Thermometer, Tm
Tm

GRAPHS:

Draw the following graphs:

Tm v/s Ta

Correction v/s Tm

% Error v/s Tm

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the instruments are use to temperature measurements?
2. What is standard the temperature sensors?
3. Write the Fahrenheit to centigrade temperature conversion formula?
4. What is thermo couple? How does it work?
5. what is an RTD ? how does it work?

6. What is the principle of RTD?

7. What is calibration?
8. How RTD used for Temperature measurement?
9.What are the advantages RTD?
9. What is the replacement for temperature measurement if RTD is not there?

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3.STUDY AND CALIBRATION OF LVDT TRANDUCER

FOR DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT

Objective: To Find Out the Measurement of Displacement of A Given Experiment

Out Come: Will Be Able to know How to Measure the Displacement of a Give Experiment

AIM:
To calibrate Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) for the
performance using Micrometer.

APPARATUS:
LVDT, Digital Indicator, Micrometer.

THEORY:
LVDT is an inductive transducer used to translate the linear motion into
electrical signal LVDT consists of a single primary winding ‘P’ and two secondary
windings (S1 & S2) wounds on a cylindrical armature. An AC source is connected to
the primary winding. A movable soft iron core attached with an arm placed inside the
armature.
The primary winding produces and alternating magnetic field which includes
alternating voltage in the secondary windings. Single voltage is obtained by connecting
the two secondary windings in series. Thus the output voltage of the transducer is the
difference of the two voltages.
When the core is at null position, the flux linking with both the secondary
windings is equal. Since both the secondary winding have equal number of turns, M
the induced emf is same in them. The output voltage is the difference of the two emf
say e1 & E2. When they are equal, the voltage is zero at null position.
When the core is moved to the left side from null position more flux links with
S1. The output voltage is V=E2-E1, is greater, the V value is –ve. Means the voltage is
read in terms of mm length on the display board indicates the negative value. When the
core is moved to the right side of the null position, more flux links with S2 induces
voltages which is +ve. The display board indicates the +ve value in mm of length.
The voltage output is linear and is depending on the position of the core. Hence
LVDT can be conveniently used to measure the thickness ranging from fraction of a
mm to a few cm’s. normally LVDT can give better result up to 5mm.

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PANEL DETAILS:

POWER ON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument, with red
light indication.
ZERO: Ten turn potentiometer. The display can be adjusted to read Zero when no
force is applied.
CAL: Single turn potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this
potentiometer such that the display gives full scale for given range of sensor.
TO SENSOR: Sensor is connected to the indicator through a five core cable with 5 pin
respective colour connectors.
MAINS INPUT: Power cable. Power cable to be connected to the mains supply of
230V 50Hz.
FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the instrument to
protect the instrument from internal electrical shorting.
CAUTION: Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains
supply.

PROCEDURE:
The experiment can be carried out for both +ve and –ve sides.
1. Connect the power cable to 230V 50Hz to mains and switch on the instrument.

2. Make the display to read zero (000) by using zero knob.

3. Connect the LVDT cable pins to the instrument with proper colour code.

4. Make the display to read zero by rotating the micrometer. This is called null
balancing and note down the micrometer reading.

5. Give the displacement of 5mm by rotating the micrometer from the null position
either clockwise or anticlockwise.

6. Then display will read 5.00mm. if not adjust the display by using Cal knob.
Now the instrument is calibrated.

7. Again rotate the micrometer to null position and from there take down the
reading in steps of 1mm. that is both the sides.

8. Plot the graph micrometer reading v/s display reading ( Actual reading v/s
Measure reading ).

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X axis micrometer reading (in mm)

Y axis display reading (in mm)

OBSERVATIONS:

Range of Micrometer.
Least count of Micrometer.
Linearity Range of LVDT.
Least count of LVDT.
Initial reading of Indicator (null position).
Micrometer reading at null position.

TABLUR COLUMN:
Display for +ve side: (clockwise rotation)
Sl. no Actual Reading, Measured Error % Error
‘Ra’ mm Reading, ‘Rm’ ‘E’
mm

Display for -ve side: (anti clockwise rotation)

Sl. no Actual Reading, Measured Error % Error
‘Ra’ mm Reading, ‘Rm’ ‘E’
mm

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SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

1. Ra = Actual Reading (Pressure gauge reading)

2. Rm = Measured Reading (Indicator reading)

3. ‘E’ Error = Rm ~ Ra

4. % Error = Error / Actual reading

Graphs:
Actual reading v/s Measured reading (for both +ve & -ve displacements)

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Mention some of the transducers.

Variable Resistor, Variable inductor, Variable capacitor, Synchros& Resolvers
2. State the advantages of LVDT.
The advantages of LVDT are :- (i)Linearity (ii)Infinite resolution (iii)High output
(iv)High sensitivity(v)Ruggedness(vi)Less friction (vii)Less hysterices(viii)Less power consumption
3. State the disadvantages of LVDT?
The disadvantages of LVDT are(i)Large displacements are necessary for appreciable differential
output(ii) They are sensitive to stray magnetic field(iii)Dynamic response is limited by mass of core
(iv)Variation in temperature affects the transducer.
4. Define transducer?
It is a device which converts a non electrical quantity into an electrical quantity
5. What is the pressure transducer?
It is a device which converts the pressure into mechanical displacement which is later converted in to
electrical quantity using a secondary transducer

6. What is the principle of working of LVDT?

7. What is calibration?
8. How LVDT used for displacement measurement?
9. What are the advantages of LVDT?
10. What is the replacement for displacement measurement if LVDT is not there?

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4. MEASURMENT OF STRAIN GAUGE

Objective: To Find Out the Strain Gauge of A Given Experiment

Out Come: Will Be Able To Analyze How to Measure the Strain Gauge of a Give Experiment

AIM: To determine the elastic constant (modulus of elasticity) of a cantilever

beam subjected to concentrated end load by using strain gauges.
APPARATUS: A cantilever beam with concentrated end load arrangement,
strain gauges and strain indicator.
THEORY: A body subjected to external forces is in a condition of both stress
and strain. Stress can be directly measured but its effect. i.e. change of shape of
the body can be measured. If there is a relationship between stress and strain,
stresses occurring in a body can be computed if sufficient strain information is
available. The constant connecting the stress and strain in elastic material under
the direct stresses is the modulus of elasticity,
i.e. E=σ / є
the principle of the electrical resistance strain gauge was discovered by Lord
Kelvin, when he observed that a stress applied to a metal wire, besides changing
resistance strain gauges are made into two basic forms, bonded wire and bonded
foil. Wire gauges are sandwiched between two sheets thin paper and foil gauges
are sandwiched between two thin sheets of epoxy.
The resistance factor ‘R’ of a metal depends on its electrical resistively, , its
area, a and the length l, according to the equation R = l / a.
Thus to obtain a high resistance gauge occupying a small area, the metal chosen
has a high resistively, a large number of grid loops and a very small cross
sectional area. The most common material for strain gauge is a copper - -nickel
alloy known as Advance.
The strain gauge is connected to the material in which it is required to measure
the strain, with a thin coat of adhesive. Most common adhesive used is Eastman,
Deco Cement, etc. as the test specimens extends or contracts under stress in the
direction of windings, the length and cross sectional area of the conductor alter,
resulting in a corresponding increase or decrease in electrical resistance.

GAUGE FACTOR:

The dimension less relationship between the change in gauge resistance and
change in length is called Gauge factor of the strain, which is expressed
mathematically,
Gauge Factor, g = ( R/R) / ( l/l)

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In this relationship R and I represent, respectively the initial resistance and initial
length of the strain gauge filament, while R & l represents the small change in
resistance and length, which occurs as the gauge is strained along with the
surface to which it is bonded. This gauge factor of a gauge is a measure of the
amount of resistance change for a given strain. The higher the gauge factor
greater the electrical output for indication or recording purpose. The gauge factor
is supplied by the manufacturer and may range from 1.7 to 4.
The usual method of measuring the change of resistance in a gauge element is by
means of Wheatstone bridge as shown in figure. It consists of Galvanometer, 4
resistor & a battery. Resistance R1 is the strain gauge is used for strain
measurement, which is mounted on the specimen. The three resisters R2, R3 and
R4 are internal to the device.
Let us assume that the resistance have been adjusted so that the bridge is
balanced.

Voltage Ebd = 0.
Thus for initial balance, R1 * R3 = R2 * R4
Or
R1 = (R2*R4) / R3
If the structural member, to whom the strain gauge is bonded, is to be loaded and
strained, there would be a resultant change in the resistance R1.
According to the relationship,
R = R1 g * ( l/l)

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The strain indicator is calibrated for gauges of a given factor, thus it provides
accurate reading only when gauges having the same gauge factor are used.
The most common bridge arrangements are single arm, two arm and four arm
mode.
Single Arm Mode (Quarter bridge).
This bridge arrangement consists of a single active gauge in position, say R1 and
three resistor are internal to the device. Temperature compensation is possible
only if a self temperature compensating strain gauge is used.
Two Arm Mode ( Half bridge).
In this mode, two resistor are internal to the device and the remaining two are
strain gauges. One arm of this bridge is commonly labeled as active arm and the
other as compensating arm. The bridge is temperature compensated.
Four Arm Mode (Full bridge).
In this bridge arrangement, four active gauges are placed in the bridge with one
gauge in each of the four arms. If the gauges are placed on a beam in bending as
shown in fig of the elastic constant by bending test experiment, the single from
each of the four gauges will add. This bridge arrangement is temperature
compensated.

Consider a cantilever beam as shown in fig. Let,

W = load applied on the beam in N.
l = distance between the center of the gauge to the point of
application of load.
b = width of the beam in mm.
h = thickness of the beam in mm.

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Mb = bending moment = WL in N-mm.

I = moment of inertia = bh3 / 12 mm4
c = h/2 mm.
The bending equation is,
Mb / I = σ / c
Bending stress, σ = Mb c / I.
WI * h/2 * 12 / bh3 = 6WI / bh2.
Let,
є = strain indicator reading in micro strain.
i = number of active gauges.
Measured strain, (єm) = є*10-5 / i
Modulus of elasticity, E = σ / єm
= 6WI / bh3 єm

The strain gauges R1, R3 measure the tensile strain while the gauges R2, R4
measure the compressive strains. The strains є1, є2, є3 and є4 as measured by
the gauges are of equal magnitude. The bridge in this said to be working as full
bridge and sensitivity (out put) is four times that achievable with a single active
gauge.

SET UP:

The set up comprises of cantilever beam made up of mild steel material.

Square pipe with opening at one end the other end land for fixing the beam.
Bottom of the square pipe has got a provision for fixing the sensor rigidly to the
table. A loading pan is provided to load the sensor. Weights up to 1Kg in steps of
10gms will be provided with the setup. Specimen with strain gauges of 120 ohms
are bonded on the material and connected in the form of wheat stones bridge and
the terminals are brought out through a connector.

DIGITAL STRAIN INDICATOR

Strain indicator comprises of induct power supply, which provides power

for strain gauge excitation. Signal conditioning and amplifying circuit’s access
input from the strain gauges linearisus and amplifies the signal level. The output

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of the amplifier is controlled to required level and calibrated to read the strain in
micro strain. Any stray forces on the sensor can be balanced by balancing the
strain gauge bridge through pot in the front panel till the display reads zero. The
system operates by 230V AC supply.

SPECIFICATION OF CANTELIVER BEAM SET UP

Capacity : 1kg
Type : Strain gauge based.
Strain gauge : Foil type, 120ohms.
Gauge factor 2
Weights : 100gms – 10 Nos.
Beam material : Mild steel.
Beam width : 41mm.
Beam thickness : 2.85mm.

STRAIN INDICATOR
Display : 3 ½ digital, LED displays.
Accuracy : 1.
Resolution : 1 s.
Connection : Through 4 cores shielded cable.
Power required : 230V, 50hz

PANEL CETAILS

POWER ON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument,
with red light indication.
ZERO: Ten turn potentiometer. The display can be adjusted to read Zero when
no force is applied.
CAL: Single turn potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this
potentiometer such that the display gives full scale for given range of sensor.
TO SENSOR: Sensor is connected to the indicator through a four core cable
with core male pins at both ends and respective color connections at the other
end to connect the instrument.

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FUNCTION: Three position rotary switches is provided to select GF position

READ position and CAL position. In READ position display will read directly
Micro strain which load applied on the cantilever beam. In CAL position display
will read maximum calibrated point i.e. 1000. In GF position display gauge
factor i.e. 500
ARM: selector switch is to select the ARM are provided on the panel i.e. 4, 2 &
1.
MAINS INPUT: Power cable. Power cable to be connected to the mains supply
of 230V 50Hz.
FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the
instrument to protect the instrument from internal electrical shorting.
CAUTION: Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains
supply.

PROCEDURE:

STRAIN MEASUREMENT IN FOUR ARM MODES (FULL BRIDGE)

1. Switch on the instrument and leave 5 minutes to warm up.
2. Connect the sensor (Cantilever beam) to instrument by 4 core cable with
respective colored pins.
3. Keep the ARM selector switch to 4 positions.
4. Select the FUNCTION switch to GF position and adjust the display to
read 500 by GF pot.
5. Select the FUNCTION switch to READ position and adjust the display to
read zero by zero pot.
6. Select the FUNCTION switch to CAL position and adjust the display to
read 1000 by CAL pot.
7. Apply the load on cantilever beam, in steps of 100 grams and note down
the readings.
TABULAR COLUMN FOR FULL BRIDGE

Sl. Load Strain Measured Bending Modulus of

No Applied Indicator Strain stress. elasticity.
W (N) Єm=є*10-6 σ = 6wl / E = σ / Єm
Reading Є – bh2
W N / (N/nm2)
micro strain

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STRAIN MEASUREMENT IN TWO ARM MODES (HALF BRIDGE)

1. Switch on the instrument and leave 5 minutes to warm up.
2. Connect the sensor (Cantilever beam) to instrument by 4 core cable with
respective colored pins.
3. Keep the ARM selector switch to 4 positions.
4. Select the FUNCTION switch to GF position and adjust the display to
read 500 by GF pot.
5. Select the FUNCTION switch to READ position and adjust the display to
read zero by zero pot.
6. Select the FUNCTION switch to CAL position and adjust the display to
read 1000 by CAL pot.
7. Apply the load on cantilever beam, in steps of 100 grams and note down
the readings.

TABULAR COLUMN FOR HALF BRIDGE

Sl. Load Strain Measured Bending Modulus of

No Applied Indicator Strain stress. elasticity.
W (N) Reading Єm=є*10-6 / 2 σ = 6wl / bh2 E = σ / Єm
W N Є – micro (N/nm2)
strain

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STRAIN MEASUREMENT IN ONE ARM MODES (QUARTER BRIDGE)

1. Switch on the instrument and leave 5 minutes to warm up.
2. Connect the sensor (Cantilever beam) to instrument by 4 core cable with
respective colored pins.
3. Keep the ARM selector switch to 4 positions.
4. Select the FUNCTION switch to GF position and adjust the display to
read 500 by GF pot.
5. Select the FUNCTION switch to READ position and adjust the display to
read zero by zero pot.
6. Select the FUNCTION switch to CAL position and adjust the display to
read 1000 by CAL pot.
7. Apply the load on cantilever beam, in steps of 100 grams and note down
the readings.

TABULAR COLUMN FOR QUATER BRIDGE

Sl. Load Strain Measured Bending Modulus of

No Applied Indicator Strain stress. elasticity.
W (N) Reading Єm=є*10-6 / 1 σ = 6wl / bh2 E = σ / Єm
W N Є – micro (N/nm2)
strain

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VIVA QUESTIONS

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 Instrumentation and Control Systems

5. CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLE FOR TEMPERATURE

MEASUREMENT

Objective: To Find out the Temperature of A Given Experiment

Out Come: Will Be Able to Analyze How to Measure the Temperature of a Give Experiment

Aim:
To calibrate the given thermocouple using thermometer

APPARATUS:

Thermocouple, a heating coil to heat the water in the water bath,

thermometer and a digital indicator to indicate the temperature of thermocouple.

THEORY:
The common electrical method of temperature measurement uses the
thermocouple, when two dissimilar metal wires are joined at both ends, an emf
will exist between the two junctions, if the two junctions are at different
temperatures. This phenomenon is called Setback effect. If the temperature of
one junction is known then the temperature of the other junction may be easily
calculated using the thermoelectric properties of the materials. The known
temperature is called reference temperature and is usually the temperature of
ice. Potential (emf) is also obtained if a temperature gradient along the metal
wires. This is called Thomson effect and is generally neglected in the
temperature measuring process. If two materials are connected to an external
circuit in such a way that current is drawn, an emf will be produced. This is
called as Peltier effect. In temperature measurement, setback emf is of prime
concern since it is dependent on junction temperature.
The thermocouple material must be homogeneous. A list of common
Thermocouple materials in decreasing order of emf chrome, iron and copper
platinum – 10% rhodium, platinum, alumel and constantan (60% copper and
40% nickel). Each material is thermoelectrically positive with respect to the
below it and negatives with respect those above.
The material used in the Thermocouple probe is:
1. Iron – Constantan (Type J)

2. Copper – Constantan (Type T)

3. Chromyl – Alumel (Type K)

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SETUP:

Setup comprises of thermometer as a reference and three types of Thermocouples as

mentioned above, to be calibrated. The entire sensor can be placed in a hot bath where
the water can be heated up to boiling temperature through heating coil. Heater of
capacity 500 watts is provided which will be connected to the 230V, 50Hz. power
supply through three-pin mains cord.

DIGITAL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR:

Temperature indicators for thermocouples are provided in a unit with digital

display. For thermocouples, the output of the sensor (i.e. in mV) is amplified through
electronic circuits. Calibration provision is provided out to calibrate any sensor
required. RTD sensor is calibrated and the output in terms temperature in degree
centigrade is displayed.

PANEL DETAILS:

POWER ON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument, with red
light indication.
MIN: Single turn potentiometer. The display can be adjusted to read minimum
temperature, when no voltage output from the sensor is measured.
MAX: Single turn potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this pot
such that the display reads same as in the given reference temperature. i.e.
Thermometer temperature reading.
SELECTOR: Two-position selector switches to select Temperature or mV output of
the sensor.
SELECTOR: Three- position selector switches to select J-type / K-type / T-type
thermocouples.
TERMINALS: Screw type terminals are provided to connect the given
thermocouples.
MAINS SUPPLY: Power cable. Power cable to be connected to the mains supply of
230V, 50Hz.
FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the instrument to
protect the instrument from internal electrical shorting.

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 Instrumentation and Control Systems

CAUTION: Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains
supply.

PROCEDURE:
1. Turn the type selector to the desire position according to the given T.C probe.

2. Connect the given thermocouple to the temperature display unit.

3. Place the thermocouple and the thermometer into a beaker containing water at
room temperature.

4. Connect the power supply to the temperature indicator.

5. Record the room temperature from the thermometer.

6. Adjust the MIN setting knob of the temperature indicator until the display
shows the room temperature.

7. Connect the power supply to hearting coil and heat the water in the bath.

8. Set the temperature of thermocouple to the thermometer reading when the water
is boiling, using MAX knob.

9. Now the given thermocouple is calibrated with reference to thermometer.

Record the thermometer reading and the temperature indicator reading
simultaneously at regular intervals.

OBSERVATION AND TABULAR COLUMN:

Material for thermocouple wires =

Sl. no Temp. of Water by Temp. of Water by Correction Error % Error

Thermometer, Ta oC Thermocouple, Tm Ta - Tm Tm - Ta (Tm - Ta) / Tm
o
C

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GRAPHS:

Draw the following graphs:

1. Tm Vs Ta

2. Correction Vs Tm

3. % Error Vs Tm

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the working principle of a thermocouple?
2. What is a thermocouple & how does it work?
3. What are the major advantages of a thermocouple?
4. What are the major disadvantages of a thermocouple?
5. What is a piezoelectric transducer?
6. What is the principle of Thermocouple?
7. What is calibration?
8. How Thermocouple used for Temperature measurement and what is the range of thermocouples?
9. What are the advantages of Thermocouple?

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6. MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT USING

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
Objective: To Find Out the angular displacement of A Given Experiment
Out Come: Will Be Able to Analyze How to Measure the angular displacement of a Give Experiment

AIM:
Measurement of angular displacement using capacitive transducer

APPARATUS:

Capacitive transducer & Angular displacement indicator

THEORY:
Capacitance is well known to be a function of effective area of the conductors,
separation between them, and the dielectric strength of the material in the separation.
Capacitive transducers convert the physical quantity to be measured into a change of
capacitance which is processed by the measuring circuit of the transducer. The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor may be changed by varying the separation
between the plates, varying the effective area of the plates or varying the dielectric.
Capacitive type transducers are used essentially for displacement or positioning
measurements. But they are more susceptible to environmental factors such as dust or
moisture in the atmosphere than inductive type transducers.
The meshing area between two stator and rotor plates of the capacitor goes on
changing as the shaft capacitor is rotated. The arrangement is used to demonstrate the
measurement of angular displacement.
The transducer is mounted on to the face of a protractor which indicates the angle of
displacement and the readout display the amount of displacement.

PROCEDURE:
Connect the power card to the 230V AC mains & switch on the instrument.

Connect the capacitive transducer to the angular displacement indicator with

proper color codes of the pins.

Rotate the transducer knob to zero position. Now display shows the zero.

Rotate the transducer knob to any angle (Ex. 90 deg) and the reading of the
display should be same. If not, then adjust by rotating the CAL POT.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. no The displacement Measured displacement meter Deviation

protractor reading reading

GRAPH: Plot a graph using the true displacement on X axis & measured displacement
on Y axis.

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Angular displacement is defined byunits(revolution radian)

2. One radian is equals to angle of 57.3°
3. One revolution is equals to angle of 360°
4. For very small values of angles angular displacement is vector quantity
5. Rate at which angular displacement changes with time is called angular velocity
6. In system international, angular velocity is measured in radians per second
7. Revolution per minute is system international unit of the angular velocity
8. What is calibration?
9. How capacitive transducer used for displacement measurement?
10. What is the principle of working of capacitive transducer?
11. What are the advantages of capacitive transducer?
12. What is the replacement for displacement measurement if capacitive transducer is not there?
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

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7 . STUDY AND CALIBRATION OF PHOTO AND MAGNETIC

SPEED PICKUPS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF SPEED

Objective: To Find Out the magnetic & photo speed of A Given Experiment
Out Come: Will Be Able To Analyze How to Measure the magnetic & photo speed of a Give
Experiment.

The measurement of rotational velocity is more common. For velocity (speed)

measurement the most convenient calibrator scheme uses a combination of toothed
wheel, a simple magnetic proximity pickup a photo couple sensor and an electronic
indicator to measure the speed. The angular rotation is provided by some adjustable
speed drive of adequate stability. The toothed wheel mounted with iron rods while
passing under magnetic and photo pickup produces an electric pulse. These pulse are
fed to signal conditioner unit and displays reading visually. The stability of the
rotational drive is easily checked by observing the variation of display reading.

CONTROL AND OPERATION:

Speed measurement system is provided with display or signal conditioner unit

and sensor unit. Sensor unit consist of magnetic and photo pick up unit with variable
speed controller and a AC motor. The pulses generated by pickup sensor is sensed by
signal conditioner.
Refer the front panel of the instrument, it is provided with toggle switch to
select the mode of display reading by magnetic or photo pickup display reads the speed
in RPM.
Also provided with sensor socket for connecting magnetic and photo pickup
units. Back panel of the instrument is provided with power on switch, fuse holder and
power chord for connecting AC supply.

OPERATION:
1. Connect the indicator to 230V AC main and motor to variac.

2. Arrange the sensor (magnetic & photo) suitable so that it is mounted properly to
sense the pulses.

3. Connect the sensor to instrument.

4. Switch ON the instrument and note the reading in display in no velocity mode
the display has to be zero.

5. Vary the speed of motor by variac and note the reading in digital display.

6. By selecting toggle switch we can note the speed reading of either magnetic or
photo pickup sensors.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

SNo MAGNETIC PHOTO SPEED MEASURED ERROR OF ERROR

SPEED PICK SPEED BY TACHOMETER MAGNETIC PHOTO
UP PICK UP SPEED PICK UP SPEED
PICK UP

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is a photoelectric pickup & how does it work?

2. How does a photoelectric pickup work?
3. What is Torque?
4. What is a torque meter?
5. How does a torque meter work?
6. What is the formula of photoelectric pickup?
7. What is the Principle of Stroboscope?
8. What are the applications of Stroboscope?
9. Specifications of Stroboscope?
10. What are the Applications of Stroboscope?
11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Stroboscope?

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8. CALIBRATION OF THERMISTER AND RTD

Objective: To Find Out the Temperature of A Given Experiment

Out Come: Will Be Able To Analyze How to Measure the Temperature of a Give Experiment

AIM:
To calibrate the given Thermister & RTD by using Thermometer

APPARATUS
Temperature sensor (Thermister & RTD), Heating coil to heat water in water
bath, Digital temperature Indicator & Thermometer

THEORY:
A Thermister is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with
temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal
and resistor. Thermister are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensor,
self-resetting over current protectors and self-regulating heating elements. Thermister
differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a
Thermister is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTD’s use pure metals. The
temperature response is also different, RDT’s are useful over larger temperature
ranges, while Thermister typically achieve a higher precision within a limited
temperature range (usually – 90 oC to 130 oC).
Assuming, as a first order approximation, that the relationship between and
temperature is linear, then
∆R = k ∆T
Where,
∆R = change in resistance
∆T = change in temperature
k = first order temperature co-efficient of resistance
Thermister can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of k. if k is positive,
the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature co-efficient (PTC) Thermister or posistor. If k is negative, the resistance
decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature
co-efficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistor are designed to have a k
as close to zero as possible, so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide
temperature range.

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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD):

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or

resistive thermal devices (RTD), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable
change in electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they
are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance
thermometers (PTR). They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many
industrial applications below 600oC, due to higher accuracy and repeatability.
There are many categories like carbon resistors, film and wire wound types are the
most widely used.
Carbon resistors are widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very
reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable from at
extremely low temperatures. They generally do not suffer from significant
hysteresis or strain gauge effects.

Film thermometer have a layer of platinum on a substrate, the layer may be

extremely thin, perhaps one micrometer. Advantage of this type is relatively
low cost and fast response. Such devices have improved performance although
the different expansion rates of the substrate and platinum give “strain gauge”
effects and stability problems.

Wire – wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide
temperature ranges.

Coil elements have largely replaced wire wound elements in industry. This
design has a wire coil which can expand freely over temperature, held in place
by some mechanical support which lets the coil keep its shape.

ADVANTAGES:
High accuracy

Low drift

Wide operating range

Suitable for precision applications.

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PANEL DETALIS:

POWER ON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument, with red
light indication.

MIN: Single turn potentiometer. The display can be adjusted to read minimum
temperature, when no voltage output from the sensor is measured.

MAX: Single turn potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this pot
such that the display reads same as in the given reference temperature. i.e.
Thermometer temperature reading.

SELECTOR: Two-position selector switches to select thermistor or RTD sensor.

TERMINALS: Screw type terminals are provided to connect the given Thermister &
RTD sensor.

MAINS SUPPLY: Power cable. Power cable to be connected to the mains supply of
230V, 50Hz

FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the instrument to
protect the instrument from internal electrical shorting.

CAUTION: Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains
supply.

PROCEDURE:

1. Turn the selector switch to the desire position according to the given sensor
probe (Thermister / RTD).

2. Connect the given sensor to the temperature display unit.

3. Place the sensor probe and the thermometer into a beaker containing water at
room temperature.

4. Connect the power supply to the temperature indicator.

5. Record the room temperature from the thermometer.

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6. Adjust the MIN setting knob of the temperature indicator until the display
shows the room temperature.

7. Connect the power supply to hearting coil and heat the water in the bath.

8. Set the temperature of thermocouple to the thermometer reading when the water
is boiling, using MAX knob.

9. Now the given thermocouple is calibrated with reference to thermometer.

Record the thermometer reading and the temperature indicator reading
simultaneously at regular intervals.

OBSERVATION AND TABULAR COLUMN:

Thermister and Thermometer

Sl. no Temp. of Water by Temp. of Water by Correction Error % Error

Thermometer, Ta oC Thermister, Tm oC Ta - Tm Tm - Ta (Tm - Ta) /
Tm

RTD and Thermometer

Sl. no Temp. of Water by Temp. of Water by Correction Error % Error

Thermometer, Ta oC Thermister, Tm oC Ta - Tm Tm - Ta (Tm - Ta) /
Tm

GRAPHS:
Draw the following graphs:
Tm v/s Ta

Correction v/s Tm

% Error v/s Tm

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 Instrumentation and Control Systems

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. what is RTD and thermister?

2. Are RTDs and thermocouples intrinsically safe?
3. What are the major differences between a thermocouple and an RTD?
4. What are the major advantages of RTD?
5. What is a thermocouple & how does it work?

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Objective: To Find Out the discharge of A Given Experiment

Out Come: Will Be Able to know How to Measure the discharge of a Give Experiment

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by coefficient of discharge

2. Applications of rotometer
3. What are the advantages of rotometer
4. What are the forces acting on the float of the rotameter
5. What are the limitations of rotameter

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 Instrumentation and Control Systems

10. CALIBRATION OF VIBRATION SETUP

Objective: To Find Out the vibration of A Given Experiment
Out Come: Will Be Able To know How to Measure the vibration of a Give Experiment

INTRODUCTION:
Mechanical vibration is something which, people usually like to avoid if they can
except in some places where artificial vibration are purposely generated to speed up processes
this mechanical vibration, if not within limits may cause damage to the materials, components
or structure associated with it under some circumstance such as in transport, on machine floors
where the vibration is inevitable, the components associated have withstand these vibrations.
If such vibrations can be artificially generated on the components, their stability, reliability etc
at the end of the test can be studied. One such device to generate artificial vibrations is called
VIBRATION EXCITER or VBRATION GENERATOR.
The study and measurement of vibration in any structure or machine is of paramount
importance for the following reasons:
1. Undesirable vibration is a waste of energy and causes wear and tear and subsequent
breakdown resulting in high maintenance costs.
2. The noise produced due to vibrating bodies or structures cause human fatigue resulting
in reduced efficiency.
3. Undamped vibration transmitted to structures (like bridges) might excite vibrations at
natural frequency and cause permanent damage.

The instrument along with the above mentioned sensors can be employed for the following
application:
1. Studying damping qualities of solids and road surface materials.
2. Monitoring vibrations on structures and machines.
3. Checking vibration severity on machines according to standards.
4. Used for institute balancing of rotors in machines.
5. Used with dampers to isolate vibrations of machines to their foundations and
structures.

Specifications
Vibration exciter
1. Peak Sine force : 100 Newton’s
2. Peak velocity at resonance : 1 m/sec. 100m/sec
3. Maximum displacement : 8mm peak to peak
4. Power required : 200vA
5. Weight : 30kg (normal).

Power amplifier
1. Maximum output voltage : 20 V peak to peak
2. Frequency response : 1Hz to within ± 1KHz
3. Harmonic distortion : less than 1%

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
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4. Input impedance : 10K Ohms (normal)

5. Output impedance : 0.1 Ohms (normal)
6. Gain at 1KHz : 20dB± 1dB

Oscillator
1. Output : Sinusoidal.
2. Frequency range : 1Hz to 1KHz in 3 decade ranges
3. Total Harmonic distortion : less than 1%
4. Frequency indication : on a Analog panel meter
5. Indication accuracy : ± 2% of the range
6. Frequency response : within ± 1dB

General
1. Operating temperature : + 10oC to 45oC
2. Power supply requirement : 230V, ± 10% 50Hz single phase
3. Power consumption : 300VA (normal)

Vibration analyzer
Measuring functions and range:
Displacement : 10 mm max
Velocity : 100mm/sec max
Acceleration : 1g max
Resolution : one part in 100 or better
Linearity : ± 2% of full scale
Frequency response : 10Hz 2000Hz within 1dB while measuring
velocity
D.C. output : 100mV(normal) full scale in velocity range.
Working temperature : ±10oC to ±50oC
Input A.C. mains : 230V 50Hz
Size : 300mm(W)*130mm(H)*340(D).
Weight : 5kgs
Number : single channel, mains operated

Description
Vibration exciter is an electro dynamic type of device. It consists of a powerful magnet
placed centrally surrounding which is suspended the exciter coil. This assembly is enclosed by
high permeability magnetic circuit for optimum performance and enough design care has been
observed to minimize the leakage magnetic flux at the top of the vibration table.

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When an electrical current is passed through the exciter coil a magnetic field is created
around the coil. This field interacts with the field due to the central permanent magnet and this
result in the upward or downward movement of the suspended coil depending coil depending
upon the direction of current flow in the coil. If an alternating current is injected into the coil,
the coil moves up and down continuously. Thus controlling the frequency of the coil current
of coil current, the frequency of vibration is controlled. By controlling the amount of the coil
current, the amplitude of vibration is controlled.
Power oscillator model is the control unit for the exciter this unit consist of a tunable
sine wave oscillator, a power amplifier to inject current into exciter coil.
A tunable sine wave oscillator is designed around a voltage controlled oscillator using
an integrated circuit which develops triangular wave oscillations basically a special circuit
called diode sine shapers is used to convert the triangular wave to sine wave suitable buffer
amplifiers are incorporated to produce distortion less sine wave output with good amplitude
stability and frequency response. The output is brought on to the front panel to feed into
external circuit or to power amplifier input.
The power amplifier uses all silicon transistors circuitry for stable & trouble free
operation. Adequate heat sinking is provided for the power transistors to operate at a
comfortable running temperature even when the amplifier is delivering full power for an
extended period of operation.
Elaborate, fast acting protection circuits are employed to render the amplifier almost
foolproof. The output voltage is continuously monitored & when the level exceeds a preset
limit, OVER VOLTAGE protection circuit operates cutting off the input to the amplifier.
Similarly the output current (load current) is monitored and indicated on the panel ammeter in
amperes when the preset safe limit is exceeded, ‘OVER CURRENT’ protection circuit outs
off the amplifier input.
The temperature of the heat sink is sensed and when it raises beyond comfortable
operating limit, OVER TEMPERATURE protection circuit functions to switch off the input to
amplifier.Thus the power oscillator is designed with almost care to render better and trouble
free service to the user.
Controls of vibrations analyzer:
1. POWER ON : Racher switch
Position ON : Red light glows.
Position OFF : instrument is switched OFF

2. SELECTOR SWITCH : 4 pole 3 way switch is to select the vibration

Parameters

Position DISPLACEMENT : Instrument indicates displacement of vibration

Position VELOCITY : Instrument indicates velocity of vibration
Position ACCELERATION : Instrument indicates acceleration of vibration

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

3. SENSOR : Vibration sensor is plugged to this socket. A 3pin

socket is to interconnect the vibration pickup and vibration analyzer
4. ANALOG METER : It is to measure the output of vibration
parameters
5. FUSE : 500mA 250V slow blow fuse in the rear panel of
the instrument

Controls of oscillator & power amplifier

1. POWER ON : A DPDT switch is to supply the power from
mains to instrument.
2. FREQUENCY COARSE : 4 pole 3 way switch is provided to select the
required range of frequency i.e., 10/100 &1000Hz

: 1Hz to 10Hz range

: 1Hz to 100Hz range
: 1Hz to 1000Hz range
3. FREQUENCY FINE : 10K 10 turn pot is to adjust the required
frequency i.e., 0-10, 0-100 and 0-1000Hz.
4. OUTPUT : 2 nos. of PT 10 connections is to interconnect the
power amplifier to vibration generator (red and green)
5. ANALIOG METERS : 2nos. of analog meter is to measure amplitude
and frequency.

Operation:

MOUTING VIBRATION SENSOR

Whenever accurate measurement or continuous monitoring is required, the vibration
sensor should be mounted such that the axis of the sensor is perpendicular to the direction of
vibrating surface.
Whenever fast measurements and vibrations on remote points are required the sensor
can be used with extension probe and should be held gently perpendicular to the direction of
vibrating surface.

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

MEASUREMENT
Connect the vibration sensor and indicator by means of the connecting cable provided
to INPUT socket. The instrument indicates velocity or displacement or frequency of vibration
depending on the function switch position. The range switch indicates full scale deflection
range of the parameter selected. The multiplier mentioned on the panel meter should multiply
the readings.

RECORDING VIBRATIONS:
The velocity of vibration can be recorded on an oscillograph between AC output
terminals. If a visual observation is required on oscilloscope scope can be connected between
the same terminals. 200mV RMS signal is available for full scale deflection on velocity range.
If a D.C. recorder is available or continuous monitoring of vibration level is required
the same can be connected between D.C. output terminals D.C. voltage is available in velocity
and displacement positions A 100mV D.C. signal is available for full scale deflection of
meter.

OPERATING PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the generator cable to power amplifier output connectors (i.e.., red & green).
2. Fix the vibration pickup (i.e., piezo electric sensor) on vibrator generator shaft.
3. Keep the amplitude pot at minimum position.
4. Connect the 3 pin power cable, i.e., both power amplifier & vibration analyzer to 230V
/ 50Hz AC mains.
5. Connect the vibration pickup cable (red) to vibration analyzer.
6. Switch on the power on switch of both.
7. Slowly rotate the amplitude pot in clockwise direction. So the both analog meter will
start show the readings.
8. First select the frequency selector switch to 100 range so that generator will start
vibrating depending upon frequency and amplitude.
9. Keep amplitude constant & select the frequency from 50Hz then observe the reading of
vibration parameter in vibration analyzer display (analog).
10. Observe different reading for different frequencies.
11. Before switch off the power amplifier, please keep the amplitude pot at minimum
position.

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

LOG SHEET

Sl.no REMARKS

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What do you meant by vibration?

2. what is a seismic wave.
3. What are the advantages of peizoelectric transtucer?
4. Whatis frequency?
5. what are the units for frequency?

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

11. CALIBRATION OF McLeod GAUGE

Objective: To Find Out the vacuum of A Given Experiment
Out Come: Will Be Able to Analyze How to Measure the vacuum error of a Give Experiment

Object : To calibrate the given vacuum cell. (Low Pressure Cell)

Apparatus : Vacuum Cell, Dial type Vacuum gauge Vacuum Chamber,
Vacuum pump to develop vacuum and digital vacuum indicator.
Theory : In everyday usage, vacuum is a volume of space that is
essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much less than
atmospheric pressure. The word comes from the Latin for “empty”. A perfect
vacuum would be one with no particles in it at all, which is impossible to achieve
in practice. Physicists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a perfect
vacuum, which they simply call “vacuum” or “free space”, and use the term
partial vacuum to refer to real vacuum. The Latin term in vacuum is also used to
describe an object as being in what would otherwise be a vacuum.
Vacuum is useful in a variety of processes and devices. Its first
widespread use was in the incandescent light bulb to protect the filament from
chemical degradation. The chemical inertness produced by a vacuum is also
useful for electron beam welding, cold welding, vacuum packing and vacuum
frying. Ultra-high vacuum is used in the study of atomically clean substrates,
as only a very good vacuum preserves atomic-scale clean surfaces for a
reasonably long time (on the order of minutes to days). High to ultra-high
vacuum removes the obstruction of air, allowing particle beams to deposit or
remove materials without contamination. This is the principle behind chemical
vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, and dry etching which are essential
to the fabrication of semi conductors and optical coatings, and to surface
science. The reduction of convection provides the thermal insulation of thermos
bottles. Deep vacuum lowers the boiling point of liquids and promotes low
temperature out gassing which is used in freeze drying, adhesive preparation,
distillation, metallurgy, and process purging. The electrical properties of vacuum
make electron microscopes and vacuum tubes possible, including cathode ray
tubes. The elimination of air friction is useful for flywheel energy storage and
ultracentrifuges.

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

DIGITAL VACUUM INDICATOR:

Vacuum indicator comprises of inbuilt power supply which provides

power for strain gauge excitation, signal conditioning and amplifying circuits.
Access input from the strain gauges leanearizes and amplifies the signal level.
The output of the amplifier is controlled to required level and calibrated to read
the vacuum in mm/in.Hg. Any stray forces on the sensor can be balanced by
balancing the strain gauge bridge through potentiometer, which is provided in
the front panel. This system operates by 230v Ac supply.

PANEL DETAILS:

POWER ON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument,
with red light indication.
ZERO: Ten turn potentiometer. The display can be adjusted to read Zero when
no force is applied.
CAL: Single turn potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this
potentiometer such that the display gives full scale for given range of sensor.
TO SENSOR: Sensor is connected to the indicator through a four core cable
with 5 pin socket at sensor end ends and respective color connections at the other
end to connect the instrument.
MAINS INPUT: Power cable. Power cable to be connected to the mains supply
of 230V 50Hz.
FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the
instrument to protect the instrument from internal electrical shorting.
CAUTION: Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains
supply.

PROCEDURE:
Connect the vacuum cell to the vacuum indicator through given cable.

Connect the instrument to mains i.e. 230V power supply and switch on the
instrument.

Adjust the zero pot on the indicator, to indicate zero.

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Connect the vacuum pump to 230V AC mains.

Close the outlet valve of the vacuum chamber and open the inlet valve.

Switch on the pump.

Wait until vacuum reaches maximum level.

Now read the vacuum gauge reading and adjust the CAL pot of the digital
indicator to same vacuum. Now the given vacuum cell is calibrated.

Close the inlet valve and switch of the vacuum pump.

Now solely open the outlet valve and down the reading of dial gauge and
digital indicator.

Calculate the error if any and plot the graph of dial gauge reading v/s
Digital reading.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl. no Vacuum in Vacuum in Correction Error % Error

Dial gauge Digital *100
in.Hg Indicator,
in.Hg

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. what is the use of pressure gauge?

2. what is angularity error?
3. what are the advantages of pressure gauge?
4. what are the disadvantages of pressure gauge?
5. what are the limitation of pressure gauge?
6. what are the zero order error? 7.what are the
multiplication of error ?

MarriLaxmanReddyInstituteofTechnology&Management
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. what is the use of pressure gauge?

2. what is angularity error?
3. what are the advantages of pressure gauge?
4. what are the disadvantages of pressure gauge?
5. what are the limitation of pressure gauge?
6. what are the zero order error?
7.what are the multiplication of
error ?
8. Define transducer?
9. What is the pressure transducer?
10. Give commonly used pressure sensitive devices?
11. What do you meant by transducer?
12. What is LVDT?
13. Explain the operation of LVDT.
14. Rate at which angular displacement changes with time is
called angular velocity
15. In system international, angular velocity is measured
in radians per second
16. Revolution per minute is system international unit of
the angular velocity
17. What is accuracy
18. What is precision
19. Expand LVDT
20. What is the applications of pyrometer
21. List the applications of pressure guages
22. How are thermocouples different from thermistors
23. classify the different tachometers
24. Name a few sources of errors
25. What is hysteresis
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
12. Measurement And Control Of Temperature Of A Process Using Resistance Temperature Detector With
SCADA

Objective: To Find out the Temperature using SCADA software of A Given Experiment
Out Come: Will Be Able to Analyze How to Measure the Temperature using the SCADA of a Give
Experiment

1. Introduction:

Proportional, Integral, and Derivative controller or PID is a standard feedback loop component in
industrial control applications. It measures an "output" of a process and controls an "input", with a goal of
maintaining the output at a target value, which is called the "setpoint". An example of a PID application is the control
of a process temperature, although it can be used to control any measurable variable which can be affected by
manipulating some other process variable.

The Controller compares a measured value from a process (typically and industrial process) are as follows

Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacture of an item or items,
usually carried out on a large scale.

Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.

Most processes make the production of an otherwise rare material vastly cheaper, thus changing it into a commodity; i.e.
the process makes it economically feasible for society to use the material on a large scale. One of the best examples of this is
the change in aluminum from prices more expensive than silver to its use in recyclable/disposable beverage containers.

The difference (or "error" signal) is then used to calculate a new value for a manipulatable input to the process that brings
the process' measured value back to its desired setpoint. Unlike simpler control algorithm, the PID controller can adjust process
outputs based on the history and rate of change of the error signal, which gives more accurate and stable control. (It can be
shown mathematically that a PID loop will produce accurate, stable control in cases where a simple proportional control would
either have a steady state error or would cause the process to oscillates). PID controllers do not require advanced mathematics to
design and can be easily adjusted (or "tuned") to the desired application, unlike more complicated control algorithms based on
optimal control theory.

2. Theory:
PROPORTONAL BAND
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
The control algorithm that generates a linear control output proportional to deviation is called proportional action. In
proportional action the amount of change in the measured valve (or deviation) is expressed in percent of span that is
required to cause the control output to change from 0 to 100% is called the proportional band.

P= Kp [SP-PV] + P0

INTEGRAL TIME
With P action the measured valve will not necessarily become equal to the set the point, and a deviation will
usually be present. The control algorithm that applies changes in output as long as a deviation exits, so as to bring the
deviation to zero, is called integral action.
When integral action is used, the parameter that determines how fast the output will change in correspondence to
some amount of deviation is referred to as integral time, and shorter the integral time, stronger the integral action (the
greater the output rate of change). I action is usually used together with P action as P1 action, and due only to 1 became
equal to that due only to P action.

P=1/Ti [SP-PV] + Po
DERIVATIVE TIME:
If the controlled object has a large time constant or dead time, with P or PI action alone there will be
cases where the response will be slow, overshoot will occur, and the control system will be unstable. In order to achieve
faster response and more stable operation cases one uses derivation action (D action) to apply an output component
proportional to the input (deviation) rate of change.
D action must always be used with P action time required with PD action. If a ramp input (constant rate of change input) is
applied, for the output due to P action alone to become equal to that due to D action alone. The longer the derivation time,
the stronger the derivation action.

P=Td d/dt [SP-PV]+Po

SPECIFICATIONS:

S.NO Particulars Specification

01 Heater / Boiler 3KW

02 Rotameter 100-200 LPH
I/P (0-5V) DC
03 Thyristor Drive O/P (0-230V)
Capacity:3KW
04 SS Source Tank l=250;b=250;h=250
05 Motor Drive 55W
RPM 6000
Operating at 230V AC/DC
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
06 Temperature Sensor RTD-(PTD 100)
12-Bit Data Acquisition card with DAQ
07 Interface Card o/p (0-5V) through Rs-232
Serial comm. port to PC
PC Based PID Controller developed
08 Controller using LAB VIEW Software.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

1. System Overview:

The Temperature process controller can be individually classified under four heads namely
a. The System Overview
b. The PID controller
c. Process control Software

The System Overview:

The Overall system is a metallic structure, and it accommodates the multi-output DC power supply, (RTD)
temperature transmitter, measuring instruments and inlet sockets for AC main.

PID CONTROLLER:
When all three control effects proportional, integral and derivative are combines together, we obtain the benefits of
each control action. A three mode controller contains the “Stability” of proportional control and the “ability” to provide an
immediate correction for the Magnitude of a disturbance because of rate control. In this trainer computer (PC) acts a PID
controller. PID controller is comprised of two units, namely.

a) PC based PID controller software.

b) Temperature Loop controller Trainer.

PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Process control software is indigenous software designed using the LABVIEW software for the temperature
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
process. The software package for temperature control application is very simple and powerful, general purpose which
measures the process variable, displays it on the screen.
The software is organized to explain all the control action available for the ON/OFF control, proportional control
(P), proportional plus integral control (PI), proportional plus derivative control (PD) and proportional plus integral plus
derivative control (P+I+D).
Note:
Temperature process is generally a very slow process compared to other process. Usually proportional integral and
derivative control is preferred for temperature control.

Some of the key features of the software are,

1. User feedable process parameter
2. Facility to store the data being processed as a separate file on the disk which can be used for future analysis.
3. A complete display of the process
4. Display all the graphical parameters both numerically and graphically.
5. Simultaneous graphical display the process variable.
6. Analyze the stored data.
7. Tune the control parameter for PID
8. To perform a historical trend of the process.

2. Overall Panel Block Diagram:

OUTLET HOT WATER

RTD SENSOR

THYRISTER
COIL
DRIVE

ROTAMETER
SENSOR FEED BACK

MOTOR HEATER
CTRL VALVE
1

PC BASED PID CTRLER

+
INLET WATER
A
-
2

RS-232
CTRLER
CARD
COMM PORT

SOURCE TANK
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Electrical Connection for Temperature Loop Controller-PID

THYRISTER DRIVE

P 1 2
1&3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
MOTOR
1
1 2 +Ve
N
4
0-5 V i/p from Controller

-Ve
MCB

HEATER

3. 2

SYSTEM OPERATION
1. Operating Procedure:
Primary Connection:

1. Connect the power supply 230V / 15A using power socket.

2. Connect the Thyrister i/p to the interface unit.
3. Connect the interface unit to RS-232 comm. port to PC.
4. Fill the source tank up to 3/4th of the capacity.
5. Source out the water line to outside to the sink.
For Water Circulation:
1. Switch ON the motor.
2. Open the control valve, so that water starts flowing through Rotameter and pump and out through the Heater/Boiler
from the hot water pipe.
3. Maintain the flow rate at min (30/60lits)/hr in LPH, Ensure that the same amount of cold water is coming into the
tank.
For Communication to PC:
1. Switch ON the MCB.
2. Switch ON the power supply of interface card.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
3. From the interface card connect the RS-232 comm. port to the PC serial port (com1 or com2).

WARNING!
The inlet cold water and outlet hot water flow rate should be
matched other wise water in the tank might get over filled (or)
empty; it damages the pump and also the heater.

CONNECTION DETAILS:

1. ELECTRICAL CONNECTION DETAILS:

1. Connect the Power supply to the system using 3-Pin cable provided; Ensure that the power of 3KW is available.
2. Connect the power supply to the signal conditioner and Controller instrument through the 3-PIN cable provided.
3. Connect the 5V controller I/P from the controller instrument to the Thyrister Drive, ensure the polarity is
properly matched.

Instrument's Rear Panel

SENSOR POWER
CONTROLLER O/P

+Ve -Ve

230V 50Hz

THYRISTER DRIVE
-Ve

+Ve
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
4. Connect the RTD sensor to the back panel of the controller through the cable provided.

Instrument's Rear Panel

SENSOR POWER
CONTROLLER O/P

+Ve -Ve

230V 50Hz

RTD SENSOR

2. MECHANICAL CONNECTION DETAILS:

1. Connect the input water to the Source Water Tank, ensure that the water should continuously available
for the throughout the experiment.

INLET WATER

LEVEL SHOULD MAINTAIN

SOURCE WATER TANK

2. Hot water outlet from the boiler should be drained outside.

3. PROCEDURE FOR MAINTAINING THE CONSTANT FLOW RATE:

1. Switch ON the motor.

2. Open the control valve so that the Rota meter shows the flow rate between 30 to 60 LPM.
3. Adjust the inlet water to the SS Tank so that the intake of the water is approximately equal to the Outlet water
(HOT WATER). So that the level of water in the SS tank is maintained.

EXPERIMENT SECTION FOR TEMPERATURE LOOP CONTROLLER:

 Instrumentation and Control Systems

EXPERIMENT-1:

STUDY OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL CONTROL” control for a Temperature process controller using process
control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To
determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and
derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.
Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure the sufficient water level in the tank, and maintain the level as explained above (in Procedure)
3. Switch ON the Temperature Loop Trainer Instrument.
4. Switch On the Thyrister Drive.
5. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
6. Select online when prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
7. And then click the CONTINUE TEST button option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
8. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘P’ (Proportional Control):-

For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero).
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
EXPERIMENT-2:

STUDY OF P+I CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL” control for a Temperature process
controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To
determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and
derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure the water level in the tank.
3. Start the Temperature Loop Trainer Instrument.
4. Switch On the Motor.
5. Adjust the FLOW RATE at 30-60 lit/hr.
6. Switch On the Thyrister Drive.
7. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
8. Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
9. And then click the CONTINUE TEST option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
10. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘PI’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
EXPERIMENT-3:

STUDY OF P+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a Temperature process
controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional
band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The
ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned
off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure the water level in the tank.
3. Start the Temperature Loop Trainer Instrument.
4. Switch On the Motor
5. Adjust the FLOW RATE at 30-60 lit/hr
6. Switch On the Thyrister Drive.
7. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
8. Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
9. And then click the CONTINUE TEST option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
10. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘P+D’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PD’ value, keep the ‘I’ value as ‘0’ (zero)

EXPERIMENT-4:
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
STUDY OF P+I+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a
Temperature process controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To
determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and
derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure the water level in the tank.
3. Start the Temperature Loop Trainer Instrument.
4. Switch On the Motor
5. Adjust the FLOW RATE at 30-60 lit/hr
6. Switch On the Thyrister Drive.
7. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
8. Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
9. And then click the CONTINUE TEST option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
10. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘PID’ control:

For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Ultimate (Ziegler and Nicholas) method)

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional
band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The
ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimat e
proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned
off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
 Start the Temperature Loop Trainer Instrument.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

 Switch On the Motor

 Adjust the FLOW RATE at 30-60 lit/hr

 Switch On the Thyrister Drive.

 Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.

 Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.

 And then click the CINTINUE TEST in the Tool bar of the PID software.
 The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.
a. For ‘P’ Control:
For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero).
b. For ‘PI’ Control:
For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
c. For ‘PID’ control:
For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Note: Keep the ‘P’ value approx around 100 to 150

Keep the ‘I’ value approx around 1
Keep the ‘D’ value approx around 0.2

Tuning of Controller:

1. Give a step change approx (10%) to the set value and absorb the process response.
2. If the system is over damped reduce the proportional band.
3. If the system is under damped increase the proportional band.
4. Note the proportional band at which the process response just starts continuously cycling with constant amplitude.
period required for one cycle.

By Ziegler Nicholas method:

Mode Proportional Integral Derivation

P 2PBu
P+1 2.2PBu Tu/1.2
P+D 1.65PBu Tu / 8.0
P+1+D 1.65 PBu 0.5 Tu Tu / 8.0

Select mode to study and use PID valves from above

 Instrumentation and Control Systems
BILL OF MATERIALS FOR TEMPERATURE LOOP CONTROL TRAINER:
1. Loop control stand.
2. S.S tank 250x250x300
3. Heater
4. Rotameter 300 LPH.
5. Pump 350 LPH
6. Thyrster Drive
7. Brass control valve (1/2“)
8. Brass Control valve (1/4”)
9. Brass Nipple (½”)
10. S.S Bend (1/2”)
11. Adapter (1/2”).
12. Tube clamp
13. M.C.B (16Amps)
14. Toggle Switch.
15. Power supply cover.
16. Spring sleeve.
17. Power supply cable.
18. ‘L’ bend.
19. Thrister Drive cover
20. Three pin Industrial plug (16Amps)
21. Water tube.
22. Hot water tube.
23. RTD sensor
24. Stand Legs
25. PID Controller software CD.
26. Signal conditioner interface connector.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Experiment 13

13. Measurement And Control Of Flow Of A Process Using SCADA Systems

1. Introduction:

FLOW MEASUREMENT SYSTEM is basically a closed loop system having Orifice with DPT setup to measure
the flow rate in LPH used as Feed back to control the flow rate. The system is self-contained with a water tank and Orifice with
DPT fitted on the panel. The sensors are connected with ½” piping. A FHP monoblock pump is fitted to circulate the water.
Controlling of flow is made through control valve fitted. The whole system is housed on a table top powder coated metal box.

Proportional, Integral, and Derivative controller or PID is a standard feedback loop component in industrial
control applications. It measures an "output" of a process and controls an "input", with a goal of maintaining the output at a
target value, which is called the "set point". An example of a PID application is the control of a process temperature, although it
can be used to control any measurable variable which can be affected by manipulating some other process variable.

The Controller compares a measured value from a process (typically any industrial process) is as follows

Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacture of an item or items,
usually carried out on a large scale.

Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.

Most processes make the production of an otherwise rare material vastly cheaper, thus changing it into a commodity; i.e.
the process makes it economically feasible for society to use the material on a large scale. One of the best examples of this is
the change in aluminum from prices more expensive than silver to its use in recyclable/disposable beverage containers.

Theory:

PROPORTONAL BAND
The control algorithm that generates a linear control output proportional to deviation is called proportional action. In
proportional action the amount of change in the measured valve (or deviation) is expressed in percent of span that is
required to cause the control output to change from 0 to 100% is called the proportional band.

P= Kp [SP-PV] + P0

INTEGRAL TIME
With P action the measured valve will not necessarily become equal to the set point, and a deviation will usually
be present. The control algorithm that applies changes in output as long as a deviation exits, so as to bring the deviation to
zero, is called integral action.
When integral action is used, the parameter that determines how fast the output will change in correspondence to
some amount of deviation is referred to as integral time, and shorter the integral time, stronger the integral action (the
greater the output rate of change). I action is usually used together with P action as PI action, and due only to I became
equal to that due only to P action.

P=I/Ti [SP-PV] + Po
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

DERIVATIVE TIME:
If the controlled object has a large time constant or dead time, with P or PI action alone there will be
cases where the response will be slow, overshoot will occur, and the control system will be unstable. In order to achieve
faster response and more stable operation cases one uses derivation action (D action) to apply an output component
proportional to the input (deviation) rate of change.
D action must always be used with P action time required with PD action. If a ramp input (constant rate of change input) is
applied, for the output due to P action alone to become equal to that due to D action alone. The longer the derivation time,
the stronger the derivation action.

P=Td d/dt [SP-PV]+Po

SPECIFICATIONS

FLOW METER : Orifice with DP Sensor

RANGE : 300LPH.
PUMP : FHP monoblock pump
SENSOR : Orifice plate with DPT
SENSOR O/P : 4-20mA
CONTROL VALVE : ½” Glove Valve (Linear) 15mm stem Travel.
ACTUATOR : Pneumatic Actuator (input 3-15 PSI)
I to P : Input 4-20mA output 3-15PSI
DATA LOGGER : 16 bit ADC 8 Channel with 12 Bit DAC interfaced with PC
through RS-232 Serial port.
CONTROLLER OUTPUT : 4 – 20mA
POWER : 230V 50Hz. Power supply to drive the monoblock pump.

NOTE: Customer has to provide necessary Air Supply through a Compressor at 6 to 8Kg/cm2 Pressure.
Water supply needed to run the process should be provided.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

1. System Overview:

The Flow Loop Trainer controller can be individually classified under two heads namely
d. The System Overview
e. Process control Software

A The System Overview:

The Overall system is a metallic structure, and it accommodates the, Orifice Plate with DP Transmitter to measure
the Flow Rate. SS Source tank is fitted to store the water. To circulate the water ½ HP mono blocks Pump is used. Control
Valve with Pneumatic Actuator is used to control the flow rate. The Pneumatic Actuator is controlled through I to P
converter which gives out 3 to 15 PSI pressure required to open and close the control valve by accepting 4 to 20mA as
input from a PID controller. The whole system is a Table top model which occupies very less place in the Laboratory with
all industrial grade materials fitted on a Powder Coated Metal Frame.
B. PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:
Process control software is indigenous software designed using the LABVIEW software for the Flow process. The
software package for Flow control application is very simple and powerful, general purpose which measures the process
variable, displays it on the screen.
The software is organized to explain all the control action available for the ON/OFF control, proportional control
(P), proportional plus integral control (PI), proportional plus derivative control (PD) and proportional plus integral plus
derivative control (P+I+D).

Some of the key features of the software are,

9. User feedable process parameter
10. Facility to store the data being processed as a separate file on the disk which can be used for future analysis.
11. A complete display of the process
12. Display all the graphical parameters both numerically and graphically.
13. Simultaneous graphical display the process variable.
14. Analyze the stored data.
15. Tune the control parameter for PID
16. To perform a historical trend of the process.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

2. Overall Panel Block Diagram:

DPT

ORIFICE

I to P Converter Control Valve with

Pneumatic Actuator

Water Pump
PC
Interface Pr Regulator
unit Bypass Valve

PID
Tuning Software Water
Air in Tank

SYSTEM OPERATION
1. Operating Procedure:

 Connect the power cord to 230V supply.

 Fill the Source tank with water to ½ the capacity of the tank (approx. 20Lts.)
 Switch on the motor using power ON switch. The motor starts pumping the water. Rotate
the control valve till float of the flow meter reads zero.

2. For Communication to PC:

 Switch ON the power supply to the interface card.
 From the interface card connect the RS-232 Serial port to the PC serial port (com1 or com2).

NOTE: Before connecting ensure that the voltage is 230 V supply and the Power
switch is in OFF position.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

EXPERIMENT SECTION FOR FLOW LOOP CONTROLLER:

EXPERIMENT-1:

STUDY OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL CONTROL” control for a Flow process controller using process control
software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To
determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and
derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.
Experiment steps:
9. Check all the connections for the instrument.
10. Ensure that the water is adequate in the Source tank for experimentation.
11. Ensure that the Bypass Valve is not in closed position.
12. Switch on the Flow loop instrument.
13. Start PID control software in the PC.
14. Enter the Name, Batch and Press ‘Start Test’ button.
15. Select Set point type as Manual and then click the ‘RECORD’ button option.
16. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P, I, D Values.

For ‘P’ (Proportional Control):-

For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero). EXPERIMEN
T-2:
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

STUDY OF P+I CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL” control for a Temperature process
controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional
band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The
ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimat e
proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned
off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
11. Check all the connections for the instrument.
12. Ensure that the water is adequate in the Source tank for experimentation.
13. Ensure that the Bypass Valve is not in closed position.
14. Switch on the Flow loop instrument.
15. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
16. Click the ‘RECORD’ option provided at the Top right corner of the window in PID Software. Give the file name in which
the Data has to be saved.
17. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘PI’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

EXPERIMENT-3:

STUDY OF P+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a Temperature process
controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional
band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The
ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimat e
proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned off)
is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.
Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure that the water is adequate in the Source tank for experimentation.
3. Ensure that the Bypass Valve is not in closed position.
4. Switch on the Flow loop instrument.
5. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
6. Click the ‘RECORD’ option provided at the Top right corner of the window in PID Software. Give the file name in which
the Data has to be saved.
7. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘P+D’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PD’ value, keep the ‘I’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
EXPERIMENT-4:

STUDY OF P+I+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a
Flow process controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional
band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The
ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimat e
proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned
off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:

1. Check all the connections for the instrument.

2. Check all the connections for the instrument.
3. Ensure that the water is adequate in the Source tank for experimentation.
4. Ensure that the Bypass Valve is not in closed position.
5. Switch on the Flow loop instrument.
6. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
7. Click the ‘RECORD’ option provided at the Top right corner of the window in PID Software. Give the file name in which
the Data has to be saved.
8. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘PID’ control:

For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Ultimate (Ziegler and Nicholas) method)

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate proportional band
and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional band (for a controller
with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the
period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate
period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the
process cycles continuously.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Check all the connections for the instrument.
3. Ensure that the water is adequate in the Source tank for experimentation.
4. Ensure that the Bypass Valve is not in closed position.
5. Switch on the Flow loop instrument.
6. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
7. Click the ‘RECORD’ option provided at the Top right corner of the window in PID Software. Give the file name in which
the Data has to be saved.
8. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D
Values.

a. For ‘P’ Control:

For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero).
b. For ‘PI’ Control:
For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
c. For ‘PID’ control:
For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Note: Keep the ‘P’ value approx around 5.0 to 10.0

Keep the ‘I’ value approx around 0.0015
Keep the ‘D’ value approx around 0.0001
Tuning of Controller:

5. Give a step change approx (10%) to the set value and absorb the process response.
6. If the system is over damped reduce the proportional band.
7. If the system is under damped increase the proportional band.
8. Note the proportional band at which the process response just starts continuously cycling with constant
amplitude. Note period required for one cycle.

By Ziegler Nicholas method:

Select mode to study and use PID valves from above

Mode Proportional Integral Derivation

P 0.13PBu
P+I 0.13PBu 0.8Tu
P+I+D 0.15 PBu 0.5 Tu 0.12Tu
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
BILL OF MATERIALS FOR FLOW LOOP CONTROL TRAINER:

1. Loop control stand.

2. S.S Tank 250X250X300
3. Air Regulator
4. I to P Converter
5. Control Valve with pneumatic Actuator (1/2”)
6. DP Transmitter
7. Pump 1/4PH (Monoblock)
8. Gauge 2.1 KG / cm2
9. Gauge 0 to 100 PSI
10. Orifice.
11. Blue nipples ¼”
12. Brass ‘T’ bends ½”
13. Brass ‘T’ bend ¼”
14. Brass bends ½”
15. Adapter ½”
16. Nipple ½”
17. Nipple ½” thread
18. Brass control valve.
19. Toggle switch
20. Power supply cover
21. Water Tube.
22. Stand legs.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Exp-14
14. Measurement And Control Of Level In A Tank Using Capacitive Transducer with SCADA

1. Introduction:

Proportional, Integral, and Derivative controller or PID is a standard feedback loop component in
industrial control applications. It measures an "output" of a process and controls an "input", with a goal of
maintaining the output at a target value, which is called the "setpoint". An example of a PID application is the
control of a process temperature, although it can be used to control any measurable variable which can be
affected by manipulating some other process variable.

2. Theory:

PROPORTONAL BAND
The control algorithm that generates a linear control output proportional to deviation is called proportional action. In
proportional action the amount of change in the measured valve (or deviation) is expressed in percent of span that is
required to cause the control output to change from 0 to 100% is called the proportional band.

P= Kp [SP-PV] + P0

INTEGRAL TIME
With P action the measured value will not necessarily become equal to the set the point, and a deviation will
usually be present. The control algorithm that applies changes in output as long as a deviation exits, so as to bring the
deviation to zero, is called integral action.
When integral action is used, the parameter that determines how fast the output will change in correspondence to
some amount of deviation is referred to as integral time, and shorter the integral time, stronger the integral action (the
greater the output rate of change). I action is usually used together with P action as P1 action, and due only to I became
equal to that due only to P action.

P=1/Ti [SP-PV] + Po

DERIVATIVE TIME:
If the controlled object has a large time constant or dead time, with P or PI action alone there will be
cases where the response will be slow, overshoot will occur, and the control system will be unstable. In order to achieve
faster response and more stable operation cases one uses derivation action (D action) to apply an output component
proportional to the input (deviation) rate of change.
D action must always be used with P action time required with PD action. If a ramp input (constant rate of change input) is
applied, for the output due to P action alone to become equal to that due to D action alone. The longer the derivation time
the stronger the derivation action.

P=Td d/dt [SP-PV]+Po

 Instrumentation and Control Systems

SPECIFICATIONS

SENSOR : Level Sensor/ Transmitter.

MEASURING TANK : Acrylic tank of 30cms length.

MEASURING RANGE : 30 cms.

WATER PUMP : FHP vertical pump

SOURCE TANK : SS Tank

EXCITATION : 5 V DC

CONTROL VALVE : ½” Globe Valve (Linear) 15mm stem Travel.

ACTUATOR : Pneumatic Actuator (input 3-15 PSI)
I to P : Input 4-20mA output 3-15PSI
DATA LOGGER : 16 bit ADC 8 Channel with 12 Bit DAC interfaced with PC through RS-232
Serial port.
CONTROLLER OUTPUT : 4 – 20mA
POWER : 230V 50Hz. Power supply to drive the mono-block pump.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

1. System Overview:

1) LEVEL LOOP TRAINER

The circuit comprises of three parts:
a. Air operated Globe valve
b. Level tank
c. I/P converter.
2. PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:
Process control software is indigenous software designed using the SCADA (DELTA) software for Level process.
The software package for Level control application is very simple and powerful, general purpose which measures the
process variable, displays it on the screen.
The software is organized to explain all the control action available for the ON/OFF control, proportional control
(P), proportional plus integral control (PI), proportional plus derivative control (PD) and proportional plus integral plus
derivative control (P+I+D).
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Some of the key features of the software are,
17. User feedable process parameter
18. Facility to store the data being processed as a separate file on the disk which can be used for future analysis.
19. A complete display of the process
20. Display all the graphical parameters both numerically and graphically.
21. Simultaneous graphical display the process variable.
22. Analyze the stored data.
23. Tune the control parameter for PID
24. To perform a historical trend of the process.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
2. Overall Panel Block Diagram:

PRESSURE SENSOR

LEVEL TANK REGULATOR

OUT IN
ROTAMETER
PNEUMATIC VALVE IN
OUT

IN
OUT IN OUT
OUT I/P
CONVERTER
IN CTRL VALVE
IN

OUT
IN
1

IN OUT
A SOURCE W ATER TANK
-
2

INLET PRESSURE
LEVEL LOOP CONTROL

CONNECTION DETAILS:

FOR COMMUNICATION TO PC:

4. Switch ON the power supply of interface card.
5. From the interface card connect the RS-232 comm. port to the PC serial port (com3).
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
SOFTWARE DETAILS:

This PID software is user friendly software, which is mainly provided for the purpose to analyse, calibrate,
monitor, and capture the process loop control data (Level). Through this we can understand the real time applications of the
PID process Loop controller respectively. The software is developed using DELTA SCADA software.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
EXPERIMENT SECTION FOR LEVEL LOOP CONTROLLER:

EXPERIMENT-1:

STUDY OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL CONTROL” control for a Level process controller using process control
software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band for controller. The Proportional component depends only on the difference between the Set point and the
process variable. This difference is referred to as the Error term. The Proportional gain (Kc) determines the ratio of output
response to the error signal. Ex. if the error term has a magnitude of 10, a proportional gain of 5 would produce a
proportional response of 50. In general increasing the proportional gain will increase the speed of the control system
response. But if the Proportional gain is too large, the process variable will begin to oscillate and if increased further the
oscillation will become larger and the system will become unstable and may even oscillate out of control. The Ultimate
proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode)
for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with
the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the
proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process
cycles continuously.
Experiment steps:
17. Check all the connections for the instrument.
18. Ensure the sufficient water level in the tank, and maintain the level as explained above (in Procedure)
19. Switch ON the Level Loop Trainer Instrument.
20. Switch On the Water Pump.
21. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
22. Select online when prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
23. And then click the CONTINUE TEST button option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
24. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘P’ (Proportional Control):-

For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero).
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
EXPERIMENT-2:

STUDY OF P+I CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL” control for a Level process controller
using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate Integral time for control. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the
proportional band set to its ultimate value. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The integral component sums the error term over time. The result is that even a small error term will cause the
integral component to increase slowly. The integral response will continually increase over time unless the error is zero, so
the effect is to drive the steady-state error to zero. Steady-State error is the final difference between the process variable and
set point. To determine the ultimate proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned off) is
gradually reduced (Kc) until the process cycles continuously.
Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure sufficient water in the tank, and maintain the level as explained above (in Procedure)
3. Switch ON the Level Loop Trainer Instrument.
4. Switch On the Water Pump.
5. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
6. Select online when prompted and then enter the file name for which the Data to be stored.
7. And then click the CONTINUE TEST button option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
8. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘PI’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
EXPERIMENT-3:

STUDY OF P+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a Level process
controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its
ultimate value. The derivative component causes the output to decrease if the process variable is increasing rapidly. The
derivative response is proportional to the rate of change of the process variable. Increasing the derivative time (Td) parameter
will cause the control system to react more strongly to changes in the error term and will increase the speed of the overall
control system response. Most practical control systems use vary small derivative time (Td), because the Derivative Response
is highly sensitive to noise in the process variable signal. If the sensor feedback signal is noisy or if the control loop rate is too
slow, the derivative response can make the control system unstable. To determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate
Derivative period of the controller (with Integral action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure the sufficient
For ‘PI’ Control:
water level in the
For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
tank, and maintain
the level as explained
above (in Procedure)
3. Switch ON the Level Loop Trainer Instrument.
4. Switch On the Water Pump.
5. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
6. Select online when prompted and then enter the file name for which the Data to be stored.
7. And then click the CONTINUE TEST button option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
8. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘P+D’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PD’ value, keep the ‘I’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

EXPERIMENT-4:

STUDY OF P+I+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a
Level process controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate Integral period and ultimate Derivative period for the controller. The gains of a PID
controller can be obtained by trial and error method. Once an engineer understands the significance of each gain parameter,
this method becomes relatively easy. In this method, the I and D terms are set to zero first and the proportional gain is
increased until the output of the loop oscillates. As one increases the proportional gain, the system becomes faster, but care
must be taken not make the system unstable. Once P has been set to obtain a desired fast response, the integral term is
increased to stop the oscillations. The integral term reduces the steady state error, but increases overshoot. Some amount of
overshoot is always necessary for a fast system so that it could respond to changes immediately. The integral term is
tweaked to achieve a minimal steady state error. Once the P and I have been set to get the desired fast control system with
minimal steady state error, the derivative term is increased until the loop is acceptably quick to its set point. Increasing
derivative term decreases overshoot and yields higher gain with stability but would cause the system to be highly sensitive
to noise. Often times, engineers need to tradeoff one characteristic of a control system for another to better meet their
requirements.

Experiment steps:
1. Check all the connections for the instrument.
2. Ensure the sufficient water level in the tank, and maintain the level as explained above (in Procedure)
3. Switch ON the Level Loop Trainer Instrument.
4. Switch On the Water Pump.
5. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
6. Select online when prompted and then enter the file name for which the Data to be stored.
7. And then click the CONTINUE TEST button option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
8. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

For ‘PID’ control:

For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Ultimate (Ziegler and Nicholas) method)

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate proportional band
and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional band (for a controller
with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate
period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the
process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
2. Check all the connections for the instrument.
3. Ensure the sufficient water level in the tank, and maintain the level as explained above (in Procedure)
4. Switch ON the Level Loop Trainer Instrument.
5. Switch On the Water Pump.
6. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
7. Select online when prompted and then enter the file name for which the Data to be stored.
8. And then click the CONTINUE TEST button option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
9. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values.

a. For ‘P’ Control:

For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero).
b. For ‘PI’ Control:
For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
c. For ‘PID’ control:
For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Note: Keep the ‘P’ value approx around 100 to 150

Keep the ‘I’ value approx around 1
Keep the ‘D’ value approx around 0.2

Tuning of Controller:

9. Give a step change approx (10%) to the set value and absorb the process response.
10. If the system is over damped reduce the proportional band.
11. If the system is under damped increase the proportional band.
12. Note the proportional band at which the process response just starts continuously cycling with constant
amplitude. Note period required for one cycle.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
By Ziegler Nicholas method:

Mode Proportional Integral Derivation

P 0.13PBu
P+1 0.13PBu 0.8Tu
P+1+D 0.15 PBu 0.5 Tu 0.12Tu

Select mode to study and use PID valves from above

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR LEVEL LOOP CONTROL TRAINER:

1. Loop control stand.

2. S.S tank 250X250X300.
3. Control Valve.
4. I/P converter.
5. Regulator.
6. Pump 700-500 LPH.
7. Gauge 2.1 K.G / cm2
8. Gauge (100 PSI).
9. Acrylic Level Tank.
10. Blue Nipple (1/4”).
11. Brass ‘T’ bends (1/4”).
12. Brass ‘T’ bends (1/2”).
13. Brass S.S bends (1/2”).
14. Brass Nipple (1/4”).
15. Brass Nipple (1/2”).
16. Releasing Valve (1/4”).
17. Adaptor (1/2”).
18. Adapter (1/4”).
19. ‘L’ Bends.
20. Water Tube.
21. Blue tube 6mm.
22. Toggle Switch.
23. Power cable.
24. Power supply cover.
25. Stand Legs.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Exp-15

15. Measurement and Control of Pressure Using SCADA System

Objective: To Find out the Pressure Loop using SCADA software of A Given Experiment
Out Come: Will Be Able to Analyze How to Measure the Pressure Loop using the SCADA of a Give
Experiment

1. Introduction:

Proportional, Integral, and Derivative controller or PID is a standard feedback loop component in
industrial control applications. It measures an "output" of a process and controls an "input", with a goal of
maintaining the output at a target value, which is called the "setpoint". An example of a PID application is the control
of a process temperature, although it can be used to control any measurable variable which can be affected by
manipulating some other process variable.

The Controller compares a measured value from a process (typically and industrial process) are as follows

Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacture of an item or items,
usually carried out on a large scale.

Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry.

Most processes make the production of an otherwise rare material vastly cheaper, thus changing it into a commodity; i.e.
the process makes it economically feasible for society to use the material on a large scale. One of the best examples of this is
the change in aluminum from prices more expensive than silver to its use in recyclable/disposable beverage containers.

An industrial process differs from a craft, workshop or laboratory process by the scale or investment required. Most of the
processes are complex and require large capital investments in machinery, or a substantial amount of raw materials, in
comparison to batch or craft processes. Production of a specific material may involve more than one type of process.

The difference (or "error" signal) is then used to calculate a new value for a manipulatable input to the process that brings
the process' measured value back to its desired setpoint. Unlike simpler control algorithm, the PID controller can adjust process
outputs based on the history and rate of change of the error signal, which gives more accurate and stable control. (It can be
shown mathematically that a PID loop will produce accurate, stable control in cases where a simple proportional control would
either have a steady state error or would cause the process to oscillates). PID controllers do not require advanced mathematics to
design and can be easily adjusted (or "tuned") to the desired application, unlike more complicated control algorithms based on
optimal control theory.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

2. Theory:
PROPORTONAL BAND
The control algorithm that generates a linear control output proportional to deviation is called proportional action. In
proportional action the amount of change in the measured valve (or deviation) is expressed in percent of span that is
required to cause the control output to change from 0 to 100% is called the proportional band.

P= Kp [SP-PV] + P0

S.NO Particulars Specification

01 1/2 “ Globe valve with Pneumatic

Pneumatic Valve
Actuator

02 MS Air chamber
Pressure Chamber

Capacity : 5 bar
03
Pressure sensor
Excitation : 10V

O/P : 4-20mA

04 Input 30 to 100 PSI

Air Regulator
Input 30 to 100PSI and 4-20mA
05 Output 3 – 15 PSI
I/P Converter
16-Bit Data Acquisition card with
06 DAQ o/p (4-20mA) through
Interface Card
RS-232 Serial comm. port to PC
PC Based PID Controller developed
07 using LAB VIEW Software.
Interface Controller
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
INTEGRAL TIME
With P action the measured valve will not necessarily become equal to the set the point, and a deviation will
usually be present. The control algorithm that applies changes in output as long as a deviation exits, so as to bring the
deviation to zero, is called integral action.
When integral action is used, the parameter that determines how fast the output will change in correspondence to
some amount of deviation is referred to as integral time, and shorter the integral time, stronger the integral action (the
greater the output rate of change). I action is usually used together with P action as P1 action, and due only to 1 became
equal to that due only to P action.

P=1/Ti [SP-PV]
DERIVATIVE TIME:
If the controlled object has a large time constant or dead time, with P or PI action alone there will be
cases where the response will be slow, overshoot will occur, and the control system will be unstable. In order to achieve
faster response and more stable operation cases one uses derivation action (D action) to apply an output component
proportional to the input (deviation) rate of change.
D action must always be used with P action time required with PD action. If a ramp input (constant rate of change input) is
applied, for the output due to P action alone to become equal to that due to D action alone. The longer the derivation time,
the stronger the derivation action.

P=Td d/dt [SP-PV]+Po

SPECIFICATIONS:
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

1. System Overview:

The Pressure process controller can be individually classified under four heads namely
f. The System Overview
g. Process control Software

The System Overview:

The Overall system is a metallic structure on which a MS metal chamber is mounted in which Pressure has to be
maintained. The Air supply is directly connected to the pressure chamber through a ball valve. The other opening of the
pressure chamber is connected to a control valve with pneumatic actuator. The output of the I to P converter is connected to
Pneumatic actuator which accepts 3 to 15 PSI for opening and closing valve. Since the Control valve is connected to the
output of the pressure chamber the control process is reversed. ie. the 20mA of the PID controller is to close the valve and
4mA of the PID controller is for opening of the control valve. The pressure inside the pressure chamber is sensed by a
Pressure transmitter which give out 0 to 5V for 0 to 100 PSI pressure. The whole system is mounted on a Table Top,
powder coated, MS frame.

PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Process control software is indigenous software designed using the LABVIEW software for the pressure process.
The software package for pressure control application is very simple and powerful, general purpose which measures the
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
process variable, displays it on the screen.
The software is organized to explain all the control action available for the ON/OFF control, proportional control
(P), proportional plus integral control (PI), proportional plus derivative control (PD) and proportional plus integral plus
derivative control (P+I+D).
Note:
Usually proportional integral and derivative control is preferred for Pressure control.
Some of the key features of the software are,
25. User feedable process parameter
26. Facility to store the data being processed as a separate file on the disk which can be used for future analysis.
27. A complete display of the process
28. Display all the graphical parameters both numerically and graphically.
29. Simultaneous graphical display the process variable.
30. Analyze the stored data.
31. Tune the control parameter for PID
32. To perform a historical trend of the process.

2. Overall Panel Block Diagram:

REGULATOR

PNEUMATIC VALVE OUT IN

IN

OUT PRESSURE SENSOR IN OUT

I/P
IN
CONVERTER

CTRL VALVE
IN
CHAMBER

INLET PRESSURE

PRESSURE LOOP CONTROL

 Instrumentation and Control Systems

SYSTEM OPERATION
1. Operating Procedure:
Primary Connection:

6. Connect the power supply 230V / 15A using power socket.

7. Connect the pressure transmitter o/p to the interface unit.
8. Connect the interface unit to RS-232 comm. port to PC.
For Communication to PC:
6. Switch ON the power supply of interface card.
7. From the interface card connect the RS-232 comm. port to the PC serial port (com1 or com2).

EXPERIMENT SECTION FOR PRESSURE LOOP CONTROLLER:

EXPERIMENT-1:

STUDY OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL CONTROL” control for a Pressure process controller using process
control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To
determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and
derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
25. Check all the connections for the instrument.
26. Ensure that the Pressure in the compressor is above 5 bar.
27. Switch ON the Pressure Loop Trainer Instrument.
28. Open the Ball valve little so that the air starts filling the Pressure chamber.
29. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
30. Select online when prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
31. And then click the CONTINUE TEST button option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
32. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset
P,I,D values.

For ‘P’ (Proportional Control):-

EXPERIMEN
For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero). T-2:
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
STUDY OF P+I CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROL” control for a Pressure process
controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To
determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and
derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
18. Check all the connections for the instrument.
19. Ensure the Air compressor pressure is maintained above 5Kg/cm2 in the tank is adequate.
20. Start the Pressure Loop Trainer Instrument.
21. Open the Ball valve little so that the air starts filling the Pressure tank.
22. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
23. Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
24. And then click the CONTINUE TEST option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
25. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset
P,I,D Values.

For ‘PI’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

EXPERIMENT-3:

STUDY OF P+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a pressure process
controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional
band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The
ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned
off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
11. Check all the connections for the instrument.
12. Ensure the Air compressor pressure is maintained above 5Kg/cm2 in the tank is adequate.
13. Start the Pressure Loop Trainer Instrument.
14. Open the Ball valve little so that the air starts filling the Pressure tank.
15. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
16. Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
17. And then click the CONTINUE TEST option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
18. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset
P,I,D Values.

For ‘P+D’ Control:

For controlling the ‘PD’ value, keep the ‘I’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

EXPERIMENT-4:

STUDY OF P+I+D CONTROL USING PROCESS CONTROL SOFTWARE:

Aim:
To study the action “PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROL” control for a
Pressure process controller using process control software.

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate
proportional band and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of
proportional band (for a controller with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant
amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To
determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimate period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and
derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the process cycles continuously.

Experiment steps:
11. Check all the connections for the instrument.
12. Ensure the Air compressor pressure is maintained above 5Kg/cm2 in the tank is adequate.
13. Start the Pressure Loop Trainer Instrument.
14. Open the Ball valve little so that the air starts filling the Pressure tank.
15. Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.
16. Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.
17. And then click the CONTINUE TEST option in the Tool bar of the PID Software.
18. The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset
P,I,D Values.

For ‘PID’ control:

For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Ultimate (Ziegler and Nicholas) method)

Theory:

The team ultimate was attached to this method because its use requires the determination of the ultimate proportional band
and ultimate period. The Ultimate proportional band, PBu is the minimum allowable value of proportional band (for a controller
with only proportional mode) for which the system continuously oscillating at constant amplitude. The ultimate period (Tu) is the
period of response with the proportional band set to its ultimate value. To determine the ultimate proportional band and ultimat e
period the proportional band of the controller (with all integral and derivative action turned off) is gradually reduced until the
process cycles continuously.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Experiment steps:
 Start the Pressure Loop Trainer Instrument.
 Ensure the Air compressor pressure is maintained above 5Kg/cm2 in the tank is adequate.
 Start the Pressure Loop Trainer Instrument.
 Open the Ball valve little so that the air starts filling the Pressure tank.

 Start PID CONTROLLER software in the PC.

 Select online prompted and then enter the file name for which the Datas to be stored.

 And then click the CINTINUE TEST in the Tool bar of the PID software.
 The Controller starts data-logging automatically and starts controlling process based on the preset P,I,D Values. 
a. For ‘P’ Control:
For controlling the ‘P’ Value, keep the ‘I’ and ‘D’ value ‘0’ (zero).
b. For ‘PI’ Control:
For controlling the ‘PI’ value, keep the ‘D’ value as ‘0’ (zero)
c. For ‘PID’ control:
For controlling the ‘PID’ value, SET all the values.

Note: Keep the ‘P’ value approx around 100 to 150

Keep the ‘I’ value approx around 1
Keep the ‘D’ value approx around 0.2

Tuning of Controller:

13. Give a step change approx (10%) to the set value and absorb the process response.
14. If the system is over damped reduce the proportional band.
15. If the system is under damped increase the proportional band.
16. Note the proportional band at which the process response just starts continuously cycling with constant
amplitude. Note period required for one cycle.

By Ziegler Nicholas method:

Mode Proportional Integral Derivation

P 2PBu
P+1 2.2PBu Tu/1.2
P+D 1.65PBu Tu / 8.0
P+1+D 1.65 PBu 0.5 Tu Tu / 8.0

Select mode to study and use PID valves from above

 Instrumentation and Control Systems

BILL OF MATERIALS FOR PRESSURE LOOP CONTROL TRAINER:

1. Loop Control stand.
2. Legs
3. Control valve ½” with Pneumatic Actuator.
4. I/P converter
5. Pressure Regulator
6. Pressure Transmitter (0 -5kg/cm2)
7. Pressure chamber
8. Gauge 2.1 Kg / cm2
9. Gauge 0 to 100 PSI
10. ¼” Ball Valve
11. Blue nipples ½”
12. Brass ‘T’ bends ¼”
13. Brass adapter ¼”
14. Pressure sensor
15. Blue tube.
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Exp: 4 Viva Questions

1. What are the different types of strain gauges?
2. What is the principle of mechanical torsion meter
3. How do you measure strain?
4. What is gauge factor of strain gauge?
5. How does a Wheatstone bridge strain gauge work?
6. Bonding element in a strain gauge must have
7. Dynamic strain measurements use
8. Explain the working of a bourdon tube pressure gauge.
9. Electrical strain gauge works on the principle of _
10. What is systematic error?
11. What is strain gauge load cell?
12. Gauge factor in a strain gauge must be
13. Strain gauges are used for
14. How do you calculate gauges?
15. Resistance of the strain gauge must be
16. What is bonded strain gauge?
17. Define the term calibration.
18. What is the working principle of strain gauge?
19. What is meant by primary calibration?
20. List two deflection type instruments.
21. What is a power operated instrument?
22. Defineforce
23. List the various measurement methods and explain them.
24. Draw the block diagram of a generalized measurement system
25. Briefly explain the applications of measuring instruments.
26. Commonly used elements for wire strain gauges are
27. Classify various errors and explain them in detail.
28. Explain how strain gauges are calibrated.
29. Discuss on calibration, error and correction curves.
30. What is gauge rosette?
31. List the materials used for fine wire strain gauges
32. Commonly used electrical strain gauge is
33. What is piezo-resistivity?
34. Resistance wire gauges come in
35. Define humidity
36. Define dry air
37. Strain gauges are classified into
38. What is moist air?
39. Bonded resistance wire strain gauge is of
40. Proper bonding causes errors in strain gauges.
41. Mechanical gauges measure the
42. Cement is classified under
43. Gauge factor is given by the relation
44. Define resistance strain gauge?
45. How do you calibrate a strain gauge?
46. What is a strain gauge amplifier?
47. What does strain gauge measure?
48. What is strain explain?
49. How does needle size affect gauge?
50. What is foil type strain gauge?
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Exp-5 Viva Questions
1. Define the term transducer.
2. What is meant by loading?
3. What is a thermocouple?
4. State two limitations of a total radiation pyrometer.
5. Differentiate atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure.
6. List two instruments used to measure low pressure.
7. What are the limitations of thermistor?
8. Explain the basic principle on which the bimetallic thermometer works.
9. List the common metals used in bimetallic strips.
10. What are pyrometers?
11. Define temperature.
12. List three areas where temperature measurement is important.
13. State the basic principle behind a resistance potentiometer.
14. What is a pressure thermometer?
15. List various transducers used for displacement measurement.
16. Differentiate gauge pressure and vacuum pressure.
17. What is an electric transducer?
18. Differentiate analog and digital transducers.
19. What is an elastic transducer?
20. List a few applications of pressure measurement.
21. Explain the calibration procedure for inductive transducer.
22. Design a measurement system for displacement measurement using LDR (Light dependent resistor) as sensor.
23. Explain the temperature measurement by thermocouples
24. How do you measure the pressure with the help of U-tube manometer and micro-manometer?
25. What is J type thermocouple?
26. How is thermocouple voltage measured?
27. Differentiate between rare metal thermocouples and base metal thermocouples
28. Explain the construction and working of a photo-electric transducer.
29. What is a hot junction?
30. List electrical transducers for measurement of linear and angular displacement.
31. What color is type K thermocouple wire?
32. How cold junction compensation is done in thermocouple?
33. What is cold junction in thermocouple?
34. How accurate is a thermocouple?
35. Why do thermocouples have two metals?
36. Define calibrate a thermocouple?
37. What color is type K thermocouple wire?
38. What causes a thermocouple to fail?
39. Compare a primary transducer with secondary transducer.
40. Explain absolute, gauge and vacuum pressure
41. Describe the construction, theory and applications of different types of Diaphragm pressure gauges.
42. Give examples for active and passive transducers.
43. Why do thermocouples need to be connected with special wire?
44. How is thermocouple voltage measured?
45. Differentiate atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure
46. Differentiate analog and digital transducers.
47. What is reference junction thermocouple?
48. How does a type J thermocouple work?
49. Explain the construction and working principle of Ionization pressure gauge.
50. What is a thermopile?
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Exp- 6 Viva Questions

1. How does capacitive displacement sensor work?
2. What is the basic principle of capacitive transducer?
3. Define the term transducer.
4. What is meant by loading?
5. Compare a primary transducer with secondary transducer.
6. Give examples for active and passive transducers.
7. How does a displacement sensor work?
8. What is an elastic transducer?
9. Differentiate analog and digital transducers.
10. What is the function of transducer?
11. What is an electric transducer?
12. What is a mechanical transducer?
13. What is capacitive pressure sensor?
14. What is meant by displacement measurement?
15. List various transducers used for displacement measurement.
16. State the basic principle behind a resistance potentiometer.
17. How does a soil moisture sensor work?
18. List three areas where temperature measurement is important.
19. Define temperature.
20. Explain the basic principle on which the bimetallic thermometer works.
21. What is transducer and its types?
22. List the common metals used in bimetallic strips.
23. What is a pressure thermometer?
24. What are the limitations of thermistor?
25. What is resistive transducer?
26. State two limitations of a total radiation pyrometer.
27. What is meant by inductive transducer?
28. Differentiate atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure.
29. What is transducer give example?
30. Differentiate gauge pressure and vacuum pressure.
31. What are pyrometers?
32. List a few applications of pressure measurement.
33. What is the working principle of transducer?
34. List two instruments used to measure low pressure.
35. What is a thermocouple?
36. Define Piezo-electric
37. Explain speaker a transducer?
38. Define Capacitance
39. Define Ionization
40. Distinguish between RTD and Thermistor
41. How does LVDT measure displacement?
42. Explain absolute, gauge and vacuum pressure
43. State and explain the three laws of thermocouples.
44. What is a thermopile?
45. Explain the working of a total radiation pyrometer.
46. How an elastic diaphragm gauge is used to measure pressure?
47. Explain the bellows gauge used to measure gauge pressure.
48. How can a strain gauge be used to measure pressure?
49. What do capacitive sensors detect?
50. How does a capacitive soil moisture sensor work?
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Exp- 7 VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define Vibration
2. What is piezo – electric effect?
3. State any three mechanical tachometers used to measure angular velocity
4. Write the list of various contactless electrical tachometers
5. Write any three measurement devices for measurement of linear velocity
6. Define strain
7. What is bonded strain gauge?
8. Whatis self temperature compensation?
9. Write various instruments which are used for measuring vibrations
10. State the basic principle behind tachogenerators
11. Whatis gauge rosette?
12. Listthe materials used for fine wire strain gauges
13. Define strain gauge
14. What is piezo-resistivity?
15. What is gauge factor?
16. Definehumidity
17. What is moist air?
18. What is Poisson’s ratio?
19. Define saturated air
20. State the basic principle on which a seismic displacement sensing accelerometer works
21. What is absolute humidity?
22. Define dry air
23. What is relative humidity?
24. Define humidity ratio
25. What is the principle of mechanical torsion meter
26. What is wet bulb depression?
27. Define dew point temperature
28. Write two examples for closed-loop control system
29. What is percentage humidity?
30. State the basic principle on which a strain gauge accelerometer works
31. Define humidity ratio
32. What is the principle of optical torsion meter
33. Define photo-electric transducer.
34. How does a transducer work?
35. What is the principle of optical torsion meter
36. What are electrical transducers?
37. Define LDR and its function?
38. What is meant by LVDT?
39. Why are transducers important?
40. Define power
41. How is LDR measured?
42. What is pressure transducer used for?
43. What is photoconductivity physics?
44. Classification of photo electric transuder?
45. What is the principle of mechanical torsion meter
46. What is photoconductive transducer?
47. What is the principle of electrical torsion meter
48. Define torque
49. Define force
50. What is meant by measurement?
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Exp- 8 VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Commonly used elements for wire strain gauges are
2. Classify various errors and explain them in detail.
3. Explain how strain gauges are calibrated.
4. Discuss on calibration, error and correction curves.
5. What is gauge rosette?
6. List the materials used for fine wire strain gauges
7. Commonly used electrical strain gauge is
8. What is piezo-resistivity?
9. Resistance wire gauges come in
10. Define humidity
11. Define dry air
12. Strain gauges are classified into
13. What is moist air?
14. What is an electric transducer?
15. List various transducers used for displacement measurement.
16. State two limitations of a total radiation pyrometer.
17. Define temperature.
18. How does pt100 RTD work?
19. What are mechanical instruments?
20. What is RTD
21. What is a thermopile?
22. how it works RTD
23. What is difference between pt100 and RTD?
24. Define applications for RTD?
25. What is a pressure thermometer?
26. How many types of RTD are there?
27. List two deflection type instruments.
28. What is RTD wire?
29. What is the difference between an RTD and a thermostat?
30. What is a power operated instrument?
31. Explain the elements of control system
32. How control systems are classified?
33. Explain four examples of control system applications
34. Define Block diagram
35. Define system error
36. What is percentage humidity?
37. Explain open-loop control system
38. Explain the block diagram of the feedback control system
39. Differentiate the terms ‘accuracy’ and ‘precision’.
40. Define reference input
41. Explain briefly two examples of open-loop control systems
42. What is a pressure thermometer?
43. Define actuating signal
44. Differentiate between pneumatic and hydraulic control systems
45. What is chaotic error?
46. What is a mechanical transducer?
47. What are the limitations of thermistor?
48. Define disturbance
49. Enumerate the deficiencies of Routh’s criterion
50. Explain Routh stability criterion
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
EXP-9 VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is liquid level?
2. Why flow measurement is important?
3. What are secondary or rate meters?
4. Write the two kinds of velocity
5. State any one linear velocity transducer
6. Write the principle of working of a magnetic flow meter?
7. Describe the construction of bubbler level indicator
8. Explain the use of rota meter for flow measurement.
9. How can gamma rays be used to measure liquid level?
10. Define Hook level indicator
11. Describe the working of a rota meter.
12. Explain in Bubbler level indicator
13. How rate flow is measured using a pitot tube?
14. Explain the working of a magnetic flow meter
15. Explain the working principle of ultrasonic flow meter
16. How many types of rota meter are there?
17. Why flow meter is used?
18. Explain any one float operated liquid level gauge.
19. Explain in Ultrasonic level method
20. What is an electric transducer?
21. How does rota meter usually get damaged?
22. Explain a device using a float – rheostat to measure liquid level.
23. Define humidity ratio
24. Define Turbine flow meter
25. What is the application of rota meter?
26. How is a venture flow meter used to measure flow?
27. Explain the construction and working of a flow nozzle.
28. What is the difference between flow meter and flow transmitter?
29. How does a flow meter work?
30. Explain the basic principle behind electric liquid level sensors.
31. Define strain
32. What is bonded strain gauge?
33. What is gauge factor?
34. What is gauge rosette?
35. Explain in Capacitive level method
36. What is self temperature compensation?
37. Definehumidity
38. Explain a capacitive liquid level sensor used to measure liquid level.
39. What is piezo-resistivity?
40. On what basic principle does an obstruction meter work?
41. Define Cryogenic fuel method
42. What is Poisson’s ratio?
43. Define strain gauge
44. Explain the construction and working of an orifice meter.
45. Where are magnetic flow meters used?
46. List the materials used for fine wire strain gauges
47. Explain any one purge system to measure liquid level.
48. What is an ultrasonic flow meter?
49. Define Velocity
50. What is the difference between direct and indirect liquid level measuring devices?
 Instrumentation and Control Systems

Exp- 10 Viva Questions

1. Define Vibration
2. Explain Inductive pickup and stroboscope tachometer
3. List the specifications of vibration exciter?
4. Define mounting vibration sensor?
5. Explain controls of vibrations analyzer?
6. Write any three measurement devices for measurement of linear velocity
7. Difference between controls of oscillator and power amplifier?
8. Define oscillator?
9. Explain centrifugal tachometer
10. State any three mechanical tachometers used to measure angular velocity
11. Define accelerometer
12. What are the units for frequency?
13. Define DC and AC Tachogenerator
14. What is calibration accuracy?
15. Explain with working of slipping clutch?
16. Difference between calibration & validation?
17. What is calibration of instrument?
18. What is balance calibration?
19. How is calibration done?
20. State the basic principle behind tachogenerators.
21. What is calibration and its types?
22. What is servomechanism?
23. Write various instruments which are used for measuring vibrations
24. What is synchro?
25. What do you meant by vibration?
26. Define closed loop control system.
27. Explain absolute gauge and vacuum pressure
28. What is frequency?
29. Define open loop control system.
30. Write the list of various contactless electrical tachometers
31. What are the two major types of control system?
32. State the basic principle on which a strain gauge accelerometer works
33. What are the components of feedback control system?
34. What is control system?
35. Define transfer function.
36. What is a seismic wave.
37. Explain commutated capacitor tachometer
38. What are the basic elements used for modeling mechanical translational system?
39. How do you identify resistor color codes?
40. What is piezo – electric effect?
41. What are the types of validation?
42. How do you calculate tolerance?
43. Name two types of electrical analogous for mechanical system.
44. Define photo electric and capacitor tachometer
45. What is block diagram?
46. What are the principles of calibration?
47. What is a signal flow graph?
48. What is the difference between an RTD and a thermostat?
49. What are the advantages of piezoelectric transducer?
50. Explain working of vibrating reed and drag cup tachometer?
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Exp-11 Viva Questions
1. What is the use of pressure gauge?
2. What is the principle of McLeod gauge?
3. Explain the McLeod gauge
4. Applications of McLeod gauge
5. How does a thermocouple vacuum gauge work?
6. What is a Torr gauge?
7. Write the elements of a control system
8. Define an indirectly controlled variable
9. Write the classification of control systems
10. Define strain
11. Define a controlled variable
12. Write the elements of open-loop control system
13. What is wet bulb depression?
14. Sketch the open-loop control system
15. Define system error
16. What is angularity error?
17. Define torque
18. Define power
19. Define open-loop control system.
20. What is the principle of mechanical torsion meter
21. Define strain gauge
22. What is meant by loading?
23. Define the term transducer
24. What are the advantages of pressure gauge?
25. State the basic principle behind a resistance potentiometer.
26. List the common metals used in bimetallic strips
27. How do you measure vacuum McLeod gauge?
28. Define limitations of McLeod gauge?
29. Define dry air
30. What is the multiplication error?
31. Define saturated air
32. What is moist air?
33. Explain in Bubbler level indicator
34. What are the objectives of control?
35. What are the disadvantages of pressure gauge?
36. Define control techniques?
37. Differentiate gauge pressure and vacuum pressure.
38. What are types of control system?
39. What is meant by measurement?
40. Give two examples for primary measurement.
41. What are pressure gauge units?
42. What is the zero order error?
43. Define errors of pressure gauge
44. What is a primary sensing element?
45. Differentiate the terms ‘accuracy’ and ‘precision’
46. What is a vacuum gauge called?
47. What is loading error?
48. How does a Penning gauge work?
49. What is absolute humidity?
50. What are the limitations of pressure gauge?
 Instrumentation and Control Systems
Exp-12 VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define SCADA
2. What is Scada and how does it work?
3. What are the components of SCADA?
4. Applications of SCADA.
5. What are the units for frequency?
6. What Is Plc?
7. What is CMS?
8. Define end systolic pressure volume?
9. List two deflection type instruments
10. What is meant by PLC and Scada?
11. Define a level loop?
12. What is a power operated instrument?
13. What is Programmable Logic Controllers
14. What is an electric transducer?
15. List two instruments used to measure low pressure.
16. Define PID
17. Define Velocity
18. Explain the 3 types of loops?
19. What are the applications of PLC?
20. What is a Scada server?
21. What is piezo – electric effect?
22. Define the term transducer
23. Applications Of Plc?
24. Write the two kinds of velocity
25. What is a control loop in instrumentation?
26. Explain what are different components in PLC?
27. Define pressure
28. What is Data Acquisition? .
29. Differentiate the terms ‘accuracy’ and ‘precision’.
30. What is the difference between PLC and Scada?
31. What is the principle of RTD?
32. What is calibration?
33. How RTD used for Temperature measurement
34. What are the advantages RTD?
35. What is the replacement for temperature measurement ?
36. What is the principle of Thermocouple?
37. What is calibration?
38. How Thermocouple used for Temperature measurement and what is the range of thermocouples?
39. What are the advantages of Thermocouple
40. What is the principle of Thermistor?
41. What is calibration?
42. How Thermistor used for Temperature measurement?
43. What are the advantages of Thermistor?
44. What is the replacement for temperature measurement if Thermistor is not there?
45. Define saturated air
46. What is systematic error?
47. Define Loop level and types?
48. What is a flow control loop?
49. How do you measure strain?
50. Define temperature.
Instrumentation and Control Systems
Instrumentation and Control Systems