BASIC WORKSHOP

TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE

MEC 113/115
MODULE 1-General Factory Acts, Safety Regulations and Safety Precautions

Nigeria Factories Acts and Safety Regulations

The Factories Act is one of the legislations that guide the relationship between employers and
employees. The Act came into operation to curtail the incidence of industrial accidents and to
promote safety at work environment for the betterment of the employers and employees~ as well
as government at large.

The major objective of the Act is to prevent industrial accidents which often result to industrial
injuries. Industrial injuries are injuries arising in the course of employment. The law relating to
the health and safety of the employee whilst engaged in his work has undergone some several
changes in years. This is apparently because it is now being recognized that industrial safety is a
specialist profession and consequently, all those concerned with industrial safety must
recognized such, and ensure that they are at least conversant with those aspects of it which affect
them.

There is no way industrial safety and the Factories Act will be discussed without reference to the
common law position as it is difficult to completely ignore the common law position on the
subject of the employee's safety. This is because the common law plays a complimentary role on
the issue of safety. At common law, employers are responsible to ensure the safety of their
employees. This responsibility is discharged by providing the following:

(i) Safe working system

(ii) Safe work place
(iii) Safe working equipment
(iv) Competent staff

Objectives of the Act

The Factories Act is an act to provide for the registration, etc of the factories; to provide for
factory workers and a wider spectrum of workers and other professionals exposed to
occupational hazards but for whom no adequate provision had been made; to make adequate
provisions regarding the safety of the workers to which the act applies and to impose penalties
for any breach of its provisions.

It therefore means that the main objective of the act is to cater for the safety needs of the
vulnerable Nigerian worker who before now was left unprotected while being subjected to
potentially hazardous working conditions. The Act imposes an additional liability on the
employer for the protection of their employees. The Act imposes strict liabilities on the employer
to provide safety for the employee.

The Scope of the Act

The Act as we have it today is divided into eleven parts which is made up of a total of 89
sections with five schedules. The parts and their respective subjects and sections are as follows:
Part I registration of Factories Sections 1 - 6
Part II Health (general provisions) Sections 7 - 13
Part III Safety (general provisions) sections 14 - 39
Part IV Welfare (general provisions) Sections 40 - 44
Part V Health, Safety and Welfare (special provisions and regulations Sections 45 - 50)
Part VI Notification and investigation of accidents and industrial diseases Sections 51 - 53
Part VII Special applications extensions and miscellaneous provision Sections 54 – 62
Part VIII General Registers, etc. 58-62
Part IX Administration Sections 63 - 68
Part X Offences, penalties and legal proceedings Sections 69 - 81
Part XI General Sections 82 - 89

It must however be noted that the Act is quite proactive and not merely reactive. It works
towards ensuring the safety of workers and to make employers liable in criminal penalty for not
adhering to its safety provisions.

Read up:

Nigeria. Factories Act, 1987 - ILO

Health and Safety Management in Workplaces

Health and Safety Management System (HSMS), is a process for minimizing incidence of injury,
illness and even death at workplaces. Several safety elements have been identified which could
influence the development of a successful safety and health management system, however four
of these elements have been found to be critical and they include:
1. Leadership qualities of management (employer, supervisors, foreman etc.) on safety and
employee’s involvement,
2. Worksite analysis of potential hazard spots,
3. Hazard prevention and control, and
4. Quality and frequency of organizing safety and health training programme.

What is workplace
A workplace is anywhere work is done, or is to be performed by a worker, person or group of
persons conducting an undertaking or business. A workplace could therefore be a workshop, a
business shop, an office, a farm shop, home, playground etc.

Components of workplace
Components of workplace refers to both the physical and environmental factors that constitute a
workplace and include; physical objects/hardware (such as machinery, furniture, structures etc),
human being (operators, workers, inspectors and their team, visitors etc) and the environment
(operating environment). A common denominator within the workplace is the environment
which is explained below.

Environment
An environment is the totality of all factors that constitute a workplace. The environments in
which people live have a great deal to do with the determination of risk level, injury, hazards and
opportunities for injury and hazard prevention.
Environment has been known to have some influence on work output or productivity. For
instance, working in a safe and healthful environment can stimulate innovation and creativity
resulting in increased performance and higher productivity. Two environments are generally
identifiable in every workplace; the physical environment and the operating environment.

Physical environment

The physical environment is the actual place or site where work is done. In other word, it is the
actual workplace and it includes:
1. Factory or plant
2. Workshops
3. Farms (field) and farmsteads,
4. Roadway,
5. Vehicles/machinery,
6. Buildings, farm structures and the settings in which we live, work (offices) and play.

Operating environment

The operating environment implies both the physical and atmospheric conditions that could have
an influence on job delivery in the workplace. Several factors influences the operating
environment, such factors include
1. Seasonal variations,
2. Weather variability,
3. Temperature variation,
4. Relative humidity etc.

Other critical factors that are environmentally dependent include:

1. Exposure to harmful substances, and
2. Working within confined and limited (small) spaces
3. Working in poorly ventilated enclosures
4. Working in poorly illuminated environment
5. Attack by insects and wild animals etc.

All these and factors environment harbors potential hazards when not controlled with attendant
consequences of injury and even death in extreme cases.

Hazard definition

Hazard is any situation, condition or extreme events (natural or caused) with a certain degree of
probability of having adverse result or consequences on safety or health of workers. It expresses
any activity that has potential to adversely or negatively impact human health, property, or the
environment. It causes harm or injury. These hazards could occur at some specific places known
as hazard points.
Hazard points
Hazard points are those points within the physical and operating environment that could cause
injury such as moving parts of machinery, working at heights, slippery surfaces, and contact with
electrical energy, excessive noise, toxic substances, and lifting of heavy objects among several
other sources.

Workplace hazards
These are hazards that are particularly domicile in the work environment. These could be as a
result of human inefficiency, machine malfunction, inclement weather (abrupt weather change)
and/or accidental occurrences. Workplace hazard has both short term (safety implications) and
long term health implications) effects when not put under checks.

Classes of hazard
The short term and long term effects of workplace hazards gives to two b broad classes of
hazards viz safety hazard and health hazards.

Safety hazards
Safety hazard refers to circumstances that can cause immediate injury to a worker. For example,
if electrical equipment are not properly grounded, it could become energized and possibly
electrocute an employee. Or, if a worker’s hands come in contact with moving saw blade, he or
she could have one or more fingers cut off instantly or result in instant injury. Safety injuries are
commonly associated with physical environment.
Physical environment that could cause safety hazard include but not limited to the followings:
1. Machine/machinery such as:
a. Point of operation
b. Rotary and reciprocating movements
c. In-running nip points (pinch points) etc.
2. Kickbacks from machine due to sudden impact loading, sudden blow from workload etc.
3. Flying chips, thrown object etc. such as flying stone propelled by mower blade etc.
4. Sharp projections from tool edges e.g. anvil edge, projecting object in load vehicles etc.
5. Fire and explosion hazards
6. Electrical shock, stunning, burn or electrocution as a result of contact with exposed or un-
insulated life wire.

Health hazards
Health hazards are situations associated with long term exposure to certain substances or
exposure to excessive noise levels or vibrations. Health hazards can cause both immediate
(acute) and longer-term (chronic) health conditions. For example, exposure to turpentine, waxes
and finishes, a chemical used in furniture industry, can result in a range of health effects, ranging
from temporary eyes irritation and more debilitating skin effects to severe kidney and bladder
damage. Health injuries are commonly associated with operating environment.

Operating environment that could cause health hazards include:

1. Excessive noise resulting from long time exposure to continuous machine operation or
exposure to noisy machine operation.
2. Vibration: Vibration as a result of working on platforms, working around heavy and
undamped equipment or constantly being exposed to moving parts could cause muscular
disorders.
3. Wood dust: These are particulate fine materials that seems harmless, however, long time
exposure to them can heavy inhalation of quantity big enough to result in air track blockage
thereby causing carcinogenic effects on the skin.
4. Harmful chemicals: Exposures to coatings, finishing, adhesives, solvent vapours could result
in health hazards.

Types of hazard
Hazards in workplaces are grouped into four categories accordingly.

Category 1: Physical hazards: Physical hazards could cause traumatic injuries as a result of
human exposure to the source. These hazards results from activities such as:
 Lifting and handling heavy loads e.g. manual materials handling
 Exposure to repetitive motions resulting from reciprocating systems, or synchronous
operations requiring intermittent hand and body movement.
 Slipping and tripping hazards e.g. poorly maintained floors, working on oily surfaces,
poorly designed stair cases or scaffolds or carelessness while working at heights.
 Exposure to moving parts of machinery e.g. exposure to unguarded belts, gears and
chains etc.
 Exposure to electrical current and fire, as a result of poor wiring, frayed cords or lack of
precautionary measures
 Exposure to excessive noise e.g. portable hand held tools, engines etc.
  Exposure to extreme temperatures from heating ports, exhaust pipes and ionizing
radiations from reactors, or leakages form ionization chambers.

Category 2: Chemical hazards: These are injuries caused by exposure to

 Chemicals e.g. battery acids, solvents, cleaners, pesticides and herbicides
 Dusts e.g. from grinding, asbestos removal, sandblasting, sawmill dust
 Fumes e.g. welding fume, mists and vapour from mist applications or sprays and gas
emissions.

Category 3: Biological hazards: These are hazards resulting from human exposure to pathogenic
substances or materials from sewerages, lagoons (aerobic or anaerobic). These pathogens include
viruses, fungi, bacterial or mold. They cause an attack on blood and body fluids.

Category 4: Psychological hazards occur as a result of unfavourable working conditions,

inadequate and inappropriate work tools, working with old or worn and out of fashion (obsolete)
tools and equipment and undue exposure to hazards due to poor management responses to
change. Such situations often lead to
 Psychological trauma and frustration which could lead to job depression culminating in
work stress, strain, and fatigue.
 Other effects include mental exhaustions, disillusionment and delirium.

Occupational hazards
Apart from accidents caused by carelessness and recklessness, workers are exposed to certain
hazards in the course of their undertaken, a form of risk associated with the work that somebody
does. This is known as Occupational Hazards or Job Risk.

Accident

Accident is an unforeseen occurrence with negative consequence as a result of sudden impact,

system malfunction human error or as a result of carelessness when we undertake unsafe acts.
Accident results in pains, loss of body member or death to victims, a waste of time, money,
materials and damage to equipment. Consequently, it is of interest to devise measures to prevent
or reduce accidents in all operations to the barest minimum.

Injury
In public health practice, injury usually means physical harm to a person’s body. Physical injury
(harm) results from contact between people and harmful objects, substances, or other things in
their surroundings. Common types of physical injury include broken bones, cuts, bruises, brain
damage, poisoning and burns. Some physical injuries are the intended result of acts by people:
for instance harm of one person by another (assault, homicide etc.) or self-harm. Injuries not
intended are often described as accidental injuries. Examples of causes of injury include being
struck by a car, being cut up in a moving machine part, being cut by a knife, bitten by a dog, or
poisoned by inhaled fuel or other dangerous chemicals.

Nature of body injury

The occurrence of accidents in workplaces often results in one or more of the following injury
types:

1. Crushing: This is injury which results from caught-in hazard point within machinery
2. Fracture: This is injury to bone resulting in breakage of the bone as a result of impact
3. Sprain: This is a type of injury resulting in muscular stress or joint dislocation
4. Bruise or laceration: This is the peeling off of outer skin layer thereby exposing some
blood vessels. The inner tissues are not affected.
5. Scalding and burn: This is as a result of sudden exposure of body part to hot vapour or
heat resulting in skin peeling off (scalding) or suffering some degree of shin damage
(burn).
6. Inflammation: This could be as a result of impact on body casing internal bleeding or
rupture of blood vessels without visible cut and blood flow
7. Superficial injury: Injury occurring at the skin surface such as bruise, minor cut, or
scratches and lacerations.
8. Amputation: This is a case of fatal injury which often result from caught-in and struck-by
accidents,
9. Death: This is a situation in which life flows out of the body as a result of injury
sustained. Such case is regarded as a fatal injury case.

Whether intended or accidental, most physical injuries can be prevented by identifying their
causes and removing them, or reducing people’s exposure to them.

Definition of Safety

Safety in its simplest form is a state of being at little or no risk of injury resulting from a harmful
external impact, inhalation, or contact. It is a holistic approach to a state of wellbeing that
requires people to feel they are free from being harmed in addition to actually being safe. To be
safe in any work environment, you must think about the nature of your job and plan ahead to
avert hazards that could be associated with it.
In the field of safety, it is generally recognized that consequences are only negative and therefore
the management of safety risk is focused on prevention and mitigation of harm.

Workplace health and safety laws

The aim of the Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995 is to prevent death, injury or illness
caused by a workplace, relevant workplace area, work activities, plant or substances for use at a
workplace. Improving health and safety in workplaces reduces human and financial cost of
injury and disease. Workers, their families, employers and the community benefit from improved
workplace health and safety.
The Workplace Health and Safety Act sets out the laws about health and safety guidelines for all
relevant workplace areas, work procedures or activities by machinery or substances for use at
workplaces as well as safeguarding workers.
All health and safety laws place specific duties of care or legal obligations on various parties in
the chain of machinery design, supply and use. Workers, their families, employers and the
community benefit from these obligations. Improving workplace health and safety in workplaces
reduces the human and financial cost of workplace injury and disease.

Safety precautions in the workshop

1. Always listen carefully to the teacher and follow instructions.

2. Do not run in the workshop, you could cause an accident.
3. Know where the emergency stop buttons are positioned in the workshop.
4. Always wear an apron as it will protect your clothes and hold loose clothing such as ties
in place.
5. Wear good strong shoes. Training shoes are not suitable.
6. When attempting practical work all stools should be put away.
7. Bags should not be brought into a workshop as people can trip over them.
8. When learning how to use a machine, listen very carefully to all the instructions
9. Given by the teacher. Ask questions, if you do not understand.
10. Do not use a machine if you have not been shown how to operate it safely.
11. Always be patient, never rush in the workshop.
12. Always use a guard when working on a machine.
13. Keep hands away from moving/rotating machinery.
14. Use hand tools carefully, keeping both hands behind the cutting edge.
15. Report any damage to machines/equipment as this could cause an accident.

Consequences of human errors in workshop

Accidents do not just happen, they are caused. It is important to know that accident never happen
until there is an error; machine error, human error or environmental uncertainties. Your
responsibility therefore as an employer, operator, farm/industry worker and visitor is to eliminate
or minimize these errors to the barest minimum by practicing safe work practice.
Injuries occurs when workers are
a. Not paying close attention (indifference) to work, or
b. When the operator lost concentration or forgot something and was not paying close attention,
c. When he took a risk, ignored a warning, or
d. When failed to follow safety rules.

Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes all types of equipment used to increase individual
safety while performing potentially hazardous tasks. This may include safety boots, goggles,
coverall, hand gloves head shield, gloves, lab coats, respirators, or any equipment used to protect
against injury or illness.

Eye Protection
Eye protection is required when there is a possibility of injury from chemicals or flying particles.
Examples of operation requiring the use of eye protection include, but are not limited to:
i. Chipping, grinding, and impact drilling.
ii. Welding or helping in welding of any type.
iii. Riveting, grinding, or burning metals.

Foot Protection

Non-skid shoes shall be worn where floors may be wet or greasy. Where there is reasonable
probability of foot or toe injury from impact and compression forces, safety footwear shall be
worn.
Body Protection
Loose fitting clothing, neckties, rings, bracelets, or other apparel that may become entangled in
moving machinery will not be worn by machine operators or their helpers.
Hand Protection
Multi-use gloves shall be worn to protect the hands from injuries caused by handling sharp or
jagged objects, wood, or similar hazard-producing materials.
Head Protection
Hard hats shall be worn by all personnel working below other workers and in areas where sharp
projections or other head hazards exist.
Hearing Protection
Appropriate hearing protection shall be used where employees are in designated hazardous noise
areas with operating noise sources, or using tools or equipment which are labeled as hazardous
noise producers.
MODULE 2- SAFETY INSPECTION
Safety inspection and its purpose

A safety inspection is a documented checklist or procedure to identify potential hazards that can
lead to incidents. Every type of safety inspection within a company should name who is
responsible to complete the inspection and follow up on a submitted inspection report.

The purpose of safety inspections is to rectify hazards or non-conformance to ensure a safe

working place that meets all legal health and safety requirements.

Types of safety inspections

There are four types of inspections in the workplace. They are:

1. Safety tours

This is a general inspection of a workplace area, such as a warehouse or retail outlet.

Examples of checklist items for this type of safety inspection can include:
-Checking if employees are using safety equipment.
- Looking out for any dangerous behavior.
- Monitoring safety systems.

Safety tours are usually conducted by management or senior management as part of their
commitment to workplace safety. It also provides managers and senior managers with up
to-date knowledge of workplace day-to-day activities, as well as an opportunity for them
to connect directly with employees to improve team relations.

2. Safety sampling

The HSE defines safety sampling as the “systematic sampling of particular dangerous
activities, processes or areas.” An example of safety sampling is taking a sample of the
chemicals or gasses that employees work with or are exposed to, then conducting a lab
analysis on the samples. In this example, the assessment is to ensure that the chemicals or
gasses are within safe levels, or that the safety equipment employees use when exposed
to these chemicals or gasses can adequately protect them from the levels detected.

3. Safety surveys

Safety surveys are general inspections of specific dangerous activities, processes or areas.
It is similar to a safety tour, but focuses on high-risk workplace environments or
 processes. Examples of typical areas to conduct safety surveys include a mining site,
drilling rig, and a laboratory that screens for infectious diseases.

4. Incident inspections

Also known as emergency inspections, incident inspections are conducted after an

incident caused a fatality, an injury, ill health, damage to property, or a near miss. These
inspections are performed to identify the root cause so it can be mitigated to prevent
similar incidents from happening again in the future.

Frequency of safety inspections

Safety inspections can be categorized into three broad groups of frequency: routine inspections,
planned inspections and emergency inspections.

1. Routine inspections are conducted on a regular time basis, such as daily, weekly, or
monthly. They can also be conducted based on a trigger, such as inspecting heavy
machinery before starting a shift.

2. Planned inspections include investigating specific matters that require a certain

timeframe. These inspections don’t have a blanket routine frequency because it depends
on the particular matter.
For example, a specific piece of equipment may need its parts tested for safety every six
months. At the same time, the UK government recommends private-sector employers to
offer their onsite workforce a minimum of two lateral flow tests for COVID-19 every
week.

3. Emergency or incident inspections, as mentioned in the previous section, are only

required after an incident with no routine or planning involved. Emergency inspections
can also apply to hazards before incidents happen. For example, inspecting nearby
machinery to identify the source of a water puddle spotted on a factory floor.

Next is to determine the frequency of routine and planned inspections. Deciding its
frequency largely depends on the level of risk involved in:

 The type of activity

Activities that are high-risk to employees when conducting them require more frequent
safety inspections. One example of a high-risk activity is driving transportation trucks.
The industry best practice is for drivers to conduct vehicle safety inspections before
starting every shift.
 Low-risk activities such as working in an office environment will still require safety
inspections, such as inspecting the fire escape system, heating, or air-conditioning
system. These, however, do not need to be conducted every day and can sufficiently be
undertaken at least every six months.

 The type of environment

An activity itself may not be high-risk, but it could be conducted in a high-risk

environment. For example, the activity of serving food, by itself, is not considered a high-
risk task.

However, if you are serving food to patients in a hospital with COVID-19 patients, you
will need to take extra precautions. These precautions include the usual safety practices
such as safety gear and regular sanitizing of their hands. They also include routine and
planned safety inspections such as monitoring the temperature of servers at least once a
day and conducting regular COVID-19 tests.

Safety Inspection Framework

Here is a 10-step recommended framework that can help you put together comprehensive safety
inspections in your workplace.

1. Conduct a risk assessment. This will help you determine the risks in the workplace that
require monitoring.
2. List down the risks that require monitoring with safety inspections.
3. Grade each risk using the risk analysis matrix. Refer to this risk management framework
for further details on how to use a risk analysis matrix.
4. Determine the frequency of each safety inspection according to its graded risk value.
5. Determine the checklist of items to assess during the safety inspection and monitor all
potential risks.
6. Check industry best practices to guide you when drafting this checklist.
7. Consult with specialists to ensure you don’t miss out on anything important.
8. Using the final checklist, create the safety inspection forms for your employees to use.
9. Train your employees on how to conduct and document each safety inspection they are
responsible for.
10. Review your safety inspection processes regularly and conduct surveys with your
employees to receive any feedback that can contribute to improvements.
Personnel responsible for safety inspections within an organization

Different parties within a company are responsible for various aspects of safety inspections. Here
is an overview.

1. Senior Management

Those in senior management positions, such as heads of departments, are responsible to:

o Ensure procedures are in place to keep all employees, contractors, vendors,

volunteers, clients, and customers safe within the company’s premises.
o Monitor reports from managers to make sure workplace safety inspections are
conducted regularly for all activities and areas within their responsibility.
o Make sure that safety inspections are conducted to a standard that meets legal
compliance.
o Assign safety inspections of different activities and areas to relevant managers
under their department.
o Provide the necessary systems for documenting safety inspections and keeping its
records.

2. Managers:

Managers are responsible to:

o Determine the frequency for every type of safety inspection assigned within their
areas of responsibility.
o Assign safety inspections to competent employees under their responsibility.
o Train employees on how to properly conduct the safety inspections assigned to
them.
o Train employees on how to take corrective action within their scope of skills and
responsibility.
o Train employees on the chain of command of who to report to (and how to reach
them) if they need help to urgently rectify a hazard or non-conformance.
o Coordinate any joint safety inspections within their area.
o Ensure submitted safety inspections meet all requirements.
o Follow up and investigate any incomplete safety inspections with the person
responsible.
o Determine and delegate any preventive and corrective actions to mitigate the
hazards identified in a safety inspection.
o Provide copies of the safety inspection report to any other managers for action
whenever relevant.
 o Follow up on all preventive and corrective actions.
o Provide senior management with relevant reports for monitoring.

3. Employees:

Employees who have been assigned to conduct safety inspections are responsible to:

o Conduct safety inspections according to the instructed frequency.

o Complete all items within the safety inspection checklist.
o Conduct the safety inspection with due diligence and care.
o Report any hazard or non-conformance that they see.
o Inform any nearby colleagues of any hazard or non-conformance spotted which
could affect their safety so others can take precautions while waiting for
preventive or corrective actions to be determined and implemented.
o Provide managers with any feedback on how to improve safety inspections.
o Be aware of any hazard trends so they know which areas or procedures require
heightened awareness to spot hazards or precaution to stay safe.

How to determine the frequency of safety inspections

Deciding its frequency largely depends on the level of risk involved in:

 The type of activity

Activities that are high-risk to employees when conducting them require more frequent
safety inspections. One example of a high-risk activity is driving transportation trucks.
The industry best practice is for drivers to conduct vehicle safety inspections before
starting every shift. Low-risk activities such as working in an office environment will still
require safety inspections, such as inspecting the fire escape system, heating, or air-
conditioning system. These, however, do not need to be conducted every day and can
sufficiently be undertaken at least every six months.

 The type of environment

An activity itself may not be high-risk, but it could be conducted in a high-risk

environment. For example, the activity of serving food, by itself, is not considered a high-
risk task.
How to carry out safety inspections on the following equipment
A. Air receivers

Air receivers (or air compressors, air vessels and air tanks as they are often called) are used in a
wide range of industries and can be found on farms, in garages, in tyre repair depots and
anywhere that requires compressed air.

1. To prevent internal corrosion, the drain valve should be operated to remove any
accumulated water in the vessel. The frequency can be daily where there is no drier in the
compressed air system upstream of the vessel, to weekly. Note some air receivers have
automated drainage systems. Automated drain systems with an additional manual check
valve is strongly recommended.
2. The safety relief valve and pressure gauge should be checked monthly for correct
operation. The relief valve can normally be carefully activated by pulling a lever or a pull
ring. Note: where the environment is “dirty” a light plastic bag can be used to protect
both of these devices.
3. Check for and report physical damage of vessel and attachments and paint breakdown
(where corrosion has initiated consider repairing the coating). This could be combined
with a monthly check.
4. The air receiver should be “externally” inspected every 2 years and “internally” inspected
every 4 years by a competent person. Following this standard is generally considered best
practice. A competent person (e.g. inspector) can recommend varying the frequency of
the inspection regime depending on condition, service, etc.

B. Ropes and Chains

All slings (new, altered, modified, or repaired) should be inspected by a competent person before
they are used in the workplace to make sure they are built to specifications, not damaged, and
will be appropriate for the work being performed. For record keeping purposes it is useful if each
chain has a metal tag with an identification number and load limit information. Information
about the chain length and other characteristics and an inspection schedule should be recorded in
a log book.

How to check chain slings during inspection

1. Clean sling before inspection.
2. Check identification tag
3. Hang the chain up or stretch the chain out on a level floor in a well-lighted area. Remove
all twists. Measure the sling length. Discard if a sling has been stretched.
4. Make a link-by-link inspection and discard if:
 Wear exceeds 15% of a link diameter.
 Cut, nicked, cracked, gouged, burned, weld splattered, or corrosion pitted.
 Deformed, twisted or bent chain links or components.
 Stretched. Links tend to close up and get longer.
5. Check master link, load pins and hooks for any of the above faults. Hooks should be
removed from service if they have been opened more than 15% of the normal throat
opening, measured at the narrowest point, or twisted more than 10° from the plane of the
unbent hook.
6. Manufacturers' reference charts show sling and hitch capacities. Record manufacturer,
type, load limit and inspection dates.

C. Pulley Blocks
A Pulley block is a tool for heavy work that the common people call a Chain Block, is a
mechanism used to lift, hold and lower an item. This tool uses a chain as the main pulling
element wrapped around two serrated iron wheels, at the end of the tow chain there is a hook to
be attached to the item to be raised or lowered.

1. To maintain continuous and satisfactory operation, a regular inspection procedure must

be initiated so that worn or damaged parts can be replaced before they become unsafe.
2. If faults are defected the pulley block must be put out of service immediately. The
intervals of inspection must be determined by the individual application and are based up
on the type of service to which the block is subjected.
3. The unit should be inspected for faultless operation and at least annually investigated by
an expert. The wire rope is to be inspected to national standard. Inspect sheave for wear.
Inspect hook for flaws, cracks, distortion, wear and freedom of rotation. Repairs may
only be carried out by a specialist work shop that uses original spare parts
4. Keep load chains lubricated and check the operation of the brake. Brakes must be kept
free of oil, grease etc.
5. Regularly inspect the block and, in the event of the following defects, refer the block to a
Competent Person for thorough examination: wear; damage to trolley, hooks and fittings;
damaged or distorted slack end anchor; chains worn, bent, notched, stretched, corroded,
do not hang freely, twisted or jump; load slips or will not lift; damaged block casing;
illegible markings.
6. Check the block and its associated equipment daily for obvious faults and signs of
damage.

D. Forklift Carriage

Regularly inspecting a forklift as part of routine operations and maintenance is imperative for
both safety and ensuring it is optimally functioning. The checklist guides operators through the
series of checks to ensure their forklift is safe for operation.
Operational forklift inspections should include the following checks:

 Checking the forklifts handbrake holds the unit in place to prevent it unnecessary rolling
 Check the transmission is working
 Check the brakes and inching pedal work to ensure the operator can stop the forklift
during operations or in an emergency
 Check the forklift has full range of steering movement
 Check that the forklifts lift, tilt and side-shift controls work before they have a load
positioned on the tynes and commence lifting operations
 Check that any warning devices such as lights, horns, indicators and reversing beepers or
safety systems are operating correctly
 Check the dashboard gauges are working correctly.

E. Mobile and Overhead Cranes

Mobile Cranes Inspections are an important part of construction and general industry. Their use
includes setting steel, tilt up construction, lifting concrete panels and many uses in plants and
facilities. On a daily basis, or on every shift change, the crane operator needs to carry out a full
safety inspection of the crane they are about to operate.

1. The operator should check the power source to the vehicle, all limit switches, and test
emergency power shut down buttons.
2. Check all audible warning devices are operational.
3. Check the steel lifting cable is seated correctly in the drum grooves.
4. Ensure the bottom block is free and not twisted.
5. Visually check all lifting gear including chains and steel cables for signs of wear or
fatigue.
 6. Test the hoist brakes by turning the master switch to OFF, or hitting the emergency OFF
button, with a load raised a few inches off the floor. The load should be held firm. If it
drops, the crane must not be operated until the fault has been rectified.
7. Inspect all flexible and rigid hydraulic pipes and joints for signs of hydraulic oil seepage,
splits, or fraying.
8. Check all tank fluid levels.

MODULE 3- BASIC MARKING OUT, METAL REMOVAL

AND FILING TOOLS

The term marking out means the scribing of lines on a metal surface to show the profile or
outline of the finished component, the profile or outline of any hole that is to be cut in the
component and the position of any hole centers. It is advisable to mark out a component before
commencing to work on it by hand or machine.

Reasons for marking out

1. To provide guide lines to work to

2. To provide the only control of the size and shape of the component, and
3. To provide the control of the position and size of any features such as holes required in
the component.

Marking Out Tools

The marking tool is used to mark on a job or workpiece to obtain accurate size and shape. Before
using marking tools on a job or workpiece, firstly we should use marking media on it so that we
can clearly see when marking.

Types of Marking Tool

There are following types of marking tools in workshop: Surface Gauge, Surface Plate, Marking
Table, Scriber, Prick Punch, Center Punch, Divider, Trammel, Hermaphrodite Caliper, ‘V’ –
Block, Angle Plates, Parallels, Bevel Square, Combination Set
 1) Surface Gauge

A surface gauge is a marking out tool which is used to draw lines of layout of a work
by placing it on a surface plate.

2) Surface Plate

It is used for checking the alignment and flatness of an object.

3) Vee Block
They are rectangular with a V-shaped recess in one side and are used on the surface plate to
support cylindrical works. Vee blocks are made of cast iron.

4) Surface table

This is used for marking out large objects, for checking accuracy, for height alignment and
checking parallelism.

5) Scriber

These popular hand tools help to mark a line on a material. It contains a sharp point and acts as a
pencil to engrave a fine line on surfaces like metal or plastic, where pens might not correctly
work.

6) Center Punch
The center punch helps to indicate a center dot for drilling. A hammer is used to drive the point
of the center punch into the metal, leaving a small surface impression.

7) Divider

This is a marking tool or marking out tools used to mark circles, arcs, segments and other
geometrical textures on metal jobs, measure distance between two points, and make direct
transfer of measurements from steel rule.

8) Trammel

It is used to draw circles and circles with more radiuses that cannot be drawn by a divider.
 9) Angle Plates

Angle plates are used to hold the work in parallel and right angles to the surface.

10) Bevel Square

This marking out tool is used in a fitting shop to mark a given angle with an edge or to check the
angular precision of oblique surfaces.

11) Combination Set

Combination set is used for marking out and taking measurements. It is usually made of alloy
steel. Its measuring faces are well-grinded.

12) Steel Rule

It is used as a straight edge or for taking measurements.

13) Marking gauge

The marking indicators are types of marking-out tools that scribe lines parallel to edges so that
waste material can be clean off. For instants, in a woodwork project where a small part needs to
be cut off, a marking gauge can be used to scribe out the unwanted part that will be chiseled
away.
 14) Try square

The try square is used to draw perpendicular lines on a material to mark out on a workpiece. The
purpose of try squares is to ensure paths are parallel to each other and helps to draw the line at
right-angles to an edge.

15) Sliding bevel

The sliding bevel is used to mark out a part, adjusted to create the required angle. A pencil is
then used to mark the line on the material.

16) Engineer’s square

These hand tools are used to draw a perpendicular line on material with a scribe. It is placed on a
workpiece surface with the flat edge being firm on the workpiece.
 17) Odd-leg calipers

The old-leg calipers assist in inscribing a parallel mark on metal or plastic. It has two legs with
purposes, one with a guiding edge with a foot and the other with a scribe point. The guiding side
runs along the edge of the object to be scored while the scribing edge marks a line parallel to the
edge.

18) Inside calipers

These types of marking-out tools look much similar to the odd leg calipers. They are used to
measure distances on the inside of materials like tubes.

These calipers also have two legs with guiding feet pointing outwards. The braces are placed
inside the material or object to be measured and then extended until the feet make contact with
the material.
 19) Outside calipers

The outside calipers aid the measurement of thicknesses and outside diameters of materials. They
are placed around a material with the legs tightened so the guiding feet meet the workpiece but
can be removed without being adjusted. The span of the legs is then measured against a steel rule
to give an accurate reading.

20) Micrometer

This is used to give a precise measurement of an object. It is a more accurate version of outside
calipers and can give an accurate measurement of the outside edges of the material.
 FILES AND FILING

A file is used to cut, trim or finish a job of metal or wood, in order to give them a shape
according to our needs such as making the job round, square or angular. File is made from high
carbon steel. The file is a hard steel instrument with numerous cutting points. Metal is cut in
small or tiny particles with the help of a file. Therefore, mostly a file is used for giving final
finishing touches to a job of metal or wood.

In addition, a file is used where other cutting tools cannot be used. Files are also used for
sharpening the edge of some other cutting tools.

Parts of a File

i Handle ii Tang iii Heel iv Face v Edge vi Tip or Point

A wooden handle is fitted on its tang. Teeth are cut on its face and edge so that it can perform the
job of cutting. The part having no teeth is called as heel. Thick side of file is called edge and its
lower end is known as tip or point.

Types of File Tools

While making a selection of file for a specific job, some important points should be considered.
In other words, we can say that files can be classified into the following categories:

1. On the basis of length

2. On the basis of shape

i. Flat file
ii. Round file
iii. Half-round file
iv. Triangular file
v. Square file
vi. Hand file
vii. Knife file
 3. On the basis of grades

a. Rough File
b. Bastard File
c. Second cut File
d. Smooth File
e. Dead Smooth File

4. On the basis of cut

i. Single Cut File

ii. Double Cut File
iii. Curved Cut File
iv. Spiral Cut File
v. Rasp Cut File

1. Classification According to Length

A file is measured according to its length. This length includes whole file except its tang portion
i.e. length from heel to tip is the measurement of the file. In fitter trade, file of 100 mm to 450
mm length are used.

2. Classification According to Shape

The following are the different types of file tools according to shape:

i. Flat File- This file is of rectangular cross-section in shape. It is made slightly tapered both in
width and thickness. Double cut teeth are cut on the face and simple-cut teeth are cut on the
edge. These are used to reduce flat surface by filing of finishing.

ii. Round File- This type of file has a round section. It is used for rubbing or finishing keyhole
of small diameter.
iii. Half-round File- It is a file which is on the side and curved on the other side. Double cut
dents are cut on it and like a round file, it is also tapered. With this file, the damaged hole can be
set in order again.

iv. Triangular File- It is triangular in shape. Its angles are of 60°. Filing of “V” slots job, square
and rectangular jobs of above 60° and below 90° angle are done with this file. It is also known as
three square files.

v. Square File- It is square in shape and is somewhat tapered. Filing of rectangular, square
groove, slots and key-way is done with this file.
 vi. Hand File- This file is almost similar to the flat file. It is used for filing of internal right angle
side of a job. It is also called safe edge file.

viii. Knife Edge File- Its shape is like the edge of a knife. Its thin edge is about 10° angle. It is
used for filing small grooves and slots whose angle is less than 60°. It is generally used in
the lock industry for making keys.

3. Classification According to Grade

Following are the different types of file tools according to the basis of the number of teeth:

a. Rough File- In this type of file, teeth are of big size and less in number. It is used for cutting
soft materials because its cutting is rough. Because of rough cutting, it cannot be used for hard
metal.
b. Bastard File- Teeth of this file are comparatively smaller than those of the rough file. It is
used initially to shed metal (through filing) in large quantity.
c. Second-cut File- This is a file of medium grade. In the filler trade, this file is mostly used to
bring the job in the proper size. As compared to the bastard file, filing done with this file makes
the surface plain.
d. Smooth File- This file makes the surface quite plain, in addition to making a job of accurate
size through filing.
e. Dead Smooth File- Its teeth are very close to each other and it rubs off the metal in very little
quantity. It is used for bringing shinning on the job after finishing has been done.
4. Classification of Files on the Basis of Cut

Following are the different types of file tools according to the cut:

i. Single-cut File- This is file has parallel lines of teeth running diagonally across its face in one
direction only. Metal surface is rubbed in little quantity and thus the surface becomes smooth.
Therefore it is used for hard metal and for finishing.
ii. Double-cut File- This file has two rows of teeth crossing each other at an angle of 40° to
45° and the other row has angles of 70° to 80°. Because of double teeth, this file cuts metal
quickly but it cannot make the surface very smooth. That is why it is generally used for normal
filing as shown in fig (B). It is also called a coarse type file. In 30° to 35° and the other row is of
80° to 87° angles as shown in fig (C).
iii. Curved-cut File- It is also known as Vixen file. The curved-cut file is used for filing of the
wide surfaces of soft metal like aluminium, zinc, copper and brass. It has circular teeth.
iv. Spiral-cut File- These types of teeth are cut in round or semi-round files. The shape of their
teeth is like that of threads.
v. Rasp-cut File- This is a file of special thick teeth. These teeth are of triangle shape and are in
a bulging state. It is used for jobs of woods, plastic, fiber, hard rubber, and job of horns and hoof
of animals.

MODULE 4- BASIC MEASURING AND TESTING

EQUIPMENT

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

A micrometer is an instrument used to gather measurements that require greater precision than a
caliper can achieve. However, they boast superior precision because they can only measure a
very small distance, so they aren’t ideal for determining the dimensions of large objects.

Micrometer Screw Gauge is used to measure smaller length or distance such as the diameter of
an object more accurately.
DIAGRAM OF MICROMETER SCREW GUAGE

Construction of Micrometer Screw Gauge

The main parts of Micrometer Screw Gauge are:

1. U-shaped steel frame

2. Anvil and spindle
3. Lock Nut
4. Sleeve or Barrel
5. Thimble
6. Ratchet

U-shaped Steel Frame

U shaped or C shaped frame will hold all the other parts together. The gap between the two
frames in the U or C shaped frame determines the maximum diameter of the workpiece that can
be measured with that screw gauge.

Anvil and spindle

Anvils are at the measuring faces. They were attached to the spindle face and fixed face on the
frame. The spindle will have the threads acts as a screw and it should be run freely and smoothly
through the length of its travel and there should be no backlash between the screw and nut.
Lock Nut

The lock nut is to lock the spindle without altering the distance between the measuring faces
when the Micrometer is at its correct reading.

Sleeve or Barrel

This is having a 0.5 mm division length along the length of the sleeve. This is the main scale for
the Micrometer screw gauge.

Thimble

This is the main part of the screw gauge, which is having 50 divisions on its circumference. It
will be moved over the barrel.

Ratchet

The ratchet will be provided at the end of the thimble to assure the accurate measurement by
preventing the too much pressure being applied on the micrometer. This slips the thimble over
the barrel when the spindle reaches the surface of the workpiece.

Different Types of Micrometers

In addition to digital micrometers and mechanical micrometers, there are different types based on
their applications. The three most common uses include measuring internal bore diameters, the
external dimensions of objects (such as shafts and holes), and determining average wear on
rolling surfaces, such as gears or ball bearings.

1. Angular Micrometer: These determine the angle between two planes.

2. Blade Micrometer: These measure the narrow groove of an o-ring.
3. Ball Micrometer: These measure the distance between a hole and the edge of a surface;
the wall thickness in a tube; and any instance in which one anvil must be placed against a
rounded surface.
4. Bore Gage Micrometer: A Bore Gage measures the internal diameter of a hole, cylinder,
or similar surface.
5. Depth Micrometer: These tools measure solid height.
6. Outside Micrometer: These measure external diameter.
7. Pitch-Diameter Micrometer (Thread Micrometer): These are used to measure the pitch
diameter of screw threads.
8. Tube Micrometer: These are another type that is used to determine the thickness of a
tube.
SCALES OF MICROMETRE SCREW GUAGE

A micrometer screw gauge has two scales: the main scale and the vernier scale.

MAIN SCALE

The main scale of a micrometer is calibrated in mm. The calibrations of the main scale of
micrometer screw gauge vary depending on the range of measurement that the micrometer screw
gauges are meant to measure.

VERNIER SCALE:

The vernier scale has 50 equal divisions. Each division is obtained by dividing 5 by 10. The
vernier scale moves a distance of 0.5mm along the main scale when it makes 1 revolution by
turning round once. One division on the vernier scale equal to 0.5/50 which equal to 0.01mm on
the main scale.

ACCURACY OF MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

The accuracy of a micrometer screw gauge is 0.01mm or 0.001cm. This means that the smallest
distance that a micrometer screw gauge can measure is 0.01mm or 0.001cm.

ACCURACY OF AN INSTRUMENT

Accuracy of an instrument is the smallest distance (or value of a particular quantity) that the
instrument can measure correctly.

STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN READING A MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE:

Step I- Read and record the reading of the main scale

Step II- Read and record the reading of the vernier scale at the point where the main scale and
the vernier scale coincide.
Step III- Multiply the reading of the vernier scale by the accuracy of the vernier scale which is
0.01mm
Step IV- Add the result of step III to the main scale reading of step I to get the final answer
which is the reading of the vernier caliper.

Worked Examples
What is the reading of the reading of the micrometer meter screw gauges as shown in the figures
below?

Solution
Reading of main scale. = 4.50 mm
Reading of vernier scale = 10
Reading of vernier scale x accuracy of vernier caliper = 10 x 0.01 = 0.10 mm
Add the result of step III and step I to get the reading of the micrometer screw gauge.
= 4.50 + 0.10 = 4.60 mm
Reading of vernier caliper = 4.60 mm

Solution:
Reading of main scale. = 22.0 mm
Reading of vernier scale = 33

Reading of vernier scale x accuracy of vernier caliper = 33 x 0.01 = 0.33 mm

Add the result of step III and step I to get the reading of the micrometer screw gauge.
= 22.0 + 0.33 = 22.33 mm
Reading of vernier caliper = 22.33 mm
Solution:
Reading of main scale. = 3.25 mm
Reading of vernier scale = 13

Reading of vernier scale x accuracy of vernier caliper = 13 x 0.01 = 0.13 mm

Add the result of step III and step I to get the reading of the micrometer screw gauge. = 3.25 +
0.13 = 3.38 mm
Reading of the micrometer meter screw gauge = 3.38 mm

Care and Proper Use of a Micrometer

1. Before you rotate the thimble or the ratchet knob, unlock the locking lever. Make sure to
clean the measuring faces with the help of a clean cloth before you begin taking
measurements.
2. As you begin measuring, start rotating the ratchet knob (not the thimble). The ratchet
knob will ensure you don’t over tighten the thimble, as that will not only give an
erroneous reading but can damage the instrument too.
3. The horizontal line on the sleeve should be aligned to zero when the micrometer function
is at its minimum reading. In case it does not happen, the instrument must be calibrated.
For calibration, each device comes with a half-moon adjusting wrench.
4. Remember to use the thimble lock while the micrometer is still holding the object. If you
do not do this, the spindle might move a little while taking the reading or taking the
object off from the micrometer. It’s also advisable that you don’t keep the instrument
exposed to the sun for long.

Vernier Caliper
A vernier caliper is an instrument which is most commonly used for a variety of exact
measurements, which was not necessarily related to the engineering manufacturer.

The main use of the vernier caliper is to measure the internal and external diameters of an object.
The word caliper means any instrument with two jaws which is used to determine the diameters
of objects.
Parts of Vernier Caliper

The main elements of the vernier caliper are the

i. Main Scale
ii. Vernier scale
iii. Thumbscrew
iv. Lock screw
v. Depth Rod
vi. Fixed jaw, and
vii. Sliding jaw

Description of the parts

Vernier caliper consists of two steel rules and they can slide along with each other.

One is a long rectangular metal strip that has a fixed jaw on one end. It is graduated in inches at
its upper end and centimeter at its lower end which is called the main scale.

The main scale is marked on solid L shape frames, on which cm graduates are divided into 20
parts so that a small division is equal to 0.05 cm. This allows improvements in the commonly
used measuring techniques, over direct measurement with line graduated method.
There is another small rectangular metal strip which is graduated with a special relation to that of
the main scale, which is called the vernier scale which slides over this long metal strip. It has a
jaw similar to that of the main scale.

There are two jaws on vernier caliper upper jaw and lower jaw. These jaws together are used to
hold the object firmly while measuring its length which is not possible with a metre scale.

The external or lower jaws are generally used to measure the diameter of a sphere or a cylinder.
The internal jaws or upper jaws are generally used to measure the internal diameter of a hollow
cylinder.

There is also a metal strip attached at the back of the vernier calipers which is used to measure
the internal depth of a cylinder.

Types of Vernier Caliper

Following are the different types of Vernier Caliper:

1. Flat edge vernier caliper

2. Knife edge vernier caliper
3. Vernier gear tooth caliper
4. Vernier depth gauge
5. Flat and knife edge vernier caliper
6. Vernier height gauge
7. Vernier dial caliper

1. Flat Edge Vernier Caliper

This type of vernier is used for normal functions. We can take outer measurement of a job’s
length, breadth, thickness, and diameter, etc.

As the jib of its edge is of a special type, the inner measurement can also be taken with it. But
from that measurement the jobs breadth has to be subtracted. This measurement is often written
on the jaw otherwise it should be measured with a micrometer.

2. Knife Edge Vernier Caliper

The edge of this vernier caliper is like a knife. Other parts of this vernier caliper are like other
vernier calipers as shown in the figure. This vernier caliper is used for measuring narrow space, a
distance of holes of I bolt, etc.
Its main shortcoming is that because of the thin edge of its jaw, it wears out quickly and starts
giving inaccurate measurements. It should be used sparingly and carefully.

3. Flat and Knife Edge Vernier Caliper

Some companies also make vernier calipers which have their jaw like an ordinary vernier caliper
from one side but have knife-edge jaw at the other side, as shown in the figure. With this vernier
caliper, all types of jobs can be measured easily.

4. Vernier Gear Tooth Caliper

This is a special type of instrument, which is made like a combined form of two vernier calipers.
It contains two separate scales vertical and horizontal. With the vernier caliper, the thickness of a
tooth of gear can be taken form its pitch circle. In other words, the vernier caliper is used to
measure different parts of gear.

5. Vernier Depth Gauge

As is evident from its name, this instrument is used for measuring the depth of the slot of a job,
its hole or groove. This is almost similar to vernier caliper. Its reading is also taken in the same
way. But instead of a jaw, a flat-shaped base is used in it as shown in figure.

This depth gauge is made of a thin beam like a narrow rule. Main scale and vernier scale are also
in inch or metric system in it. Its specialty is that we can take measurement of three types with it:

 Its main scale is marked in parts of inches which is divided into 64 sub-sections.
 The other end is divided into 40 sub-sections and every fourth line is slightly bigger. It
contains the local size in 1, 2, 3, to 9. On the same and, there is a vernier scale, with
whose help a minimum of 0.001″ measurement can be taken.
 On its back graduation is in mm which can take a minimum measurement of 0.02 mm
with the help of a vernier scale.

6. Vernier Height Gauge

It is used for taking accurate measurement of height of a job or for marking. It is almost similar
to vernier caliper but it is used by attaching some additional attachments. Beam remains fitted on
a base in length form. Off-set scriber is fitted on the beam itself with which height of a job is
measured or marking is done. Its bases are of two types:

i. Solid Base
ii. Moveable Base
7. Vernier Dial Caliper

In ordinary vernier caliper, there are chances of mistakes as far as clear reading is concerned. For
this purpose, nowadays Vernier Dial calipers are being used. In place of the vernier scale, it
contains a graduation dial as shown in the figure.

Like vernier calipers, it can measure in inches as well as in millimeters. Like a dial test indicator,
rack and pinions are used in it. The rack remains on the main scale which is connected to the
pinion of the dial.

General Errors in Measurement with Vernier Caliper

1. The errors occurred in vernier caliper due to its incorrect handling of the jaws on the
workpiece. In measuring outside diameter, it must be ensured that the caliper bar and the
plane of the caliper jaws are truly perpendicular to the workpiece.
2. To avoid error you must be ensured that caliper is not tilted or twisted. But it happens
because of relatively long extending the main bar of the average vernier calipers. The
accuracy depends on the greater extent on the condition of the jaws of the caliper.
3. The accuracy and the natural wear, warping of vernier caliper jaws should be tested
frequently by cooling them together tightly or setting them to the 0.0 point of the main
and vernier scale.
4. In above position when it is held against a light source, in case of wear, spring or warp, a
knock-kneed condition observed and of measurement error is greater than 0.005mm the
instrument should not be used and sent for repair.
5. Whenever the wear or wrapping of sliding jaw frame place it does not slide squarely and
snugly on the main caliper beam, then jaws will appear. The jaws of vernier caliper may
become bowlegged or its outside edges are worn down while measuring inside diameter.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Vernier Scales

Advantages

1. Amplification is achieved by design and it is not dependent on the parts that can go out of
wear or calibration.
2. No interpolation is possible in reading, let alone required.
3. Zero setting adjustment is easy.
4. There is no theoretical limit to the scale range.
Disadvantages

1. The main disadvantages lie in the instruments on which verniers are used.
2. The reliability of reading depends more upon the observer that must instruments.
3. No way to adjust for any errors other than zero settings.
4. The discrimination is limited.

Precautions in the Use of Vernier Caliper

The following precautions should be considered while using a vernier caliper. These precautions
are necessary to minimize any errors which can affect the accuracy of the measurement.

1. The most common form of error is the parallax error. This means “alteration”. This error
occurs when an object is observed from an angle. This makes the object appear at a
slightly different position than it really is and can lead us to take a wrong reading on a
measuring scale. To eliminate this error the observer should position his eyes directly
above the scale when taking the Main Scale reading and the Vernier Coincidence.
2. Make sure you to take all the readings in the same unit system while measuring. for
example,
 MKS units metre, kilogram and second for measurement of length, weight and time.
 CGS system which uses the units of a centimetre, gram and second.
If any measurements are taken in a unit in another system it should be converted to the
appropriate units before being used in any calculations.
3. Avoid excessive force on the jaws, while gripping the object to be measured. The object
should always be gripped gently between the jaws. This is extremely important while
measuring objects which are easily deformable e.g wires.
4. Before taking any measurements, make sure the vernier caliper does not have a zero
error. If there is zero error the appropriate corrections should be applied.
5. The accuracy of measurement primarily depends on two senses:
 Sense of sight
 Sense of touch
6. The surface of the object and instrument cover should be cleaned and dried with a cloth
soaked in cleaning oil.
7. Loosen the locking key of the vernier caliper and make sure there is no friction between
the scales while moving the jaws of the vernier caliper.
8. In the case of a digital vernier caliper the following additional steps should be taken:
 Bring the jaws in contact with each other and then press the on/off button.
 Check the reading and make sure it is zero.
 Move the slider and check whether all the buttons and the LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display) display are working properly.
Dial Indicators

Working Principle of a Dial Indicator

It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward pressure on the spindle or plunger at
the contact point is multiplied through a system of gears and levers. It is indicated on the face of
the dial by the pointer of the dial indicator. Dial indicators consists of a body with a round
graduated dial and a contact point connected with a spiral or gear train so that hand on the dial
face indicates the amount of movement of the contact point. They are designed for use on a
wide range of standard measuring devices such as dial box gauges, portal dial, hand gauges,
dial depth gauges, diameter gauges and dial indicator snap gauge.

The movement mechanism of the instrument is housed in a metal case for its protection. The
large dial scale is graduated into 100 divisions. The indicator is set to zero by the use of slip
gauges representing the basic size of the part.

Some of the major parts of a Dial Indicator are as follows:

i. Contact point.
 ii. The plunger (spindle).
iii. Indicator (Needle).
iv. Lock screw or Bezel clamp.
v. Mini dial or revolution counter.
vi. Graduated or Magnification scale.

Types of Dial Indicators:

Enormous categories of Dial Indicators have existed, which is very effective to measure the
precision of a workpiece.

The categories of Dial Indicators are as follows:

i. Balance reading Dial Indicators

ii. Reversed Balance Dial Indicators
iii. Continuous Dial Indicators
iv. Reverse continuous Dial Indicators
v. Prelinger Dial Indicators
vi. Test Dial Indicators
vii. Lever Dial Indicators

1. Balance reading Dial Indicators: In this type of dial indicator, all the information on
this indicator is arranged upon its face. The numbers are printed in two directions.
Positive numbers are calibrated to the right-hand side of zero and negative numbers are
featured on the left-hand side of zero.
2. Reversed Balance Dial Indicators: In this indicator, numbers are calibrated in the
opposite direction as compared to the aforementioned dial indicator.
3. Continuous Dial Indicators: Figures are calibrated in one direction only without any
sort of separation.
4. Reverse continuous Dial Indicators: It is the opposite of continuous Dial indicators.
5. Prelinger Dial Indicators: It has a clock-like face, and this tool is used to measure
injection molding.
6. Test Dial Indicators: These tools are adjustable.
7. Lever Dial Indicators: This tool is characterized by a scroll and lever mechanism. This
type of indicator is more compact and flawless to use.

Advantages of Dial Indicators

i. Dial indicator is the most flawless tool in taking linear measurements.

 ii. The tool is very efficient to assure the quality of a workpiece.
iii. Due to small tolerances, the size of the tool is very compact and thus, it can be used
seamlessly in mass production.
iv. Dial indicator is also useful in dimension control.
v. Dial Indicators are also be used to measure several deviations by aligning with some
other attachments.
vi. Out of roundness, the amount of tapper can also be measured efficiently by Dial
Indicators.

Disadvantages of Dial Indicators

i. The precision of Dial Indicators is often lost due to the vibration of machinery.
ii. Space constraints can lead to installing the tool at an angle due to which precision of the
measuring device lost.
iii. Another crucial disadvantage of the tool is the parallax effect.
iv. End float can result into problems for Dial Indicators. This affects the accuracy level of
Dial Indicators.

Requirements of a Good Dial Indicator

1. It should give trouble-free and dependable readings over a long period.

2. The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero reading must remain constant over the
whole range.
3. The pointer should indicate the direction of the movement of the measuring plunger.
4. The accuracy of the readings should be within close limits of the various sizes and ranges
5. The movement of the measuring plunger should be in either direction without affecting the
accuracy.
6. The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will not oscillate when the readings are
being taken.

Uses of Dial Indicators

Dial indicators are used in enormous ways. Some of them are given below:

1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.

2. To determine the errors in the geometrical form such as ovality, roundness, and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurements of deformation such as intension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism, squareness, and alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using a suitable accurate bar between the
centers.
 6. To check the trueness of milling machine arbors and to check the parallelism of shaper
arm with table surface or vice.

MODULE 5: DRILLING OPERATIONS

THE TWIST DRILL

A drill or twist drill is a grooved end-cutting tool used for manufacturing holes in firm material.
It basically consists of two parts:

 The body consisting of the cutting edges, and

 The shank used for holding purposes.
The various parts and angle of the twist drill are shown below

1. Body
The body of the twist drill spiral grooves cut on it. These grooves serve to offer clearance to the
chips formed at the cutting edge. They also permit the cutting fluid to spread to the cutting edges.

2. Shank
It is a part that gets fitted into the drill chuck or sleeve. It might be parallel shank or taper shank.
Smaller diameter drills have straight shank. Morse taper is generally provided for large diameter
tapered drills. The taper shank brings the tang at the end of shank. This fits into a slot in the
machine spindle, sleeve or socket and gives a positive grip.

3. Neck
It is the undercut portion between the body and the shank. Usually, size and other details are
marked at the neck.
4. Point
It is the cone fashioned end of the drill. The point is shaped to produce lip, face, and flank and
chisel edge or dead center.

5. Land or Margin
It is a narrow strip. It ranges back on the edge of the drill flutes. The size of drill is measured
across the lands at the point end. Land retains the drill aligned.

6. Web
It is the central portion of drill located between the roots of the grooves and lengthening from the
point towards the shank.

7. Chisel edge
The intersection of flank forms the chisel edge. This acts as a flat drill. It cuts a small hole in the
work piece at the beginning. Therefore cutting edges removes further materials to complete the
hole.

8. Cutting edge
The cutting edges of a drill are known as lips. Both lips should have equal length, same angle of
inclination and correct clearance.

9. Flank
The surface behind the lip to the following flute is called flank.
 10. Flute Length
The length of the flute is represented by the depth of the hole, the length of the bush, and the
amount of regrinding allowance. Because the effect on the tool’s life is significant, it is vital to
keep it to a bare minimum as much as feasible.

Advantages of Twist Drill

 Twist Drill tool efficiency is higher.

 It saves time also because of higher speed and feed can drill the workpiece fast.
 It takes less power for performing an operation while other tools take high power for
performing the operation.
 Through the flute, the unwanted material cuts from the workpiece easily come out.
 It is durable; one twist drill can be used for a long time without frequent regrinding.
 The chips and cuttings are automatically driven out of the hole through the flute of the twist
drill

Disadvantages of Twist Drill

 If the tool has a smaller diameter there are chances of breaking.

 The finish is not as good as compare to other tools like Single Point Cutting Tool and Multi-
Point.
 If the tool works continuously for a long duration, it may break because of heating. So there is
coolant required as it may be water or other.
 Regrinding of lips is a delicate process

Twist Drill Application

A twist drill is a tool that is used in the drilling machine for operations like making holes in the
workpiece. The hole in the workpiece depends on the diameter of the twist drill tool.
Twist Drill Materials

Many of the twist drills are made up of High- speed steel with or without a carbon steel shank
joined to the body. Some Twist drills are made up of cobalt alloys and others have inserts of
cement carbide.

Drilling speed
Cutting speed may be referred to as the rate that a point on a circumference of a drill will travel
in I minute. It is expressed in surface feet per minute (SFPM). Cutting speed is one of the most
important factors that determine the life of a drill. If the cutting speed is too slow, the drill might
chip or break. A cutting speed that is too fast rapidly dulls the cutting lips.

Cutting speeds depend on the following seven variables:

1. The type of material being drilled. (The harder the material, the slower the cutting speed.)
2. The cutting tool material and diameter. (The harder the cutting tool material, the faster it
can machine the material. The larger the drill, the slower the drill must revolve.)
3. The types and use of cutting fluids allow an increase in cutting speed.
4. The rigidity of the drill press.
5. The rigidity of the drill. (The shorter the drill, the better.)
6. The rigidity of the work set-up.
7. The quality of the hole to be drilled.

Each variable should be considered prior to drilling a hole. Each variable is important, but the
work material and its cutting speed are the most important factors.

Cutting Formulas
Cutting Speed (VC)
The Cutting speed is the speed of the tool.

This formula below is used to calculate the cutting speed from the spindle speed and the diameter
of the workpiece.
In mathematical terms the cutting speed is represented as the symbol Vc. The 'V' stands for
'velocity' (speed) and the small 'c' stands for 'cut'. It is a way of measuring the velocity of the cut
in metres per second (m / sec):

VC = π • Dm • n (m/min)
1000
where:
 π (3.14): Circular constant
 Dm (mm): Diameter of workpiece
 n (m/min): Spindle speed

To convert m/min to m/sec, divide the result by 60.

Example 1:

Diameter (Dm) = 60 mm
Spindle speed (n) = 500 m/min.
In this case, the cutting speed (VC) is approximately 94 m/min= 1.6m/s

Example 2:

Diameter (Dm) = 80mm

(n) = 18000 m/min
π (pi) = 3.14
In this case, the cutting speed (VC) is approximately 4521.6 m/min = 75.4 m/s.

Example 3:

A twist drill with a cutting speed of 30m/min is used to drill a 12mm diameter mild steel.
Calculate the spindle speed of the drill. Assuming the drill which has a cutting feed rate of
0.2mm/rev is now used to penetrate a 15mm thick steel plate, calculate the time taken in seconds
for the drill to perform this operation.

Diameter (Dm) = 12mm

(n) =?
π (pi) = 3.14
Cutting speed (VC) = 30m/min.
In this case, the spindle speed is approximately 796.2 m/min = 13.27 m/s.
The time taken in seconds for the drill to perform this operation is given as:
t = 60P
NF

where: t = time in seconds

P = depth of penetration (mm)
N= spindle speed (rev/min)
F = feed (mm/rev)
= 60 x 15
796 x 0.2
= 5.7 seconds (to 1 d.p)

Exercise
Calculate the cutting speeds of the shank type tools given the different RPM below.

Cutting speed of shank type tools

Cutting Ømm V c (18,000 RPM) m/s V c (24,000 RPM) m/s V c (30,000 RPM) m/s

DRILLING MACHINE
A drilling machine is a type of machine in which the holes are being made on the workpiece by
making use of a rotating tool called drill bit or the twist drill. Drilling is basically a technology of
creating holes.

Drilling operation can also be performed on Lathe Machine. In the lathe machine, the workpiece
rotates and the drilling tool is held stationary in the tailstock.

Boring: When we talk about drilling, boring is mostly discussed.

Basically, Boring is a process in which the holes are enlarged that is already being drilled or
cored. To perform boring action by a machine a special holder for the boring tool is required.
Drilling Machine Parts
Drilling Machine consists of following main parts:

i. Bed
ii. Pillar
iii. Swivel table
iv. Motor
v. Steeped pulley
vi. Spindle
vii. Chuck
viii. Drill Bit and
ix. Hand-wheel.

Bed:

The bed is the main part of the machine on which the whole machine is being mounted. The bed
is made up of cast iron, so it has high compressive strength and good wear resistance.

Pillar:

The pillar is a type of vertical column that rests on the bed. Pillar is present at the center of the
bed. The pillar helps the motor and the spindle head.

Swivel Table:

The table is the place where the workpiece is being mounted. The table is attached to the column
and it can be rotated around the column and can have an upward and downward moment. A table
can be adjusted at any angle as per the requirement.

Motor:

The motor is present at the top of the column. The inside motor shaft is there which is connected
to a stepped pulley so that we can increase or decrease the speed of the rotation of the motor.

Stepped pulley:

Two steeped pulleys are present on either side of the column at the top. Out of these two, one
pulley will be in an upward direction while the other pulley is inverted. Both pulleys will always
be there in the opposite direction. The basic function of the stepped pulley is to control the speed
of the rotation of the motor.
Spindle:

Spindle arrangement is present at top of the column opposite to the arrangement of the motor.

The top of the spindle is attached to one of the stepped pulleys. The bottom of the spindle is
connected to the chuck.

Chuck:

Chuck is present at the bottom of the spindle. The basic function of the chuck is to hold the
cutting tool firmly.

Drill bit:

A drill bit is an actual cutting tool that is used to create a hole in the workpiece.

Hand Wheel:

The basic function of the hand wheel is to adjust the spindle position as per the requirement.
Precautions in Using the Drilling Machine
Safety is the most important factor that should be taken care of while using a drill machine to
avoid any kind of harm to the operator. Improper use of the drill machine can cause serious
injury to the operator.

The precautions which should be followed while using the drilling machine are as follows:

i) The machine tool should be strong enough to drill a hole in the workpiece, otherwise, the parts
may be deformed due to the cutting force generated. Drill feeding arrangement must be
directionally stable.

ii) To avoid any kind of error it must make sure that the Axis of the spindle, adapter, and tool
must coincide.

iii) Accurately ground drill should be used so that the uniform chips are produced by both cutting
edges, otherwise, unbalanced forces may deflect the tool during machining.

iv) The work piece must be held rigidly otherwise it can lead to:

 Error in Shape.
 Burrs and
 Error in hole location.

Drilling Machine Operation

The various operations performed by the drilling machine are:

 Drilling Operation
 Boring Operation
 Reaming Operation
 Counter boring Operation
 Countersinking Operation
 Tapping Operation
 Spot Facing Operation
 Trepanning Operation and
 Honing Operation.

Each of these will be briefly discussed.

Drilling Operation:

Drilling is the process of creating circular holes on the job (workpiece) using a drill.

Boring Operation:

Boring is the process of enlarging a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with only one
cutting edge.

Reaming Operation:

It is basically a type of finishing operation. It is a process of sizing and finishing a hole by means
of a reamer having several cutting edges.

Counter boring Operation:

Counter boring is a type of operation in which it is used to enlarge the particular portion of the
hole.

Countersinking Operation:

Countersinking can be defined as the process of enlarging the end of the hole to give it a conical
shape for short distance.

Tapping Operation:

Tapping is the process of creating internal threads by means of a tool called the tap.

Spot Facing Operation:

Operation of removing the chip present on the surface of the hole for proper seating of head nuts
etc. This can be done by an end mill cutter with drill machines.

Trepanning Operation:

It is the operation used for producing large size holes without drilling. This operation is mostly
used for holes that are more than 50mm in diameter. It cannot be used for blind holes.

Honing Operation:
Honing is the process of producing very smooth holes. In honing operation, the tool will
reciprocate and rotate about its axis. It is mainly used for finishing the IC engine cylinder.

Types of Drilling Machines

The different types of Drilling Machine are:

a. Portable Drilling Machine

b. Sensitive Drilling Machine
c. Upright or Column Drill Machine
d. Radial Drilling Machine
e. Gang Drilling
f. Multi-Spindle Drilling
g. Vertical Turret Type Drilling
h. Automatic Drilling Machine
i. Deep hole Drilling
j. Turret Drilling
k. Automatics Drilling Machine.

Each of these will be discussed in details.

Portable Drilling Machine:

Portable Drilling Machine is the type of machine which consists of a small electric Motor which
gives power for rotation of the drill bit. Hand Drill is the best example of the portable hand
Drill.
Portable Machine is most helpful in the case where the job cannot be taken to the workshop due
to their large size or weight so in such cases Portable drilling machines are best as they can be
taken to the job (workpiece) and drilling can be done there itself.

Thus, it saves a lot of time and prevents the transportation costs.

Sensitive Drilling Machine:

A sensitive Drilling machine is a machine that is hand-fed and operates on the principle of rack
and pinion drive.

This is a light and simple bench-type machine used for light-duty work. In this, the drill head is
counterbalanced and fed through a hand lever system. The operator puts the force on the drill bit
by manual rotation of the wheel, thus creating a hole on the workpiece.

Upright or Column Drilling Machine:

Upright or column drill is similar to the sensitive drill machine the only difference is that the
power feeding mechanism is used for the rotation of the drill.

This machine is mostly suited for heavy work. The size of work that can be accommodated is
limited by the distance between the spindle and column.

These machines mostly have a box type column and are mostly used for heavier work.

Radial Drilling Machine:

A radial drill machine is the most advanced form of the drill machine. It is the most versatile drill
machine and best suited for drilling a large number of holes.

Radial drill machine has a single-spindle machine intended for handling large and heavy work
which is beyond the capacity of the simple machine.

It consists of a vertical column with a radial arm that can swing through an arc of 180 degrees or
more.

The drilling head is equipped with a power feed. The drilling head may be moved along the arm
by hand or power on gear and the track arrangement.

Gang Drilling Machine:

Gang Drilling Machines of two or more dill heads mounted on the same table. These can run
simultaneously or in sequence. The number of spindles that can be mounted is unlimited but
mostly four spindles are used.
It is most useful in the case when multiple operations are to be performed such as drilling,
counterboring, reaming, etc. for drilling holes of several different sizes.

Application: Machines are used for the straight line, multiple hole drilling applications as in the
pipe, channels, castings, plates, and angle.

Multi-spindle Drilling Machine:

A multi-spindle drill Machine is developed for the purpose of drilling several holes
simultaneously.
These machines are mostly used for larger production work where it is required to drill many
parts with such accuracy that all the parts are interchangeable.

For drilling closely spaced holes, some of the holes are drilled first by a set of spindles then the
job is repositioned and other sets of closely-spaced holes are then drilled by another set of
spindles.

The special type of multi-spindle is the way-type. This type of machine is used in the case where
several holes in the different planes are to be drilled.

Vertical turret type drilling Machine:

Vertical turret type drill machine consists of a turret which houses various tools such as drill,
ream, spot-face, counterbore, and tap in any desired sequence.

The various spindles on this turret can be indexed manually or automatically. The spindles drive
only after they come to the drilling position.

Automatic Drilling Machine

An automatic drill machine is used mostly in the places of higher Production work. They consist
of a number of unit heads with single or multiple spindles in angular, vertical or horizontal
positions on various combinations on a special case.

Each station is also provided with an indexing table and work holding fixtures.

Deep-hole Drilling Machine:

Deep hole Drilling Machine are used for drilling such holes whose length exceeds three times the
drill size.

The special features of the Deep Drill Machine are:

 Robust design.
 Extreme shot setup time.
  Good quality of production.
 High-speed operation.
 Versatility: The various example of this class are riffle barrels, long Spindles, Connecting
Rods, and certain oil well drilling equipment.

Advantages of Drilling Machines

Various advantages of the drilling machine are:

i. High speed
ii. High output
iii. Easy to operate
iv. High flexibility
v. Low maintenance cost and longer life.

i) High speed:

The main advantage of the drill machine is that the holes can be made in the workpiece with
greater speed and other drilling operations can also be performed at a decent speed.

ii) High Output:

It is capable of giving high output.

As per the advancement of the Machine, the speed of the machine increased and especially after
the introduction of automatic and radial drilling machines the output became very high.

iii) Easy to operate:

It is very easy to operate. Its easy moment maintains the efficiency of the operators all the time.

iv) High flexibility:

The modern drilling machines are highly flexible as they have multiple spindles, are automatic,
and the holes can be dilled at any angle and many more features are there which makes it highly
flexible.

v) Low maintenance cost and longer life:

The maintenance cost of a machine is very less and they have a very long life. With very less
amount of maintenance cost, they can be used for a longer period of time.
Disadvantages of Drilling Machines
The various troubles experienced during drilling along with their remedies are as follows:

i. Limited size workpiece

ii. Rough hole
iii. Chipped cutting lips
iv. Oversized holes
v. Breaking of drill

i) Limited size workpiece:

A limited size workpiece can only be machined. Workpiece which is very large cannot be
operated.

ii) Rough Hole:

The rough holes might be produced sometime during drilling.

Rough holes are can be avoided by:

 The feed should be reduced.

 Point reground.
 Coolant used.
 The rigidity of the fixture ensured.

iii) Chipped cutting lips:

Chipped cutting lips can be formed. This happens because of high feed and high clearance angle.

To avoid chipped cutting lips proper feed speed and proper clearance should be used as per the
requirement.

iv) Oversize hole:

An oversized hole may be produced due to the loss of a spindle or unequal angle/ length of the
cutting edges.

v) Breaking of Drill:
The drill may break due to the following reasons:

1. The drill may break if it gets dull.

2. The flute is clogged by the chips.
3. Due to high feed.
4. Improper clamping of the drill and work.

Applications of Drilling Machines

The following applications of the Drilling Machines are:

 The Drilling machine is used in almost every manufacturing industry for making holes in
the workpiece as per the requirement.
 This is also used in carpentry work for drilling the holes in the wood and fixing the wood
structures.
 They are used in construction sites, glasswork.
 Hand drill or portable drills are used for screwing and fastening.
 This machine tool can perform a variety of operations like reaming, boring, counter-
boring, tapping, and many others, which makes it applicable in vast fields.

How to Obtain High Accuracy in Drilling Machine:

 The first step is the proper clamping of the workpiece.
 Properly ground Drill.
 One should ensure that the axis of the spindle, sleeve, and tool must coincide.
 Use of Rigid Machine tool.
 One should ensure that the directionally stable tool feed is used for carrying out the
drilling operation.
 One should use appropriate guide bushes for the guidance of drills.

MODULE 6: VARIOUS METAL JOINING

OPERATIONS
1. Soldering
Soldering is a process of joining two pieces of metal sheets by the addition of filler metal with a
melting temperature below 450°C. The soldering material used in the soldering process is called
solder, which is made up of an alloy of tin and lead.

The flux material is also used in the soldering process, and is made up of zinc chloride and
ammonium chloride. The function of flux is to prevent the molten solder to wet and flow into the
joint. Generally, solders are used in various compositions depending on the type of joint.

The strength of the soldering joint depends upon the strength of the alloys and its adhesive
qualities. After soldering, the residues of flux should be removed by washing thoroughly with
water to avoid corrosion. The strength of the soldering joint is relatively low. Soldering is
commonly used in electric and electronic applications, Sheet metal work wire terminals, sealing
of metal containers and similar small parts.

Types of Soldering

a. Soft soldering- It is used in sheet-metal work for joining parts that are not exposed to high
temperatures and are not subjected to extreme loads and forces. Soft soldering is also used for
joining wires and small components. The solder, which is mostly composed of lead and tin, has a
melting range of 150 to 350°C. A suitable flux is always used in soft soldering. Its function is to
prevent oxidation of the surfaces to be soldered or to dissolve oxides that settled on the metal
surfaces during the healing process. Although corrosive, Zinc chloride is the most common
soldering flux.

b. Hard or Silver soldering- It employs solder which metal at higher temperatures and are
stronger than those used in soft soldering. Silver soldering is a hard soldering method, and silver
mixed with tin is utilized as a solder. The temperatures of the various hard solder vary from
about 600 to 900°. The fluxes are mostly in paste form and are applied to the joint with a brush
before heating. In hard soldering, the equipment used is a blowtorch.

The different compositions of solder for different purposes are as follows:

1. Soft solder-lead 37%, tin 63%.

2. Medium solder-lead 50%, tin%.
3. Plumber’s solder-lead 70%, tin 30%.
4. Electrician’s solder-lead 58%, tin 42%
c. Brazing- These types of soldering metal use a very higher melting point than the metals used
in hard and soft soldering. However, it is similar to hard soldering; the metal being bonded is
heated as opposed to melting. Once both materials are sufficiently heated, you can then set the
soldering metal between them which melts and acts as a bonding agent. During brazing no
forging action is present and also the parent metal parts do not melt.

Soldering with a copper bit (soldering iron)

Soldering bit is made up of copper. This is because:

1. Copper has sufficient heat energy and is capable of transferring heat energy to the
joint being soldered.
2. Copper has high thermal conductivity
3. Copper can be readily ‘wetted’ or ‘tinned’ with molten solder.

Differences between Welding, Soldering and Brazing

i. Strength

 Welding joints are the strongest joints used to bear the load. Strength of the welded
portion of joint is usually more than the strength of base metal.
 Soldering joints are weakest joints out of three. Not meant to bear the load. Use to make
electrical contacts generally.
 Brazing joints are weaker than welding joints but stronger than soldering joints. This can
be used to bear the load up to some extent.

ii. Temperature

 Welding: Temperature required is 3800°C in welding joints.

 Soldering: Temperature requirement is up to 450°C in soldering joints.
 Brazing: Temperature may go to 600°C in brazing joints.

iii. Heating of Work Pieces

 Welding: To join work pieces need to be heated till their melting point.
 Soldering: Heating of the work pieces is not required.
 Brazing: Work pieces are heated but below their melting point.
iv. Change in Mechanical Properties

 Welding: Mechanical properties of base metal may change at the joint due to heating and
cooling.
 Soldering: No change in mechanical properties after joining.
 Brazing: May change in mechanical properties of joint but it is almost negligible.

v. Heat Treatment

 Welding: Heat treatment is generally required to eliminate undesirable effects of welding.

 Soldering: No heat treatment is required.
 Brazing: No heat treatment is required after brazing.

vi. Preheating of Workpiece

 Welding: No preheating of workpiece is required before welding as it is carried out at

high temperature.
 Soldering: Preheating of workpieces before soldering is good for making good quality
joint.
 Brazing: Preheating is desirable to make strong joint as brazing is carried out at relatively
low temperature.

2. Welding
Welding is a process of joining two pieces of metals by heating them. Nowadays welding is used
in almost all the industries since it is the easiest and rapid method of joining the metals.

Welding Applications
It is used in joining metals in following fields:

(a) In fabrication of tanks, vessels, boilers.

(b) In automobile industry.
(c) In structural work, i.e., to fabricate trusses, frames.
(d) In pipe line fabrication.
(e) In ship building, motor building i.e., in general, in all the types of joining metals, welding is
used.

Advantages of Welding Include:

 Produces stronger joints than brazing or soldering

 Produces welded joints that are better suited for high-temperature applications
  Being able to join thin and thick sections of metal (depending on process type)

Disadvantages of Welding Include:

 Producing greater thermal distortion and residual stresses in the joint compared to
soldering and brazing
 Requiring a post-processing heat treatment to relieve joint residual stress (depending on
application and process)
 Only being able to join similar base materials (for most processes, but not all).

3. Riveting
Riveting is a metal joining process in which the two metallic parts are joined by the use of rivets.
The rivet consists of a cylindrical tube, known as a rod, which has a head to its end that can have
different shapes. These heads have a larger diameter than the rest of the rivet so that this can be
inserted into a hole and can be fitted. Riveting is used in different sectors such as the automotive
or industrial sectors to fix resistant, rigid and fixed metal parts. It is also used in aerospace
industry and in many other applications where we require permanent/semi-permanent bonding
and where bolting and welding is not an option. It is mostly carried out on low thickness sheet
metals and Aluminium. In this process, the metallic parts to be joined do not undergo any change
in their physical structure or atomic structure. However Force is required for riveting. Riveting is
used widely in automobile and aerospace industry and in many other applications where we
require permanent/semi-permanent bonding and where bolting and welding is not an option.

4. Mechanical Fasteners
Mechanical joining is a process for joining parts through clamping or fastening using screws,
bolts or rivets. Advantages of mechanical joining include versatility, ease of use, and the option
to dismantle the product in cases where regular maintenance requires it. The ability to join
dissimilar materials is another benefit. A drawback of using mechanical joining is the lack of a
continuous connection between parts, because the joint is achieved through discrete points. Also,
holes created for joining are vulnerable to fractures and corrosion.
MODULE 7: WOOD WORKING TOOLS AND
OPERATIONS

MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

1. Carpenters’ folding rule

This is a wooden scale used for measuring and setting out dimensions. It consists of four pieces
each 15 cm long hinged at the ends to make folding. When opened out its total length is 60 cm.

2 Straight edge

The straight edge is a machined flat piece of wood or metal used for testing the trueness of
surfaces.
3 Try square

Try squares are used for a variety of purposes like measuring and setting out dimensions, testing
flatness, drawing parallel lines at right angles to a plane surface and checking square ness of two
adjacent surfaces. A try square consists of a steel blade with a wooden or cast iron stock. Sizes
vary from 150 to 300 mm according to the length of the blade. The blade is graduated to serve as
a scale.

4 Gauges

Gauges are very important carpentry tools used for marking and for cutting. A gauge essentially
consists of a small square or rectangular wooden stem sliding in a wooden stock. The stem
carries one or more steel marking points or a cutting knife. The gauge is then held firmly against
a planned surface and pushed along to get the required markings.

The three commonly used gauges are marking gauge, mortise gauge and cutting gauge.

The marking gauge has one marking point. It gives an accurate cut line parallel to a true edge,
usually along the grain. The mortise gauge has two marking points one fixed near the end of the
stem and the other attached to a sliding bar. The two teeth cut two parallel lines, called mortise
lines needed for joints etc.
The cutting gauge is similar to a marking gauge but instead of a marking pin it consists of a steel
cutting knife held in position by a wedge. The wedge enables the depth of cut to be varied. This
gauge is used for cutting parallel strips of thin sheets of wood up to 3 mm thick, for gauging fine
deep lines and cutting small rebates.

CUTTING TOOLS

5 Saws:

All the saws used in wood working essentially consist of two main parts-the blade and the
handle. The blade carries the cutting teeth and is made of steel. The handle is made of wood and
is used for holding the blade and applying pressure. The teeth of the saw are given a set to
prevent the saw from binding during the sawing operation.

The saws are classified as push cut saws or pull cut saws depending upon whether they cut in the
forward stroke or in the return stroke. Push cut saws are in more common use than pull cut saws.

Saws are generally specified by the length of the blade measured along the toothed edge and
pitch of teeth expressed in millimeters.

The common types of saws used in wood working are the following:

a. Rip Saw

Rip saws are used for cutting along the grains in thick wood. The blade is about 120 to 200 mm
wide near the handle and about 60 to 100 mm near the tip. The cutting action starts from near the
tip and gradually the whole length is involved. The length of the blade is about 700 mm and the
tooth pitch 5 to 8 mm.

b. Hand Saw
 The cross cut or hand saw is designed primarily for cutting across the grains but is used
as a general purpose saw in wood working. Its blade is 500 to 700 mm long. A blade
with finer pitch is preferred for hard wood and that having coarse pitch for soft wood.
This saw can be used for cutting along the grains but is slow compared to rip saw.

c. Compass Saw:

This saw has a narrow tapering blade about 250 to 400 mm long fixed to an open
wooden handle. It is used for cutting curves in confined spaces. The blade is quite
flexible and can thus be easily used for taking straight or curved cuts on the inside or
outside surfaces of the work piece. Compass saws are commercially available in two
designs one with a fixed blade and the other in which three interchangeable blades of
different widths can be fitted.

d. Tennon or back Saw

 More commonly used for cross-cutting when a finer and more accurate finish is required. Blade
being very thin, is rain forced with a rigid steel back. Blades are of 250 to 400 mm long with 13
teeth per 25mm.

6 Chisels

A large variety of chisels is used in carpentry work for removing wood varying from very fine
shavings removed by hand pressure to thick sections removed with the help of a mallet.

Chisels have forged steel blades fitted into wooden handles and are specified by the shape and
width of the blade.

The four common types of chisels are following

i. Firmer Chisel: This chisel has a flat blade about 100 to 150 mm long and 3 to 5 mm
thick. It is the most general purpose chisel. It is used by hand pressure or mallet
depending on the amount of material to be removed. Width varies from 3 to 50 mm.
ii. Bevelled Edge Firmer Chisel: Also known as dovetail chisel this type of chisel has
beveled edges as shown. The beveling of the edges reduces the thickness of the chisel at
the sides enabling it to enter sharp corners and finish them. This chisel is used for fine
and delicate work
iii. Paring Chisel: Firmer and beveled edge firmer chisels when made with long thin blade
are known as paring chisels. Such chisels are generally manipulated by hand and are 5 to
50 mm wide and 225 to500 mm long.
iv. Mortise Chisel: This type of chisel is used for taking heavy and deep cuts resulting in
more stock removal as in making mortises. It is made with a heavy blade with generous
shoulder or collar to withstand the larger force of the mallet blows. Blades vary in width
from 3to 16 mm. The blade thickness is form 6 to 15 mm.

7 Axe
The axe consists of a steel head and a wooden handle. It is used for removing the back etc. from
the wood and for splitting the logs.

PLANNING TOOLS

In the past all planes were made out of high quality wood but metal planes have now replaced
wooden planes. As compared to wooden planes metal planes are more efficient, can be used with
greater control, can be easily adjusted and give better finish. The planes more commonly used
include the following:

8 Wooden Jack Plane

A jack plane is the first plane used on timber for trueing it. It consists of a block of wood or stock
into which the blade is fixed with a wooden wedge. The bottom face of the stock called sole is
made perfectly smooth and level.

The blade made of high carbon steel is fixed at 45 degrees to the sole and is held in position by a
tapered wooden wedge. Another blade is fixed on the cutting block between the blade and the
wedge. This does not do any cutting but only supports the cutting blade and prevents shattering.
It also helps in breaking the shavings as they are produced by making them curl. Jack planes are
350 to 425 mm long with blades 50 to 75 mm wide.

9 Metal Jack Plane

Metal jack planes serve the same purpose as wooden jack planes but facilitate a smoother
operation and better finish. The body of a metal plane is made from a gray iron casting with the
sides and sole machines and ground to a bright finish. The thickness of the shaving removed is
governed by a fine screw adjustment and a lateral adjustment lever is used for adjusting the blade
at right angles.

Other planes:

i. Trying plane: A heavy plane used in smoothing the edges of roughly planed wood.
ii. Smoothing plane: Small in size and used for smoothing and finishing.
iii. Rebate plane: For making recess along the edge of the wood piece.
iv. Plough plane: For making small grooves where panel fitting is required.

BORING TOOLS

Boring tools are needed frequently for making round holes in wood. They are selected according
to the type and purpose of the hole.

10. Spring bit: Spring bit is used for drilling holes not larger than 5 mm in diameter. It may be
driven in by a hammer or with an oscillatory motion of the hand. It is chiefly used for making
lead-holes for large nails or screws.

11 Brace
Used for holding and turning bit for boring holes. It may be a ratchet or wheel brace type.

12 Gimlet

A gimlet is a smaller form of auger and is used for producing small holes. It is operated in the
same way as the auger.

13 Auger Bit
An auger bit as mentioned earlier is a small auger. It has a screw point and a helical or twisted
stem. This bit produces long, clean and accurate holes from 6 to 35 mm diameter a long or across
the grains. Since the whole body of the bit is fluted, removal of shavings is easier and as such
this bit is extremely useful for drilling deep holes.

14 Counter sink Bit

This bit is used for making conical depressions to receive screws etc. This bit is also known as
arose bit.

STRIKING TOOLS

Striking or impelling tools are used for driving chisels and nails into the wood and for assembly
work. The two types of striking tools used for wood-working are (i) mallet and (ii) hammer.

15 Mallet

A mallet is a small wooden hammer of round or rectangular cross section. It is made of hard
wood. A mallet is used to give light blows to the cutting tools with wooden heads such as chisels
and gouges.
16 Hammers: Two types of hammers are normally used in wood working: cross peen hammer
and the claw hammer. The cross peen hammer is used for light bench work. It has cast steel head
with the face and peen being tempered. The handle is made of either wood or bamboo. These
hammers are specified by size number and range from 200gm. to 550 gm.

The claw hammer in addition to being used as a hammer, can also be used for pulling out bent
nails and for this reason it is preferred by the woodworkers. These hammers are available in four
sizes weighing 375, 450, 550 and675 gm.

HOLDING AND SUPPORTING TOOLS:

This category of tools is used for holding and/or supporting the job during operation. For
accurate work the job must be properly held and supported against the forces being applied to cut
or shape it. The commonly used tools in this category include the following:

17 Work Bench

The work bench is a heavy rigid table made of hard wood. It is usually 3 to 3.65 meters long. 0.7
m wide and 0.7 m high. Two or four carpenter’s vises are fitted on opposite sides of the bench to
hold jobs. Racks may be provided in the table for storing tools, finished jobs and other
equipment.

18 Bench Vice

The bench vise most commonly used for wood working has one jaw fixed to the side of the table
while the other can be moved by means of a screw. The screw works inside a fixed half nut and
is operated with a handle. The inside surfaces of the jaws are fitted with wooden liners to prevent
scratching of the work piece surfaces when they are clamped.

19 Bench Stop

The bench stop is simply a block of wood projecting above the top surface of the bench. This is
used to prevent the wood from sliding forward during planning.

20 Bar Cramp
The bar or sash cramp is made up of a steel bar of rectangular or T-section which carries a screw
inside. The bar cramp is used for holding wide work pieces such as door frames.

21 Cramps and Screws

Cramps and screws of various types and sizes are commonly used by woodworkers for holding
odd shape work pieces. Two of the most common ones are the C-Clamp and hand screw.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:

Rasps and files

They are used for cleaning curved surfaces.

Pincer
It is making used for pulling out nails, tacks etc.

Screw drivers

They are used for screwing or unscrewing screw used in wood. Screw drivers used for carpentry
work are available with long handles and strong nose

OPERATIONS OF BASIC WOOD WORKING MACHINES

Although there are many types of hand tools that we use while woodworking, most jobs would
be difficult to complete without using at least one woodworking machine. There are various
types of woodworking machines available. These woodworking machines fall under two basic
categories, handheld power tools, and stationary machines.

Woodworking machines are some of the most important tools for working woodworkers.
Although woodworking traditionally was done all by hand and some people still do,
woodworking machines are a critical part of the trade. In this list we’ll cover the different types
of woodworking machines that are available, at least the most common machines.
Different Types of Woodworking Machines
A. HANDHELD POWER TOOLS

1. Electric Drill

The electric drill consists of a motor enclosed in a body that also forms the handle. A chuck on
the end of the frame holds different drills and bits to drill holes and drive screws.

A good drill machine will have the option of varying its speed. Electric drills come with a power
cord or they may be cordless.

2. Jig Saw
Jigsaw is used to cut irregular curves. It consists of an electric motor that drives a reciprocating
blade, which means that the blade moves in a forward-backward direction. The unit has a handle
and flat guide which slides over the surface of the wood, enabling you to move the blade in
varying directions to cut various shapes.

3 Handheld Electric Plane

This handheld power tool does the job of smoothing the surface of wood just as a hand plane
does. It also has a shoe or sole plate over which it rides. The difference is that an electric motor
powers the handheld electric plane. You can adjust the depth of the cut.

4 Nail Gun
A nail gun, also called a nailer, enables us to drive nails into wood and other materials. It does
the work of a hammer, but in a fraction of the time and with much less effort. The nail gun may
be spring-loaded, or it could be powered by compressed air, gas-powered by propane or butane,
or magnetism. Some nail guns use the force created by detonating a small explosive charge.

5 Handheld Sanders

The variations in handheld sanders include orbital sander, belt sander, and random orbit sander
fixed machines. A sander enables us to finish surfaces with sandpaper, much faster than doing it
by hand. It consists of a disc driven by an electric motor that rotates at high speed. With the
provision of attaching a disc of sandpaper, we can fix discs of sandpaper of different roughness,
to impart a smooth finish to a wooden surface.

Many electric drills have a sander attachment, enabling your electric drill to double up as a
sander.

6 Router

This handheld power tool enables us to hollow out sections in wood and other materials. The
router looks somewhat like a handheld sander, having a circular blade like a sander.
Woodworkers consider the router one of the most versatile tools in the field of woodworking.

B. STATIONARY MACHINES

7 Table Saw

The other names of a table saw are saw bench and bench saw. An electric motor drives a circular
saw. A portion of the circular blade projects through the surface of a tabletop. The workpiece
slides along a guide on the tabletop over the saw to get shaped. We can adjust the height of the
circular bade. This machine is handy for rough sizing of wooden planks and beams.
8 Wood Lathe

We call the process of working on a wood lathe “woodturning.” The wood lathe, much like the
regular lathe for turning metal, enables us to shape wood. The lathe has a chuck that rotates on a
belt-driven central axis. The end that holds the workpiece is the “headstock.” An electric motor
drives this axis. A “center” holds the workpiece at the opposite side of the chuck, commonly
known as the “tailstock.”

As the workpiece spins, we can shape it by holding a chisel against its spinning surface. Once the
workpiece gets the desired shape, we usually run a piece of sandpaper over the still-rotating
workpiece to give it a smooth finish.

9 Jointer
We use a jointer to create a flat surface across the length of a board. The other names for the
jointer are “planer,” “surface planer,” “buzzer,” or “flat top.”

A jointer prepares the edges of boards for them to be joined to each other as in butt joints or if
they are to be integrated into panels.

10 Bandsaw

This woodworking machine traces its history back to the early nineteenth century. A bandsaw, as
the name suggests, is a flexible saw-toothed blade that comes in the form of a band. This band
fits over two or more wheels, driven by electric motors. The blade passes vertically through a
slot in the workbench surface. The workpiece slides against the moving blade to get cut.

Bandsaws are an integral part of any timber mill. It has many variations, and you can even find
automated bandsaws, where the feed is automatic rather than manual. It enables a single operator
to operate several bandsaws simultaneously.

Safety precautions to follow when using woodworking tools

and machines
I. Always wear safety glasses or goggles, or a face shield, wear dust masks when required,
wear hearing protection that is suitable for the level and frequency of the noise you are
exposed to in the woodworking area. If you have trouble hearing someone speak from
three feet away, the noise level from the machine is too high. Damage to hearing may
occur.
 II. Use gloves to protect hands from splinters when handling wood but do not wear them
near rotating blades and other machinery parts where the gloves can catch, wear
protective footwear when required.
III. Make sure the guard is in position, is in good working condition, and guards the machine
adequately before operating any equipment or machine. Check and adjust all other safety
devices.
IV. Make sure the equipment is properly grounded before use. Also check that keys and
adjusting wrenches are removed from the machine before turning on the power.
V. Inspect stock for nails, staples, loose knots or other defects before cutting, planing,
routing or carrying out similar activities.
VI. Make sure that all machines have start and stop buttons within easy and convenient reach
of an operator. Start buttons should be protected so that accidental contact will not start
the machine. A collar around the button 3 to 6 mm (1/8 to 1/4 inch) above the button is
recommended.
VII. Ensure that all cutting tools and blades are clean, sharp, and in good working order so
that they will cut freely, not forced.
VIII. Turn the power off and unplug the power cord before inspecting, changing, cleaning,
adjusting or repairing a blade or a machine. Also turn the power off when discussing the
work.
IX. Use a "push stick" to push material into the cutting area. Jigs are also useful in keeping
hands safe during cutting procedures. Keep hands out of the line of the cutting blade.
X. Clamp down and secure all work pieces when drilling, sanding, cutting or milling.
XI. Use good lighting so that the work piece, cutting blades, and machine controls can be
seen clearly. Position or shade lighting sources so they do not shine in the operator's eyes
or cause any glare and reflections.
XII. Ensure that the floor space around the equipment is sufficient to enable you to machine
the size of work piece being processed safely without bumping into other workers or
equipment.
XIII. Woodworking machines should be fitted with efficient and well-maintained local exhaust
ventilation systems to remove sawdust or chips that are produced.
XIV. Electric power cords should be above head level or in the floor in such a way that they
are not tripping hazards.
XV. Keep work area free of clutter, clean, well swept, and well lit. Spills should be cleaned up
immediately. Floor areas should be level and non-slip. Good housekeeping practices and
workplace design will reduce the number of injuries and accidents from slips, trips, and
falls.
XVI. Keep the area free from water and moisture. Do not use electrical equipment outdoors in
the rain.
XVII. Always keep your attention on the work. For example, if you must talk to another person,
turn off the equipment first.
MODULE 8: REAMING OPERATIONS
Drilling, boring and reaming and three common processes performed by manufacturing
companies. All three processes involve, to some degree, creating a new hole or modifying an
existing hole in a workpiece. Most people are familiar with drilling, although, many are
unfamiliar with boring and reaming. This module will break down the differences between these
three processes.

Drilling
Drilling is a cutting process that involves the use of a drill bit to cut a circular-shape hole in a
workpiece. The drill bit used in drilling is a type of rotary cutting tool that, like other rotary
cutting tools, rotates while subsequently scraping material out of the workpiece. To drill a
workpiece, a manufacturing company must press the drill bit against the workpiece. When the
drill is activated, the drill bit will dig its way into the workpiece while creating a circular-shaped
hole in the process.

It’s a common assumption that drilling can only be performed on soft materials like wood. Many
drilling processes do, in fact, involve wooden workpieces, but others involve workpieces made
of harder materials, including metal. As long as the drill bit is harder than the workpiece, it will
scrape out material to create a circular-shaped hole.

Boring
Boring is a cutting process that involves the use of a single-point cutting tool or boring head to
enlarge an existing hole in a workpiece. This is in stark contrast to drilling, which is performed
to create an initial hole in a workpiece.

Boring processes are typically performed using a lathe, milling machine or a horizontal boring
mill. Each machine uses a different mechanism, but they are all designed to enlarge an existing
hole in a workpiece — and that’s the defining characteristic of boring. While drilling is
performed to create an initial hole in a workpiece, boring is performed to enlarge an existing hole
in a workpiece.

Reaming
Reaming is defined as a machining process that uses a multi-edged fluted cutting tool to smooth,
enlarge or accurately size an existing hole. Reaming is performed using the same types of
machines as drilling. The rotary cutting tool used in reaming is known as a reamer. Like drill
bits, reamers also remove material from the workpiece on which they are used. However,
reamers remove significantly less material than drill bits. The primary purpose of reaming is
simply to create smooth walls in an existing hole. Manufacturing companies perform reaming
using a milling machine or drill press.

Differences between Drilling, Boring and Reaming

Drilling Boring Reaming
Drilling is performed to Boring is performed to enlarge Reaming is performed to
originate a hole on a solid the diameter of an existing finish internal surface of an
surface. hole. existing hole.
Cutting tool used in drilling Cutting tool used for boring is Cutting tool used in reaming
operation is called Drill. known as boring bar. operation is called Reamer.
Metal cutting drill usually Boring bar is considered as a Reamer contains large number
consists of two cutting edges. single point cutting tool. of cutting edges (minimum 4).
So drill is considered as a So reamer is a multi-point
double point cutting tool. cutting tool.
Drilling is the first step of hole A pre-drilled hole or a hollow Neither diameter nor length
making. After drilling either portion is mandatory for can be increased substantially
boring or reaming can be performing boring. by reaming.
carried out depending on the
requirement.
The length of a hole can be Boring can increase the Axial length of the hole
easily increased by drilling diameter of an existing hole cannot be altered by reaming.
operation. but not length Only diameter of the hole can
be increased slightly.
Surface of a drilled hole is not Here, surface quality is better Reaming produces highly
highly finished (i.e. high than drilling. finished surface.
surface roughness).
Material Removal Rate Material Removal Rate MRR is poor; in fact, MRR is
(MRR) in drilling is (MRR) in lower than drilling not an issue in reaming.
significantly higher. but higher than reaming.

The Reaming Process

Reaming is a frequent unit process in manufacturing as a mass reduction step, used for enlarging
and accurately sized existing hole by means of multifluted cutting tool. Reaming removes a
minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate
diameter and a smoother internal finish.

It is a machining process in which a light cut to improve the accuracy of a round hole and
enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool by means of a rotary multifluted cutting tool
typically aided by cutting fluids. As the reamer is rotated and advanced axially into the
workpiece, material is removed in the form of chips. Chips are produced within the workpiece
and move in direction opposite to axial movement of the reamer. For soft metals, a reamer
typically removes a minimum of 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) on the diameter of a drilled hole; for harder
metals, about 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) is removed. Consequently, chip disposal in reaming and the
effectiveness of cutting fluids are important. Generally, reaming is done using a drill press.
However, lathes, machining centers and similar machines can be used as well. The workpiece is
firmly held in place by either a vice, chuck or fixture while the reamer advances.

There are two main types of reamers: hand reamers and machine reamers. Hand reamers have a
wrench to apply the required pressure. Hand reamers have parallel flutes. Reamers used on
machines such as a lathe, have flutes that have a left-hand spiral. An interesting fact about the
flutes is that they are spaced irregularly, as this reduces the tendency of the reamer to ‘chatter’,
during use.

When in use, the ‘bevel lead’ (see diagram), enters the drilled hole and pressure is slowly
increased, whilst turning the reamer in a clockwise direction. This will initiate cutting. The first
few turns are the most difficult, but once started, further cutting should be easy. These reamers
can be used in blind holes.

There is another common type of reamer, known as a ‘tapered reamer’. This has a taper for most
of its cutting length, making it much easier to start cutting. When using this type of reamer, it
must be remembered that the parallel part of the reamer extends only a short distance (see
diagram below) and consequently, the reamer must be used until the parallel part of the cutter
goes through the hole, being cut to size. Tapered reamers are normally used to produce ‘tapered’
holes. Please note: some tapered reamers, do not have a section which is parallel.
The square shank of a hand reamer, fits into a wrench. In this example, a tapered reamer is being
used. The taper enters the drilled hole and the reamer is rotated in a clockwise direction. The
spiral flutes help to feed the reamer into the hole.

It is important to keep the reamer perfectly straight, at the same time as rotating it, during the
cutting process. If the reamer is not held straight, then the hole will not be straight when finished.
To ensure the reamer is held straight, place it in the hole and turn it slightly with the wrench and
then stop. Stand back from the work and view the reamer and wrench in relation to the work. It
should be straight in the hole and square with the work.

When all checks have been carried out, the reamer is rotated in a clockwise direction, in a
smooth movement, with a small amount of pressure downwards. Do not reverse the cut, as
happens when tapping a hole. Oil should be added to ease the cutting. When cutting is finished,
continue to rotate the reamer in a clockwise direction and at the same time, withdraw it from the
work.

Other Types of Reamers

1. Chucking reamer with parallel or taper shank
1. Fluted reamer
2. Rose reamer
 2. Machine bridge reamer
3. Machine jig reamer
4. Parallel hand reamer with a parallel shank
5. Parallel or taper shank socket head reamer
6. Shell reamer
7. Taper pin hand or machine reamer
8. Expansion reamer

Application of Reamers
The following are the applications of reamers:

1. A reamer is a type of rotary cutting tool mostly used in metalworking.

2. A reamer is a tool used for expanding or finishing pre-drilled holes, bored, or cored to
give a good finish and an exact dimension.
3. The reamer is intended to be used in a drill press, turret lathe.
4. Reamer is also used in the screw-cutting machine.

MODULE 9: TAPPING OPERATIONS

The Tapping Process

Tapping in manufacturing is the process of cutting a thread inside a hole, which needs to be
drilled with tap drill and chamfered at the end, used for screws or bolts being threaded into the
hole. Tapping process is a highly efficient, productive, economical and easy threading method,
especially for small threads, it can also produce threads on nuts.

Tap is the cutting tool for tapping, wound down into a hole, and cuts a thread as it goes. There
are many types of tapping tool, choose the right tap based on what type of hole you want to
thread. The taps can be divided into hand taps and power taps. Hand taps are the most common
tap types, including taper tap, bottoming tap and plug tap. Power taps are the types that should
choose for CNC applications or manual machining work, including spiral point tap (gun nose or
bull nose tap), spiral flute tap (gun tap), form or roll tap, and more.

When the tap is screwed into a hole, it removes metal and cuts internal threads. In addition to
creating threads in new holes, this process can also be used to create threads on the inner surface
of nuts.

Watch the video here:

https://youtu.be/r0GTLgTPga0

How to Tap on a Lathe Machine

Tapping can be done on the lathe machine by hand or power feed. Use a low spindle speed and
cutting fluid is beneficial for the process. The procedure of tapping operation on the lathe is as
follows:

a. Mount the material blank in the chuck and fix it

b. Select a proper tap drill, face and center the drill
c. Set the lathe to the proper speed, drill with the tap to required depth
d. Chamfer the edge of the hole

Differences Between Tapping and Threading

 1. Taps and dies both can be used as the cutting tools to create screw threads. The
process of cutting threads using a tap is tapping, while the process using a die is
threading.
2. Tapping is the process of mainly producing internal threads, like the threads
inside a nut, while threading is a process of usually making external threads, such
as threads on the outside of bolts.
3. In tapping, each size hole to be threaded requires different size tap, but in
threading, a single tool can be used in thread milling to make a variety of hole
sizes.
4. Tapping does not allow for adjusting the thread fit, while threading has the ability
to control the fit
5. Tapping provides the speed advantages, especially the high-speed tapping centers
set up with a rigid tap, while threading comes in more flexibility and ability to
adjust the thread fits.

MODULE 10: BASIC OPERATIONS ON

PLASTICS
Plastics can be divided into two major categories: Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastics.

THERMOPLASTICS

Thermoplastics are the linear polymers, which become soft on heating and become hard on
cooling. The molecules of these polymers are synthesized in the shape of long threads and
undergo no chemical change in the molding operation. Thermoplastics are less rigid than
thermosets; thermoplastics can soften upon heating and return to their original form. They are
easily molded and extruded into films, fibers and packaging.

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

Thermosetting Plastics are cross-linked polymers, which become soft only on first heating
with pressure and get hard permanently on cooling due to chemical changes by condensation and
polymerization, and becomes unaffected by the heat or solvents. Once cooled and hardened,
these plastics retain their shapes and cannot return to their original form. They are hard and
durable. Thermosets can be used for auto parts, aircraft parts and tyres.

Differences Between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastics

S/NO THERMOPLASTIC PLASTIC THERMOSETTING PLASTIC
1. Thermoplastic can be synthesized by the Thermosetting plastics are synthesized by
process called addition polymerization. condensation polymerization.
2. Thermoplastic is processed by injection Thermosetting Plastic is processed by
moulding, extrusion process, blow compression moulding, reaction injection
moulding, thermoforming process, and moulding.
rotational moulding.
3. Thermoplastics have secondary bonds Thermosetting plastics have primary bonds
between molecular chains. between molecular chains and held together
by strong cross-links.

4. Thermoplastics have low melting points Thermosetting plastics have high melting
and low tensile strength. points and tensile strength.
5. Thermoplastic is lower in molecular Thermosetting Plastic is high in molecular
weight, compared to thermosetting weight.
plastic.
6. They undergo no chemical change in the They undergo chemical change in the
molding operation. molding operation.
7. They can be softened again and again. They cannot be re-softened once they hard.
8. These plastics can be reused. These plastics cannot be reused.
9. These are soft and flexible. These are hard and brittle.
10. Thermoplastics are not fireproof. Thermosetting Plastics are fireproof.

Some examples of thermoplastics are listed below.

 Polystyrene
 Teflon
 Acrylic
 Nylon
 polyethylene (PE),
 polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
 Acetate.
Examples of thermosetting polymers include:

 Vulcanized rubber
 Bakelite
 Polyurethane
 Epoxy resin
 Vinyl ester resin
 polyesters,
 Phenolic resins.

Advantages of thermoplastics include:

 Adheres well to metal

 Allows for quality aesthetic finishes
 Capable of reshaping after curing without much effect to material properties (recyclable)
 Chemical and detergent resistant
 Good electrical insulation properties
 Enhanced anti-slip properties
 Resistant to impact
 Offers options for both hardened crystalline and rubbery surfaces
 Resistant to chipping
 Resists corrosion well

Disadvantages of thermoplastics include:

 Ability to soften when heated makes it less suitable for some applications
 Often more expensive option than thermosetting polymers
 Commonly used thermoplastic polymers include polyvinylchloride (vinyl or PVC),
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polycarbonate (PC) and
polyethylene theraphthalate (PET).

Advantages of thermosetting polymers include:

 Allows for flexible product design

 Can be molded with different tolerances
 Capable of varying wall thickness to improve structural integrity
 Components usually cost less than those fabricated from metals – especially for large
equipment body panels
 Excellent electrical insulation properties
  Greater resistance to high temperatures
 High dimensional stability
 Highly resistant to corrosion
 Low thermal conductivity
 Lower costs for setup and tooling compared to thermoplastics
 Offers high strength-to-weight ratio to improve product performance
 Water-resistant
 Wide choice for coloring and surface finishes

Disadvantages of thermosetting polymers include:

 Can neither be reshaped nor remolded

 Not recyclable

Applications of Thermoplastic Polymers

Thermoplastics can be found in virtually any industry with products ranging from milk jugs to
piping systems. As thermoplastics are capable of withstanding corrosive conditions, they work
well as a substitute for metals, but cannot withstand high temperatures as well as thermosets.

Applications include:

 Fabricating ropes or belts

 Insulating electrical cabling
 Liquid storage tanks
 Protective covers for rigid equipment
 Other industries utilizing thermoplastics include construction, electronics, medical and
biomedical, food and beverage, chemical, automotive, plumbing, and many more.

Applications of Thermosetting Polymers

Offering an excellent combination of chemical resistance, structural robustness and thermal
stability, thermosetting polymers are widely used throughout a range of industries, as they offer
an economical means to meet many production specifications. They are easily formed into
complex geometric shapes that fabrication of metal components cannot easily achieve, and
components made via RIM and RTM techniques allow for considerable consistency in the
fabrication process.
Applications include:

 Chlorine and other chemical generation piping, fittings, or cell covers

 Electrical or medical equipment housings and components
 Heavy construction or transportation equipment like doors, panels, or housings
 Livestock feeding troughs and other agricultural products
 Motor vehicle and tractor parts
 Military vehicle components

Some Common Plastics

Nylon Very strong, nylon can be machined and will take a fine
thread. It is also slippery and can be used to make washers,
spacers and bushes.

Nylon was originally developed as a textile but is available in

many forms with vastly different properties. Engineering
nylon grades are easy to machine with good resistance to
biological attack. Unfortunately nylons can absorb moisture
from the atmosphere and can degrade in strong sunlight (they
are unstable in ultraviolet light) unless a stabilizing chemical is
added at the initial manufacture of the plastic. Nylons are easy
to mould. Nylons also have a natural 'oily' surface that can act
as a natural lubricant. Nylons are used for everything from
clothes through to gears and bearings.

Acrylic Comes in a range of thicknesses, colours and can be opaque or

transparent. There are two type of acrylic extruded which is
cheaper and very "plastic" and cast which machines better but
is harder and less flexible.

Acrylics are available in a range of colours and can be opaque,

translucent or transparent. They are available in sheet, rod, and
tube for use in injection moulding, extrusion and vacuum
forming. Acrylics withstand weather and are stable in sunlight.
Almost any colour can be produced. Transparent acrylic can
be as clear as the finest optical glass, this led them to be used
in optical equipment such as cameras. It is possible to
 significantly strengthen the acrylic when it is being made,
these high grade acrylics are used use for aircraft windows.

PVC and
uPVC Stiff, hard, tough lightweight plastic. uPVC is stabilised for
outside use and is used for plastic windows and plastic pipes.
Plasticised PVC is used for flexible applications such as
insulating - cables.

Polythene This plastic has a range of uses from food packaging to gas
pipes. The plastics can be injection moulded or extruded and is
available in two forms. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a
hard rigid plastic. A low-density grade (LDPE) is tough and
flexible.

Polypropylene Polypropylene is a tough, cheap plastic; it has a slightly waxy

feel. It can be bent repeatedly without breaking. Used for
Medical equipment such as syringes, stacking chairs, suitcases
with integral hinges,

Polycarbonate Used for making eye protection, machine guards and riot
shields. It is not as hard as acrylic and can be cut easily but it
will absorb impacts.

Bakelite A thermosetting plastic. Dark brown. Used as a composite

reinforced with paper or cloth. Used to make circuit boards
and heat proof insulated parts in the electronics industry.

Epoxy resin A two part mix which can be used as a glue (ARALDITE) or
be reinforced with carbon fibre to produce a very strong and
light composite materials which is used in aerospace and
Formula 1

Melamine A thermoset very tough and heat resistant. White but can be
produced in a full range of colours.
Plastic Joining Techniques
There are four essential techniques/methods for joining plastic components. They are:

1) Mechanical Fastening

Mechanical fasteners such as rivets, screws, nuts or pins represent the most common joining
elements. These fasteners may be molded into place, glued, forced or expanded into holes. In
addition, they may be inserted with heated probes or with ultrasound. When using mechanical
fasteners, ensure that both the plastic components and fasteners are strong enough to survive the
pressure applied during installation.

2) Solvent Bonding

In solvent bonding, the plastic is softened first with a coating of solvent. The two plastics
components are then clamped together. The molecules mix together and the components bond as
the solvent dries and evaporates. This process works solely with thermoplastics.

The level of pressure applied is critical, as too much may cause the components to distort. In
addition, 24 to 48 hours at room temperature or several hours at a higher temperature may be
necessary to facilitate the bonding.

3) Ultraviolet Bonding

Ultraviolet bonding utilizes a curing process with high-intensity ultraviolet lighting that instantly
dries or cures inks, adhesives or coatings. Moreover, UV bonding works in seconds to bond
plastic components even when the plastic material blocks UV light. In addition, plastic adhesives
bond together a wide array of substrates making this method an efficient way to bond plastic
pieces to other materials, such as ceramic, glass, and metal. This process provides many
advantages such as reduced rejection rates, increased production speed, improved solvent and
scratch resistance, as well as superior bonding.

4) Ultrasonic Welding

This process utilizes sonic pulses that are transmitted to the appropriate area with a resonant
vibrating device called a horn. The horn causes the two plastic components to vibrate against one
another, and the vibration results in heat that fuses the elements together. Thus, no solvents or
glue are required. As the horn vibrates, it stretches and then shrinks in length by tiny amounts,
and this motion is called the amplitude of the device.