Chapter 4: Integration

Integration is the process of finding the integral of a function, which can be thought of as the reverse operation of
differentiation. Integrals are used to calculate areas under curves, accumulated quantities, and other values related to
the summation of infinitely small parts. This chapter will explore the concepts, techniques, and applications of
integration.

4.1 Definition of the Integral

There are two main types of integrals: definite and indefinite integrals.

4.1.1 Indefinite Integral

The indefinite integral of a function ( f(x) ) is a function ( F(x) ) such that ( F'(x) = f(x) ). It represents a family of
functions differing by a constant and is denoted by:

[ \int f(x) \, dx = F(x) + C ]

where ( C ) is the constant of integration.

4.1.2 Definite Integral

The definite integral of a function ( f(x) ) from ( a ) to ( b ) is the limit of a Riemann sum and represents the net area
under the curve of ( f(x) ) from ( a ) to ( b ). It is denoted by:

[ \int_a^b f(x) \, dx ]

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus links differentiation and integration, stating that if ( F ) is an antiderivative of ( f
) on ([a, b]), then:

[ \int_a^b f(x) \, dx = F(b) - F(a) ]

4.2 Techniques of Integration

There are several techniques used to evaluate integrals.

4.2.1 Substitution

The substitution method is used to simplify the integration process by making a substitution that reduces the integral to
a simpler form. If ( u = g(x) ), then ( du = g'(x) \, dx ). The integral becomes:

[ \int f(g(x)) g'(x) \, dx = \int f(u) \, du ]

4.2.2 Integration by Parts

Integration by parts is based on the product rule for differentiation. It is used to integrate the product of two functions
and is given by:

[ \int u \, dv = uv - \int v \, du ]

where ( u ) and ( dv ) are differentiable functions of ( x ).

4.2.3 Partial Fractions

When integrating rational functions, the partial fractions method can be used to decompose the integrand into simpler
fractions that can be integrated individually. For example:

[ \int \frac{P(x)}{Q(x)} \, dx ]

where ( P(x) ) and ( Q(x) ) are polynomials and the degree of ( P(x) ) is less than the degree of ( Q(x) ).

4.2.4 Trigonometric Integrals

Integrals involving trigonometric functions often require specific techniques, such as using trigonometric identities or
substitutions. For example:

[ \int \sin^n(x) \cos^m(x) \, dx ]

can be simplified using identities like ( \sin^2(x) + \cos^2(x) = 1 ).

4.2.5 Trigonometric Substitution

Trigonometric substitution is used to simplify integrals involving square roots by substituting trigonometric functions
for the variable. Common substitutions include:

( x = a \sin(\theta) )
( x = a \cos(\theta) )
( x = a \tan(\theta) )

4.3 Applications of Integration

Integration has a wide range of applications in various fields.

4.3.1 Area Under a Curve

The area under the curve ( y = f(x) ) from ( x = a ) to ( x = b ) is given by the definite integral:

[ \text{Area} = \int_a^b f(x) \, dx ]

4.3.2 Volume of Solids of Revolution

The volume of a solid of revolution formed by rotating a region around an axis can be found using the disk or washer
method. For rotation around the x-axis, the volume is:

[ V = \pi \int_a^b [f(x)]^2 \, dx ]

For the washer method, when there is a hole in the middle, the volume is:

[ V = \pi \int_a^b ([f(x)]^2 - [g(x)]^2) \, dx ]

where ( f(x) ) is the outer function and ( g(x) ) is the inner function.

4.3.3 Arc Length

The length of a curve ( y = f(x) ) from ( x = a ) to ( x = b ) is given by:

[ L = \int_a^b \sqrt{1 + [f'(x)]^2} \, dx ]

4.3.4 Surface Area of Solids of Revolution

The surface area of a solid of revolution can be found using:

[ S = 2\pi \int_a^b f(x) \sqrt{1 + [f'(x)]^2} \, dx ]

4.3.5 Center of Mass

The center of mass of a lamina (thin plate) with variable density can be found using integrals. For a region ( R ) with
density function ( \rho(x, y) ), the coordinates of the center of mass ((\bar{x}, \bar{y})) are:

[ \bar{x} = \frac{1}{M} \int \int_R x \rho(x, y) \, dA ]

[ \bar{y} = \frac{1}{M} \int \int_R y \rho(x, y) \, dA ]

where ( M ) is the total mass of the region:

[ M = \int \int_R \rho(x, y) \, dA ]

4.3.6 Work

The work done by a variable force ( F(x) ) in moving an object from ( x = a ) to ( x = b ) is given by:

[ W = \int_a^b F(x) \, dx ]

4.4 Improper Integrals

Improper integrals are used to integrate functions over an unbounded interval or functions with unbounded behavior.
There are two types of improper integrals:

4.4.1 Infinite Intervals

When integrating over an infinite interval, the integral is defined as a limit. For example:

[ \int_a^\infty f(x) \, dx = \lim_{b \to \infty} \int_a^b f(x) \, dx ]

4.4.2 Unbounded Functions

When integrating functions with unbounded behavior, the integral is defined as a limit. For example:
[ \int_a^b f(x) \, dx ]

where ( f(x) ) has a vertical asymptote at ( x = c ) (with ( a < c < b )):

[ \int_a^b f(x) \, dx = \lim_{\epsilon \to 0^+} \left( \int_a^{c-\epsilon} f(x) \, dx + \int_{c+\epsilon}^b f(x) \, dx \right) ]

4.5 Numerical Integration

When an integral cannot be evaluated analytically, numerical methods can be used to approximate its value.

4.5.1 Trapezoidal Rule

The trapezoidal rule approximates the integral by dividing the interval into ( n ) subintervals and approximating the
area under the curve as a series of trapezoids:

[ \int_a^b f(x) \, dx \approx \frac{b - a}{2n} \left[ f(a) + 2 \sum_{i=1}^{n-1} f(a + i \Delta x) + f(b) \right] ]

where ( \Delta x = \frac{b - a}{n} ).

4.5.2 Simpson's Rule

Simpson's rule approximates the integral by dividing the interval into an even number of subintervals and
approximating the area under the curve using parabolic segments:

[ \int_a^b f(x) \, dx \approx \frac{\Delta x}{3} \left[ f(a) + 4 \sum_{\text{odd } i} f(a + i \Delta x) + 2 \sum_{\text{even
} i} f(a + i \Delta x) + f(b) \right] ]

4.6 Conclusion

Integration is a fundamental tool in calculus with a wide range of applications in science, engineering, economics, and
many other fields. By mastering the techniques of integration and understanding its applications, we can solve complex
problems involving areas, volumes, work, and more. In the next chapter, we will explore the concept of infinite series
and their convergence.