Chapter One

Solar Energy
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The sun is the source of life and the source of energy on Earth, the solar energy that
reaches the earth's surface transforms into two main forms: chemical and thermal
energy, each manifested in several manifestations leading to the emergence of a number
of energies. When sunlight falls on the leaves of plants, the plant is saved in the form of
chemical energy, so the plant grows and solar energy is a source of food and food for
living organisms in general.
The accumulation of large amounts of these living organisms over the years and their
compliance with appropriate oxidation conditions, reduced chemical energy is converted
into other chemical energy that has formed fossil fuels from oil, gas and coal.
The thermal effect of solar energy is apparent when solar radiation falls into the
atmosphere, resulting in uneven heating and therefore the occurrence of air currents and
the emergence of wind energy.
Direct heating of the surface of the sea and oceans increases surface temperature while
maintaining a low temperature at the bottom, and the energy generated by this
phenomenon is known as thermal energy in the seas and oceans
The tidal energy is directly related to the movement of the sun and the moon.

1.1.1 Positive and negative aspects of solar energy use:

First, the positive aspects:
1. This energy is a clean source of energy in terms of its impact on the environment
and is not hazardous to use.
2. The sun is an endless source of energy (the amount of solar radiation reaching the
Earth is many times as much as human energy).
3. Solar energy is distributed on the earth's surface, so there is no need to move it
and distribute it.
4. Solar energy is convertible to other types of energy, such as thermal, mechanical
and electrical energy.

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Secondly, the negative aspects:
1. Lack of continuity of solar energy during the day, as it is only available for certain
hours a day.
2. In foggy and rainy climates, solar energy efficiency is reduced.
3. The energy system that man experienced during industrial development resulted
in a particular life system, and the new solar system may require qualitative
change in some of the foundations of this system

1.1.2 A Brief History of Solar Energy Uses

Since ancient times, man has benefited from solar radiation energy directly in many
applications such as the drying of agricultural crops and heating houses, as used in other
fields mentioned in the books of historical sciences, Archimedes burned the Roman war
fleet in the war of 212 BC by concentrating the solar radiation on enemy ships with
hundreds of metal shields, In the Babylonian times, women priests used polished gold
pots as mirrors to concentrate solar radiation to obtain fire. The likes of Chernhos, Suisse,
Lavoisier, Motshot, Ericsson, Harding and others also used solar energy to melt materials,
cook food, generate steam, distill water and heat air.
Thermal Uses
Thermal uses include heating and heating water systems for domestic and industrial
purposes, where the most practical basic uses of solar system systems in residential
buildings, desalination systems, crop drying systems and solar cookers are the most
practical uses
Electrical Uses
Solar cell conversion is one of the most important means of converting solar energy into
electric power, and these systems are easy to operate, reliable in production, no need for
continuous maintenance and no environmental pollution. It is used in lighting, emergency
telephones, solar power bank, water pumping, desalination and satellite stations.

1.2 SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation is the energy from the sun that reaches the earth. It is commonly
expressed in units of kilowatts per square meter (kW/m2). The earth receives a nearly
constant 1.36 kW/m2 of solar radiation at its outer atmosphere. However, by the time
this energy reaches the earth’s surface, the total amount of solar radiation is reduced to
approximately 1 kW/m2. Only about 40% of the solar energy which is intercepted by the
earth is passed through the atmosphere and is available for solar applications.

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1.2.1 Components of Solar Radiation
The total radiation is composed of the following three components:

1. "Direct radiation" is also sometimes called "beam radiation" or "direct beam

radiation". It is used to describe solar radiation traveling on a straight line from the
sun down to the surface of the earth.
2. "Diffuse radiation", on the other hand, describes the solar radiation that
has been scattered by the sky, layers of atmosphere and other surroundings.
3. "Reflected radiation", describes solar radiation that has been reflected off
of non-atmospheric things such as the ground.

Fig. (1) - Solar radiation – atmospheric effect

(Source: “Fundamentals of Physical Geography.”)

The total solar radiation (direct + diffuse + reflected radiation) falling on the earth’s
surface varies and depends on a lot of factors, including but not limited to:
 Atmospheric Conditions (Cloud Cover, Ozone layer condition, etc.)
 Earth’s Rotation (time of the day, solar activity, etc.)
 Earth’s Revolution (distance between earth and sun, seasons, angle of inclination of earth’s
surface, etc.)

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Solar irradiance, on the other
hand, is the amount of solar
energy received by or projected
onto a specific surface. Solar
irradiance is also expressed in
units of kW/m2 and is measured
at the surface of the material.
Finally, solar insolation is the
amount of solar irradiance
measured over a given period of time. Fig. (2) - Solar irradiance and peak sun hours.
It is typically quantified in peak sun hours, (Source: “Renewable Energy Primer-Solar.”)
Which are the equivalent number of hours per day when solar irradiance averages 1
kW/m2. It is important to note that although the sun may be above the horizon for 14
hours in a given day, it may only generate energy equivalent to 6 peak sun hours.

1.3 BASIC EARTH ANGLES-SUN

The intensity of the solar radiation on the Earth’s surface depends on the location of the
Earth’s surface relative to the sun, it is necessary to identify some angles that illustrate
the relationship between the Earth and the sun.
The latitude, (L), is the angular distance of the point Q north (or south) of the equator. It
is the angle between the line OQ and the projection of OQ on the equatorial plane. Point
O represents the center of the earth. As part of the convention, north latitudes are
positive and south latitudes are negative.
The hour angle, (h), is the angle measured in the earth's equatorial plane between the
projection of OQ and the projection of a line from the center of the sun to the center of
the earth. At solar noon, the hour angle is zero. The hour angle expresses the time of
360
day with respect to solar noon. One hour of time is represented by = 15 degrees of
24
hour angle. As part of the convention, the hour angle is negative before solar noon and
positive after solar noon.
h = (ST – 12) × 15 [degrees]
The sun's declination angle, (δ), is the angular distance of a sun's rays north (or south) of
the equator. It is the angle between a line extending from the center of the sun to the
center of the earth and the projection of this line upon the earth's equatorial plane. The
declination is positive when the sun's rays are north of the equator and negative when

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they are south of the equator. At the time of the winter solstice, the sun's rays are 23.5
degrees south of the earth's equator (δ = -23.5°). At the time of the summer
solstice, the sun's rays are 23.5 degrees north of the earth's equator (δ = 23.5°). At the
equinoxes, the sun's declination is zero.
The declination angle throughout the year can be well approximated by a sine function:
360
δ = 23.45 sin[ (284 + 𝑛)] [degrees]
365

Where n is the day of the year.

Fig. (3) - Latitude, hour angle, and sun's declination angle.

(Source:" www.me.umn.edu.")
1.4 DERIVED SOLAR ANGLES
Besides the three basic angles (latitude, hour angle, and sun's declination), several other
angles are useful in solar radiation calculations. Such angles include the sun's zenith
angle θH, altitude angle β, and azimuth angle φ. For a particular surface orientation, and
the sun's incidence angle θ, and. All of these additional angles may be expressed in terms
of the three basic angles.
To an observer on the earth, the sun appears to move across the sky following the path of
a circular arc from horizon to horizon. Figure 4 schematically shows one apparent solar
path and defines the sun's zenith, altitude, and azimuth angles. Point P represents the
position of the observer, point O is the center of the earth, and IDN is a vector
representing the sun's rays.
The zenith angle θH is the angle between the sun's rays and local vertical, i.e. a line
perpendicular to the horizontal plane at P.

cos 𝜃 = cos 𝑙 cos ℎ cos 𝛿 + sin 𝑙 sin 𝛿 [degrees]

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The altitude angle β is the angle in a vertical plane between the sun's rays and the
𝜋
projection of the sun's rays on the horizontal plane. It follows that β + θH = = 90.
2

sin 𝛽 = cos 𝑙 cos ℎ cos 𝛿 + sin 𝑙 sin 𝛿 [degrees]

The azimuth angle φ is the angle in the horizontal plane measured from south to the
horizontal projection of the sun's rays.

1
cos ∅ = (cos 𝛿 sin 𝑙 cos ℎ − sin 𝛿 cos 𝑙)
cos 𝛽

The sign convention used for the azimuth angle, φ, is negative east of south and positive
west of south. Notice that this sign convention results in the hour angle, h, and the sun's
azimuth angle, φ, always having the same sign. In calculations involving other than
horizontal surfaces, it is convenient to express the sun's position relative to the surface in
terms of the incidence angle, θ. The sun's angle of incidence is the angle between the
solar rays and the surface normal. (Notice that for a horizontal surface, the surface
normal is the local vertical and the incidence angle is equal to the zenith angle, θH.)

Fig.(4) - Definition of sun's zenith, altitude, and azimuth angles

(Source:" www.me.umn.edu.")

In calculations involving other than horizontal surfaces, it is convenient to express the

sun's position relative to the surface in terms of the incidence angle, θ. The sun's angle of
incidence is the angle between the solar rays and the surface normal. (Notice that for a

6
horizontal surface, the surface normal is the local vertical and the incidence angle is equal
to the zenith angle, θH.)
In order to evaluate the angle of incidence we need to specify the direction of the surface
normal. This is done in terms of the surface tilt angle, £, and the surface azimuth angle,
Ψ. The surface tilt angle is the angle between the surface normal and vertical. The
surface azimuth angle is the angle between south and the horizontal projection of the
surface normal. The same sign convention is used for the surface azimuth angle as is
used for the solar azimuth angle, i.e. Ψ is negative for a surface that faces east of south
and positive for a surface that faces west of south. The surface azimuth angle for a
horizontal surface is undefined.
It is convenient to define one additional angle, the surface-solar azimuth angle, 𝛾.
The surface-solar azimuth angle is defined as the angle between the horizontal projection
of the solar rays and the horizontal projection of the surface normal.
the surface-solar azimuth angle is given by the simple relation

𝛾 = |∅ − 𝜓| [degrees]

Fig. (5) - Surface azimuth, surface tilt, and surface-solar azimuth angles and the relation of the sun's rays to a
tilted surface.
(Source:" www.me.umn.edu.")

The incidence angle for a tilted surface:

cos 𝜃 = cos 𝛽 cos 𝛾 sin £ + sin 𝛽 cos £
The incidence angle for a vertical surface (£=90):
cos 𝜃 = cos 𝛽 cos 𝛾
The incidence angle for a horizontal surface (£=0):
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝛽

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1.5 ESTIMATION OF INTENSITY OF SOLAR RADIATION DURING AVERAGE
CLEAR DAYS.

An estimate of the direct normal solar flux at the earth's surface for an average clear day
is:
−𝐵
IDN = 𝐴𝑒 sin 𝛽

Where the coefficients A and B are empirically determined from measurements of IDN
made on typical clear days.
The coefficients can be interpreted as:
 A = Apparent direct normal solar flux at the outer edge of the earth's atmosphere.
 B = Apparent atmospheric extinction coefficient.
The numerical values of A and B vary throughout the year because of seasonal changes in
the dust and water vapor content of the atmosphere and because of the changing earth-
sun distance. The ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals lists recommended values for the
coefficients A and B for the twenty-first day of each month.

The model also approximates the average clear day diffuse solar flux from the sky that
strikes a horizontal surface, IdH, by the relation:

IDH =C IDN
The recommended values of the dimensionless coefficient C are listed in Table 2.

1.6 SOLAR RADIATION STRIKING A SURFACE

The solar radiation striking a surface generally consists of three components, direct,
diffuse and reflected. The direct solar flux (energy/area-time) striking a surface is
denoted by ID. If the surface is perpendicular to the solar rays, the incident solar flux is
equal to the Direct Normal flux, IDN.

ID=IDN cos 𝜃

Assuming the sky to be a diffuse source, the diffuse solar flux striking a surface is denoted
by Id for the general case and by IdH for the special case of a horizontal surface.

𝐼𝐷 1 + cos £
=
𝐼𝐷𝐻 2

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If the ground is horizontal and if the reflection is diffuse, an approximation for the
reflected solar flux striking a surface, IR, is given by:

IR = ρg IH(1 − cos £)⁄2

Where:
ρg = solar reflectance of the ground.
IH = Total solar flux striking the horizontal ground.

The reflectance of the ground varies with the type of ground cover. The reflectance of
browned grass is about 0.2, while that of bare soil is about 0.1. The reflectance of fresh
snow cover may be as high as 0.87, with the value decreasing to less than 0.5 as the snow
becomes dirty.

The total solar flux striking a surface at any instant is the sum of the three components.
I = ID + I d + I R

1.7 SOLAR-ELECTRIC CONVVERSION SYSTEMS

Solar may be converted to electricity by one of two means: solar thermal conversion or
photovoltaic conversion.

1.7.1 Solar-Thermal Conversion

By this methods solar radiation is converted to heat that in turn is added to a
thermodynamic cycle to produce mechanical work and electricity. For this to be efficient,
and hence economical, it is necessary to collect and concentrate the diffuse solar
radiation in an efficient manner to arrive at a reasonably high temperature heat source.
The collectors gather the sun’s energy and direct it onto receivers that contains the
working fluid of the thermodynamic cycle.
The conversion system used in solar-thermal-electric conversion are of many types. These
include
1. Rankine cycle, using steam or other working fluid.
2. Brayton cycle, using helium or air a working fluid.
3. Hybrid systems.
4. Repowering systems.

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1.7.2 Photovoltaic Conversion
Photovoltaic systems consists of direct-conversion devices in the form of cells that
convert the solar radiant-energy photons to electricity, and this method is characterized
by Many advantages compared to the thermodynamic methods, the most important of
which are:
1. No need to regulate the necessary stages and thermal processes.
2. The structure of power plants operating in this way is much simpler, as it contains
fixed panels which gives the possibility of reducing and sometimes completely
dispensing with the maintenance of such stations, and therefore: it will be easy to
invest in remote areas where the competent technical staff is not available, and
therefore: the expenses There is little operation and maintenance.
3. The possibility of designing electro-solar cells with different sizes and functions and
can consist of independent parts, with a work yield that matches the yield of the
entire cell.
4. Solar cells are highly reliable )are able to operate efficiently, high quality and for a
long time.)
Silicon is one of the most important semi-conductor used in the manufacture of electrical
solar cells that are simple to install and well-studied, in 1954 the first silicon electrical
solar cell was manufactured at bell labs in the United States of America with a yield (6%).
It should be noted that silicon as a pure material is not found in nature in a single state
but in a combined with other element, one of the most common elements on earth after
oxygen, and is found in the outer layers of the Earth and found in nature in the form of
silica oxide.
Silicon is characterized highly conductive for heat, good weather stability, excellent
electrical insulator.
1.7.3 The Photoelectric Effect
PV systems harness the sun’s energy by converting it into electricity via the photoelectric
effect. This occurs when incoming photons ( sun’s light ) interact with a conductive
surface, such as a silicon cell or metal film, and electrons in the material become excited
and jump from one conductive layer to the other, as shown in Figure.
In this figure, the excitation of electrons and their movement from the p-layer to the n-
layer results in a voltage differential across the electrical circuit, causing electrons to flow
through the rest of the circuit to maintain a charge balance. The system is designed so
that there is an electrical load in the external circuit, permitting the current flow to

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perform a useful function. In other words, the behavior of electrons in the solar cell
creates a voltage that can be utilized to, for example, operate a water pump system.

Fig.(6) - The photoelectric effect and subsequent electric motion.

(Source: “solar energy perspectives.”)
1.8 TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS
1.8.1 Silcon Solar Cells
1.8.1.1 Monocrystalline solar Cells
These types of panels are called “monocrystalline” to indicate that the silicon used is
single-crystal silicon. Because the cell is composed of a single crystal, the electrons that
generate a flow of electricity have more room to move. As a result, monocrystalline cells
are more efficient than their polycrystalline counterparts.
1.8.1.2 Polycrystalline solar Cells
Polycrystalline solar cells are also referred to as “multi-crystalline,” or many-crystal
silicon. Because there are many crystals in each cell, there is to less freedom for the
electrons to move. As a result, polycrystalline solar panels have lower efficiency ratings
than monocrystalline panels, but their advantage is a lower price point. In addition,
polycrystalline solar panels tend to have a blue hue instead of the black hue of
monocrystalline cells.
1.8.1.3 Amorphous thin film solar Cells
Amorphous solar cells are made from silicon, but they are constructed in a different way.
Instead of being constructed from solid silicon wafers like mono- or poly-crystalline solar
panels, amorphous cells are made by depositing non-crystalline silicon on a substrate like

11
glass, plastic, or metal. One layer of silicon on an amorphous solar cells can be as thin as 1
micrometer, which is much thinner than a human hair.
amorphous silicon cells use very little toxic materials. When compared mono- or poly-
crystalline solar cells, amorphous cells use much less silicon. Due to complicated
thermodynamics and the degradation of amorphous silicon, among other factors,
amorphous solar cells are less than half as efficient as mono- or poly-crystalline solar
cells.
1.8.2 Gallium Arsenide Solar Cell
Silicon is not the only material suitable for use in the manufacture of solar cells , there are
other materials Can be used as gallium arsenide . They are very suitable for use in solar
cell applications as they are High absorption coefficient. They are well-efficient and can
operate under temperature conditions Heat is fairly high without decreasing its
performance, such as silicon cells and some semiconductors experiencing this is the
problem.

1.8.3 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell

cadmium telluride solar cell (CdTe) are the second most common photovoltaic (PV)
technology in the world marketplace after crystalline silicon. CdTe thin-film solar cells can
be manufactured quickly and inexpensively, providing a lower-cost alternative to
conventional silicon-based technologies. The record efficiency for a laboratory CdTe solar
cell is 22.1% by First Solar, while First Solar recently reported its average commercial
module efficiency to be 16.1% at the end of 2015.
1.8.4 Coper Indium Gallium Solar Cell
Since its initial development, copper indium diselenide (CuInSe2) thin-film technology has
been considered promising for solar cells because of its favorable electronic and optical
properties. It was later found that by substituting gallium (Ga) for indium (In), the
bandgap can be increased from about 1.04 electron-volts (eV) for copper indium
diselenide (CIS) films to about 1.68 eV for copper gallium diselenide (CGS) films, leading
to a substantial increase in overall efficiency and more.

1.9 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

A photovoltaic cell is the most basic unit of a solar PV system and their key characteristic
is that they produce a voltage output when exposed to light. It is important to note that
although they are normally called "solar cells", they can respond to any type of light.

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A photovoltaic module consists of multiple PV cells connected in series to provide a
higher voltage output. PV modules are manufactured in standard sizes such as 36-cell, 60-
cell and 72-cell modules. The term solar panel is sometimes used interchangeably
with solar module.
A photovoltaic array is a system composed of multiple PV modules. They can be
connected in one or more series circuits, which are connected to a combiner box to
provide a single direct-current output.

Fig.(7) - Solar cell, PV solar panel, and PV panel array

(Source: “guide to solar powered water pumping systems in new York state.”)
PV panels are rated according to their output, which is based on an incoming solar
irradiance of 1 kW/m2 at a specified temperature. Panel output data include peak power
(Watts [Pw]),voltage (Volts [V]), and current (Amps [A]).

Fig. (8) - PV electric characteristics

(Source: “solar energy perspectives.”)

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The above graph shows the current-voltage ( I-V ) characteristics of a typical silicon PV
cell operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a solar cell is the product
of current and voltage ( I x V ). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for all voltages
from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not
connected to any load, the current will be at its minimum (zero) and the voltage across
the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the
other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the positive and negative
leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum (zero) but the
current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short circuit
current, or Isc.
However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power
reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell
generates maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green
rectangle. This is the “maximum power point” or MPP. Therefore the ideal operation of a
photovoltaic cell (or panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.
Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel
combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the
array panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases
and if connected together in parallel then the current increases. The electrical power in
Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will still be the product of
the voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ). However the solar panels are connected
together, the upper right hand corner will always be the maximum power point (MPP) of
the array.

Fig. (9) - Solar panels connection

(Source: “solar energy perspectives.”)

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Under conditions of reduced solar radiation, the current produced is decreased
accordingly, but the voltage is reduced only slightly. Also The change in the intensity of
the incident solar radiation and the temperature of the solar cell changes the location of
the maximum power point ( MPP).

Fig. (10) - solar radiation affect (I-V) curves

(Source: “solar energy perspectives.”)

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