Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Science, University of Surrey

Unit 4. Analysis of structures and shear walls.

(Study time allocation – 15 hours)

Types of structural frames.

Two types of important reinforced concrete structural frames, braced and unbraced, are
examined. Design stresses depend on which type of structure is being built and it is
helpful at the outset of a design to be aware of the influence the „type‟ of structure has on
the stresses.

Braced Frames.

The deflections of the frame are relatively small (shown exaggerated in diagram) as the
frame relies on a stiff core or „shear wall‟ as a bracing element to carry lateral loads. The
floors transmit lateral forces to the bracing or shear wall which is much stiffer than the
columns.
Wind load

Braced Frame
Deflected frame Bracing wall

Original frame Low deflection of bracing wall.

 The frame is less sensitive to lateral loading

 Used for most multi storey reinforced concrete structures.
 Effective column height is always less than actual so less slender
 Design bending moments are lower

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Unbraced frame.

Frame displacements are relatively large because the frame has to rely solely on the
stiffness of the columns to resist lateral forces.

Wind load

Deflected frame
Large deflection
Unbraced Frame

Original frame

 The frame is more sensitive to lateral loading

 More commonly used for low to medium rise concrete structures
 Effective column height is always greater than actual so more slender
 Design bending moments are greater

Examples of braced and unbraced structures.

Unbraced frame

Columns provide lateral

stability to entire construction
during construction.

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Unbraced frame
– partly clad

Braced structure.

Braced frame

Lift shaft with walls all round

providing shear walls and
lateral bracing

Horizontal forces
transmitted to the central
core via the core.

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Analysis of structures.

When analysing structures two activities need to be undertaken.

1. The overall structure is examined for stability. The loads which produce the worst
possible situation for toppling or sliding of the structure are placed on the floors and
walls of the structure and its overall stability is assessed. Characteristic loads and partial
factors are included. In this process, it must be assumed that the structure acts as a single
element (usually) and is sufficiently strong to be rigid. The overall stability is checked.
It is usual to check before the complete design is undertaken making assumptions about
imposed loads and element sizes. It may be prudent to check the stability again after the
design. Partial factors from Table NA.A1.2(A) are used.

2. Structural analysis of elements of the structure. The primary objective of structural

analysis is, for each loading combination, to obtain a set of internal forces and moments
throughout the structure that are in equilibrium with the design loads for the required
loading combination. This may require several repeat calculations. Partial factors from
Table NA.A1.2(B) are used.

Common idealisations of a concrete structure.

 Linear elastic behaviour

 Linear elastic behaviour with limited re-distribution of moments
 Plastic behaviour, including strut and tie models
 Non linear behaviour.

To give some guidance of how the code considers analysis, the general introduction to
the section on structural analysis is attached.

SECTION 5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

5.1 General
5.1.1 General requirements

(1)P The purpose of structural analysis is to establish the distribution of either internal
forces and moments, or stresses, strains and displacements, over the whole or part of a
structure. Additional local analysis shall be carried out where necessary.
Note: In most normal cases analysis will be used to establish the distribution of internal forces and
moments, and the complete verification or demonstration of resistance of cross sections is based on these
action effects; however, for certain particular elements, the methods of analysis used (e.g. finite element
analysis) give stresses, strains and displacements rather than internal forces and moments. Special methods
are required to use these results to obtain appropriate verification.

(2) Local analyses may be necessary where the assumption of linear strain distribution is
not valid, e.g.:
- in the vicinity of supports
- local to concentrated loads
- in beam-column intersections

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- in anchorage zones
- at changes in cross section.

(3) For in-plane stress fields a simplified method for determining reinforcement may be
used.
Note: A simplified method is given in Annex F.

(4)P Analyses shall be carried out using idealisations of both the geometry and the
behaviour of the structure. The idealisations selected shall be appropriate to the problem
being considered.

(5)P The effect of the geometry and properties of the structure on its behaviour at
each stage of construction shall be considered in the design

(6) Common idealisations of the behaviour used for analysis are:

- linear elastic behaviour (see 5.4)
- linear elastic behaviour with limited redistribution (see 5.5)
- plastic behaviour (see 5.6), including strut and tie models (see 5.6.4)
- non-linear behaviour (see 5.7)

(7) In buildings, the effects of shear and axial forces on the deformations of linear
elements and slabs may be ignored where these are likely to be less than 10% of those
due to bending.

Although concrete structures only behave elastically under small loads, while the sections
remain un-cracked, a linear elastic analysis may still be used for both the serviceability
and ultimate limit states to determine the internal forces and moments, provided the
structure has sufficient ductility to distribute moments from highly stressed regions to
less highly stressed regions.

Sections 5.4 and 5.5 are included and give the rules for using linear elastic and linear
elastic analysis with limited redistribution of moments. Only these aspects of the analysis
of concrete structures are considered.

5.4 Linear elastic analysis

(1) Linear analysis of elements based on the theory of elasticity may be used for both the
serviceability and ultimate limit states.

(2) For the determination of the action effects, linear analysis may be carried out
assuming:
i) uncracked cross sections,
ii) linear stress-strain relationships and
iii) mean value of the modulus of elasticity.

(3) For thermal deformation, settlement and shrinkage effects at the ultimate limit state
(ULS), a reduced stiffness corresponding to the cracked sections, neglecting tension

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stiffening but including the effects of creep, may be assumed. For the serviceability limit
state (SLS) a gradual evolution of cracking should be considered.

5.5 Linear elastic analysis with limited redistribution

This clause is included later in this document in the section associated with moment re-
distribution.

This module does not attempt to cover structural analysis in great detail but in the
following sections and techniques for modelling structures are presented.

Modelling structures.

 Analysing the complete three dimensional structure. This is not often undertaken
and is a lengthy and complex process but sometimes has to be undertaken. Finite
elements is the usual method used.

 Dividing the structure into two dimensional frames. These are much simpler to
analyse and very often due to repetition, only relatively few frames need to be
analysed.

 Dividing two dimensional frames into sub frames. A sub frame consists of the
beams at one level together with the columns above and below.

This latter method, is used extensively because repetition of sub-frames is likely and the
analysis is sufficiently simple so that hand methods (Moment Distribution) can be
employed. It can be used for both braced and unbraced frames but because unbraced sub
frames have to consider the effects of horizontal loads, the method has no great
advantage over a full frame analysis in which case a more sophisticated technique of
analysis is recommended.

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The following sections consider how braced frames can be subdivided into sub
frames.

Consider a braced three dimensional frame. (Not shown)

1. Subdivide this into a two-dimensional braced frame as below.

2. Reduce this to form a full sub-frame. The ends of the columns remote from the beams
are generally assumed to be fixed, unless for some reason the assumption they are pinned
is more rational as may be the case at the base.

3. Reduce further to form a partial sub-frame.

Stiffness halved

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4. Reduce further to form a single column.

Stiffness
halved

In the partial sub-frame and single column cases, the assumption of fixed ends to the
outer beams over estimates the stiffness. These values are therefore halved to allow for
the flexibility resulting from continuity

5. Reduce further to form a continuous beam. This provides a simple method of

determining the moments in the beams. The solution is conservative as no restraint to
rotation is provided at the columns, so the moments are more evenly distributed. It
has the advantage that hand calculations are easy.

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Load combinations.

Details of how to combine loads are given in unit 3. Debate over what factors should
be used is on going but factors acceptable to the UK have nevertheless been
recommended and are in the following Table

Example of Load combinations and partial factors for the ultimate limit state.
Load Permanent load Wind
combination Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Favourable
1. Permanent 1.35 1.0 1.5 0.0 -
+ variable
2. Permanent 1.35 1.0 - - 1.5
and wind
3. Permanent 1.35 1.0 1.5 0.0 0.75
+ variable +
wind
4. Permanent 1.35 1.0 1.05 0.0 1.5
+ variable and
wind
Notes. 3. Wind is the secondary variable load = 1.5 x 0.5 = 0.75 {1.5 x ψo (wind)}
4. Variable load is the secondary “variable” load = 1.5 x 0.7(non-storage)
= 1.05 {1.5 x ψo (office say)}

Loading arrangements.

Patterns of load are chosen to produce the worst effects on the structure. In the
following, the effect of vertical load on a sub structure is examined. In the frame
considered, no columns are assumed to exist above the beam.

In general, to maximise the moment in a span, that span must carry the maximum load,
adjacent spans the minimum, and the spans next to those, the maximum. This produces
two patterns of loading, generally called load cases.

Load case 1

minimum maximum minimum maximum minimum

Mmax Mmax

Load case 2
maximum minimum maximum minimum maximum

Mmax Mmax Mmax

Maximum span moment - Mmax

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In general, to maximise the support moments, the adjacent spans must carry the
maximum load and the next spans must alternate with minimum and maximum load.

This produces (n-1) load cases where n is the number of spans. The maximum moment
at the end supports is produced by the alternate loading arrangement described
previously.

The code, however, suggests that the maximum support moments are calculated from two
adjacent spans carrying the maximum load and all other spans carrying the minimum
load so the load cases will look like. With the two load cases to produce the maximum
span moments, this gives (n + 1) load cases.
Load case 1
minimum minimum minimum maximum maximum

Mmax
Load case 2
minimum minimum maximum maximum minimum

Mmax

Load case 3
minimum maximum maximum minimum minimum

Mmax

Load case 4
maximum maximum minimum minimum minimum

Mmax

Maximum support moment - Mmax

Clause 5.1.3 is the relevant clause and is included here. Part of Table NA.1 follows
and shows the UK recommendation, which differs from EC2 by recommending the case
of all spans being fully loaded in the National Application document.

5.1.3 Load cases and combinations

(1)P In considering the combinations of actions, (EN 1990 Section 6), all the relevant
cases shall be considered to enable the critical design conditions to be established at all
sections, within the structure or part of the structure considered.
Note: Where a simplification in the number of load arrangements for use in a Country is required,
reference is made to its National Annex. The following simplified load arrangements are recommended for
buildings:

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(a) alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent load (γ Q + γ G + P ), other spans carrying
Q k G k m

only the design permanent load, γ G + P and

G k m

(b) any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads ( γ Q + γ G + P ). All other
Q k G k m

spans carrying only the design permanent load, γ G + P .

G k m

Note. Pm – Mean value of a prestressing action. Obviously this is of no concern to RC designers.

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Subclause Nationally Eurocode UK decision

determined recommendation
parameter
5.1.3 (1)P Simplified load The following load Use any of the following three options.
arrangements arrangements
should be considered: a) Consider the two load arrangements
recommended in the Eurocode for alternate
a) alternate spans and adjacent spans.
carrying the design b) Consider the two following arrangements
variable and permanent for all spans and alternate spans:
load (γQQk + γGGk +
Pm), other spans 1) all spans carrying the design variable and
carrying only the permanent load (γQQk + γGGk + Pm);
design permanent load 2) alternate spans carrying the design variable
γGGk + Pm; and permanent load (γQQk + γGGk + Pm), other
b) any two adjacent spans carrying only the design permanent
spans carrying the load γGGk + Pm; the same value of γG should
design variable and be used throughout the structure;
permanent loads (γQQk
+ γGGk + Pm); all other c) For slabs, use the all spans loaded
spans carrying only the arrangement described in b)1) if:
design permanent load,
γGGk + Pm. 1) in a one-way spanning slab the area of each
bay exceeds 30 m2;
2) the ratio of the variable load Qk to the
permanent load Gk does not exceed 1,25; and
3) the variable load Qk does not exceed 5
kN/m2 excluding partitions.

When analysis is carried out using the load

arrangement described in b)1), the resulting
support moments except those at the supports
of cantilevers should be reduced by 20 %,
with a consequential increase in the span
moments.

In this context a bay means a strip across the

full width of a structure bounded on the other
two sides by lines of support.

The load arrangements in a), b) and c) are

drafted using BS EN 1990:2002, Expression
(6.10). Although not shown here, they can
also be drafted using BS EN 1990:2002,
Expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b).

Table NA.1. UK decisions for nationally determined parameters in BS EN 1992-1-

2004 (part of table). The rest of the table summarizes all the UK decisions and is
very useful.

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Examination of the table above indicates the UK permits a single load case of all spans
loaded to determine the maximum support moments provided that the resulting moments,
except those at the supports of cantilevers are reduced by 20% with a consequential
increase in the span moments. (See also moment re-distribution)

However, for slabs, the following must apply :

 In a one way spanning slab, the area of each bay exceeds 30m2.
 Ratio of the variable load Qk to the permanent load Gk does not exceed 1.25
 The variable Qk does not exceed 5kN/m2.
UK additional situation
maximum maximum maximum maximum maximum

Loading arrangements.
Loading patterns or cases show us where to apply the maximum and minimum loads but
not what the values of these loads are. If Gk is the characteristic permanent load and Qk
the characteristic imposed load, then the maximum and minimum loads likely are :

Maximum : 1.35Gk + 1.5 Qk

Minimum : 1.0Gk

The table entitled, Example of Load combinations and partial factors for the ultimate
limit state on page 4.9 has been used to derive the above.

Note. In b2) of Table NA.1 it is noted that the same value of γG should be used
throughout the structure. This would usually be taken as 1.35.

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Forms of loading.

Consider the two, one way spanning slabs CABD and ABFE, supported along CD, AB
and EF.

Uniform line load.

This could be produced by a one way spanning slab or as direct loading on a beam say by
a wall and beam self weight. In our example, if w is the slab design load per square
metre then, UDL along AB = wa kN/m

Uniformly distributed load

along AB = wa kN/m F
Point load = wab/2 kN
B
E
D
a A

a C b

Concentrated or point load.

This is the reaction of a secondary beam spanning onto a main beam, or column
supported by a beam or a direct load. A point load will exist at A and B, the value as
indicated in the diagram above.

Triangular or trapezoidal line loads.

These are produced by a two way spanning slab. The area of load apportioned to each
beam is calculated by projecting lines which bisect the corner angles as shown.

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Average (udl) = wa/4

a

Total load = wa2/4

b

b Total load = w{(2b-a)/2}a/2

Average (udl) = [w{(2b-a)/2}a/2]/b
= w{(2b-a)/2}(a/(2b)) = w{a/2-a2/4b}

Moment distribution

This is a relatively simple hand calculation method of analysing frames by distributing

the fixed end moments according to their relative stiffness. It is used mainly for analysing
sub frames or continuous beams where a simplified analysis is required. Nowadays, most
structural analysis is undertaken using convenient and efficient software packages, some
of which utilise the moment distribution method.

The stages of moment distribution are :

 Calculate member stiffness

 Calculate distribution factors
 Calculate fixed end moments
 Distribute moments according to stiffness by an iterative process until balance is
achieved.

Member stiffness.

 The stiffness k of a member is proportional to the product of elastic modulus and

its second moment of area divided by the length ; thus k = EI/l

 The greater the stiffness of a member, the more moment it will attract.

 The stiffness of a member also depends on the degree of fixity at the ends.

k = EI/L k = 0.75EI/L
k=EI/l

k = EI/L k = 0.75EI/L k = 0.75EI/L

k=0

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Distribution Factors.

Using the member stiffnesses we calculate the proportion of the total stiffness at a
connection that each member provides. Distribution factors enable the proportioning of
the stiffness.

Member stiffnesses Distribution factors

k2 f2

k1 k3 f1 f3

k4 f4
Total stiffness at a connection is – f1 = k1/kt f2 = k2/ft
k1 + k2 + k3 + k4 = kt f3 = k3/ft f4 = k4/ft
f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 = 1.0
Fixed end moments.

These are the moments at the fixed ends of a member due to a given vertical load. The
values for a uniformly distributed load (UDL) acting on the whole of a span and a point
load are shown. The formulae for other loading situation can be found in many reference
books.

Uniformly distributed load Point load

W
w/m a b
Ma Mb
L L

Fixed end moments M = wL2/12 Fixed end moments.

Ma = Wab2/L2 Mb = Wa2b/L2

Sign convention.

In this course, Clockwise moments are considered to be positive, anticlockwise moments

negative.

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Moment distribution – Example.

The best way of explaining this procedure is through an example.

A three span beam has fixed ends. The outer spans are 5.33m in length, and the inner
span 8.0m long. The beam is of the same section throughout and so EI is a constant
hence we only require relative stiffnesses. For this purpose assume EI = 100, say (EI
cancels out through all the terms so 100 is chosen simply for convenience). There is a
uniformly distributed load of 36k N/m over the beam.

Beam stiffnesses = EI/L

Outer span = 100/5.33 = 18.76
Inner span = 100/8 = 12.5

Distribution factors.

-85.23 85.23 -192.0 192.0 -85.23 85.23

k = 18.76 0.6 k = 12.5 k = 18.76
0 0.4 0.4 0.6 0
2 2
36.0 x 8.0 36.0 x 5.33
12 12
5.33 m 8.0 m 5.33 m

No distribution 18.76 12.5

at fixed end 18.76  12.5 18.76  12.5

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The process of moment distribution.

Step 3.
Out of balance moment = - (213.35 – 85.23) = -128.12
Distribution to left of support = 128.12 x 0.4 = -51.25
Step 1. Distribution to right of support = -128.12 x 0.6 = -76.87
Distributed moment Carry over to left = 0.5 x -51.25 = -25.62
= - 85.23 x 0 = 0 Carry over to right = 0.5 x -76.87 = -38.43

Step 2.
Out of balance moment = - (85.23 – 192.0) = 106.77
Distribution to left of support = 106.77 x 0.6 = 64.06
Distribution to right of support = 107.77 x 0.4 = 42.71 Step 4.
Carry over to left = 0.5 x 64.06 = 32.03 Distributed moment
Carry over to right = 0.5 x 42.71 = 21.35 = 85.23 x 0 = 0

-85.23 85.23 -192.0 192.0 -85.23 85.23

0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0
-53.02 149.29 -149.29 213.35 -162.10 46.80
-174.91 162.10
-85.23 -38.43 = 46.80
85.23 + 64.06 = 149.29 -192 + 42.71 = -149.29

192 + 21.35 = 213.35 -85.23 -38.43 = -162.10

-85.23 + 32.03 = -53.02

213.15 – 51.25 = 162.10

-149.29 – 25.62 = -174.91

Boxed numbers below the beam only indicate the method and are to be omitted.

The diagram above indicates the first iteration of the moment distribution process. The
bold unboxed numbers are the moments at the fixed ends and either side of the supports
after the first distribution. This process is repeated until the out of balance moments are
small.

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Step 3.
Out of balance moment = - (165.95 – 162.10) = -3.85
Distribution to left of support = 3.85 x 0.4 = -1.54
Step 1. Distribution to right of support = 3.85 x 0.6 = -2.31
Distributed moment Carry over to left = 0.5 x 1.54 = -0.77
= - 53.02 x 0 = 0 Carry over to right = 0.5 x 2.31 = -1.12

Step 2.
Out of balance moment = - (149.29 – 174.91) = 25.62
Distribution to left of support = 25.62 x 0.6 = 15.37
Distribution to right of support = 25.62 x 0.4 = 10.25 Step 4.
Carry over to left = 0.5 x15.37 = 7.69 Distributed moment
Carry over to right = 0.5 x 7.69 = 3.85 = 46.80 x 0 = 0

-85.23 85.23 -192.0 192.0 -85.23 85.23

0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0
-53.02 149.29 -149.29 213.35 -162.10 46.80
-45.33 164.66 -174.91 162.10 164.41
-164.66 165.95
165.43 164.41
149.29 +15.37 = 164.66
-85.23 -38.43 = 46.80
-53.02 + 7.69 = -45.33
-174.91 +10.25 = -164.66
-162.1 – 2.31 = -164.41

-164.66 – 0.77 = -165.43 165.95 -1.54 = 164.41

162.10 + 3.85 = 165.95

Boxed numbers below the beam only indicate the method and are to be omitted.
The diagram above indicates the second iteration of the moment distribution process.
The bold italicised numbers are the moments at the fixed ends and either side of the
supports after the second iteration. It can be seen that the out of balance moments are
already small.

The process is repeated until the out of balance moments are sufficiently small to be
ignored.

After a third iteration, the support and column moments are :

-85.23 85.23 -192.0 192.0 -85.23 85.23

0 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0
-45.18 165.32 -165.32 165.32 -165.32 45.18

At this stage all that is known are the support moments. To obtain the actual moments in
the beam the free bending moments from loads between supports are superimposed on
the beam end moments.

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Bending moments from fixed ends.

-45.18 165.32 -165.32 165.32 -165.32 45.18

Free Body Bending moments

Mss = 36 x 5.332/8 = 127.1 kNm Mss = 36 x 5.332/8 = 127.1 kNm

Mss = 36 x 82/8 = 288 kNm

Final Bending Moment diagram.

127.8 288.0 127.8

165.32 165.32
45.18
45.18

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Shear Force Diagrams.

The shear force along a beam is the summation of the individual effects of end moments
and loads.

1. Firstly there is the shear force

which is constant along the beam
due to the difference in end ML MR
moments. L
(ML – MR)/L

1 contd. In our example, the end

moments are -45 and 165 kNm in the
165
left hand span. Shear along first (left
span) = (45* – 165)/5.33 = -22.5kN. 45
5.33
*Both these end moments tend to
induce hogging into the beam and
oppose each other in terms of shear. -22.5kN

1 contd. In our example, the end

moments in the central span are 165
165
and 165kNm. Shear along central 165
span. = (165 – 165)/8.0 = 0.0kN

Both these end moments tend to induce 8.0

hogging into the beam and oppose each

other in terms of shear. 0.0

1 contd. The third span is similar to

the first but handed.
2. Secondly, there are shear forces due
to uniformly distributed loads, say w x
w kN/m
kN/m. The shear force V at a point x
along the beam is 0.5wL - wx. (0.5wL
is the reaction at the end of the beam). L
So when x = 0, V = 0.5wL and when x 0.5wL 0.5wL
= L, V = -0.5wL, and there is a linear
relationship between these values.
0.5wL
In this calculation, assume each part of -0.5wL
the beam is simply supported

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2 contd. For our example, the load is

36kN/m thus in the end spans, the 95.9
shear force values are + 0.5 x 36 x 5.33 -95.9
= 95.9kN or 0.5 x 36 x 5.33 - 36 x 5.33
= -95.9 kN.

73.4
Combining the two diagrams gives for
the end span : 95.9 - 22.5 = 73.4kN -118.4
and -95.9 - 22.5 = - 118.4kN

For our example, the load is 36kN/m 144

thus in the centre span, the shear force -144
values are + 0.5 x 36 x 8 = 144kN or
0.5 x 36 x 8.0 - 36 x 8.0 = -144kN.

144
Combining the two diagrams gives for
the centre span : 144 - 0.0 = 144kN -144
and -144 - 0.0 = - 144kN

Shear Force diagram for the example.

The above information now enables us to assemble the final shear force diagram for the
beam.
C
73.4

144 D
118.4
95.9

-22.5
118.4
144
A
B

Shear force diagrams and reactions.

Using virtual work or similar analytical methods, the reactions at A, B, C and D can be
found. They would be the same as the sum of the shear forces at the ends of the beams
spanning onto the support :

Reaction at A = 73.4kN
Reaction at B = 144 + 118.4 = 262.4kN
Reaction at C = 118.4 + 144 = 262.4kN
Reaction at D = 73.4Kn

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Shear force diagrams for point loads.

Determine the shear force diagram if a = 4m, b - 2.5m and W = 260kN in the beam
shown.
W

a b

RLeft = Wb/L Rright = Wa/L

Shear force in left span = Wb/L (clockwise so positive)

Shear force in right span = Wa/L (anti clockwise so negative)

a b

Wb/L
-Wa/L

Moment distribution (Practical applications).

In most practices analysis of all elements is undertaken using some form of computer
package. To undertake the moment distribution of the sub frames in a 10 storey building
would be most unusual these days. With computer software, errors are reduced although
it is important to always check the moments using wL2/8, or wL2/12 depending on the
fixity to ensure you are not an order of 10 out. Engineers call this “having a feel” for the
structure. In reality it is unlikely that any project which is big would not be checked at
least four or five times.

Further if there are a number of load cases it can be seen that the number of computations
rapidly expands.

Consequently, if at all possible use electronic methods to assist the analysis.

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Moment and shear coefficients for beams and slabs.

Coefficients are given in unit 9 for 1 and 2 way spanning slabs with a variety of edge
conditions. Alternatively Tables 15.2 and 15.3 of the Concise Eurocode may be used, the
latter table being relevant to beams..

Geometric imperfections.

The need to allow for geometric imperfections is covered in Clause 5.2 of the code the
text of which follows. Imperfection calculations refer only to column design.

5.2 Geometric imperfections

(1)P The unfavourable effects of possible deviations in the geometry of the structure and
the position of loads shall be taken into account in the analysis of members and
structures.

Note: Deviations in cross section dimensions are normally taken into account in the material safety factors.
These should not be included in structural analysis. A minimum eccentricity for cross section design is
given in 6.1 (4).

(2)P Imperfections shall be taken into account in ultimate limit states in persistent and
accidental design situations.

(3) Imperfections need not be considered for serviceability limit states.

(4) The following provisions apply for members with axial compression and structures
with vertical load, mainly buildings. Numerical values are related to normal execution
deviations (Class 1 in ENV 13670). With the use of other deviations (e.g. Class 2), values
should be adjusted accordingly.

(5) Imperfections may be represented by an inclination, θi, given by:

θi = θo . αh . αm (5.1)

where :
θo is the basic value:
αh is the reduction factor for length or height: αh = 2/ √l ; 2/3 ≤ αh ≤ 1.
There will be no reduction for members up to 4.0m. Members in excess of
9.0m get no further benefits.
αm is the reduction factor for the number of members: αm = (0,5(1+1/m))0.5
Note for 1 member, αm = 1.0.
l is the length or height [m], see (6)
m is the number of vertical members contributing to the total effect

Note: The value of θ0 for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended value is
1/200

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(6) In Expression (5.1), the definition of l and m depends on the effect considered, for
which three main cases can be distinguished (see also Figure 5.1):

- Effect on isolated member: l = actual length of member, m =1.

- Effect on bracing system: l = height of building, m = number of vertical
members contributing to the horizontal force on the bracing system.
- Effect on floor or roof diaphragms distributing the horizontal loads: l =
storey height, m = number of vertical elements in the storey(s) contributing
to the total horizontal force on the floor.

(7) For isolated members (see 5.8.1), the effect of imperfections may be taken into
account in two alternative ways a) or b):

a) as an eccentricity, ei, given by

ei = θi lo / 2 (5.2)
where lo is the effective length, see 5.8.3.2
For walls and isolated columns in braced systems, ei = lo/400 may always be used as a
simplification, corresponding to αh = 1.

b) as a transverse force, Hi, in the position that gives maximum moment:

for unbraced members (see Figure 5.1 a1):

Hi = θi N (5.3a)

for braced members (see Figure 5.1 a2):

Hi = 2 θi N (5.3b)

where N is the axial load

Note: Eccentricity is suitable for statically determinate members, whereas transverse load can be used for
both determinate and indeterminate members. The force Hi may be substituted by some other equivalent
transverse action.

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(8) For structures, the effect of the inclination θi may be represented by transverse forces,
to be included in the analysis together with other actions.

Effect on bracing system, (see Figure 5.1 b):

Hi = θi (Nb - Na) (5.4)

Effect on floor diaphragm, (see Figure 5.1 c1):

Hi = θi(Nb + Na) / 2 (5.5)

Effect on roof diaphragm, (see Figure 5.1 c2):

Hi = θi . Na (5.6)

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where Na and Nb are longitudinal forces contributing to Hi.

(9) As a simplified alternative for walls and isolated columns in braced systems, an
eccentricity ei = lo/400 may be used to cover imperfections related to normal execution
deviations (see 5.2(7)).

Redistribution of moments.

In BS 8110 considerable information on moment redistribution is included. Very little is

given in the European Code. The entire clause on this aspect of concrete design is
included :

5.5 Linear elastic analysis with limited redistribution

(1)P The influence of any redistribution of the moments on all aspects of the design shall
be considered.

(2) Linear analysis with limited redistribution may be applied to the analysis of structural
members for the verification of ULS.

(3) The moments at ULS calculated using a linear elastic analysis may be redistributed,
provided that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with the
applied loads.

(4) In continuous beams or slabs which:

a) are predominantly subject to flexure and
b) have the ratio of the lengths of adjacent spans in the range of 0,5 to 2,
redistribution of bending moments may be carried out without explicit
check on the rotation capacity, provided that:

δ ≥ k1 + k2xu/d for fck ≤ 50 MPa (5.10a)

δ ≥ k3 + k4xu/d for fck > 50 MPa (5.10b)

≥ k5 where Class B and Class C reinforcement is used (see Annex C)

≥ k6 where Class A reinforcement is used (see Annex C)

Where:

δ is the ratio of the redistributed moment to the elastic bending moment

xu is the depth of the neutral axis at the ultimate limit state after redistribution
d is the effective depth of the section

Note: The values of k1, k2, k3 , k4, k5 and k6 for use in a Country may be found in its
National Annex. The recommended value for k1 is 0,44, for k2 is 1,25(0,6+0,0014/εcu2),
for k3 = 0,54, for k4 = 1,25(0,6+0,0014/εcu2), for k5 = 0,7 and k6 = 0,8.

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εcu2 is the ultimate strain according to Table 3.1. In table 3.1 εcu2 = εcu3 so this
information also refers to the rectangular stress block. Values from the UK National
Annex follow.

(5) Redistribution should not be carried out in circumstances where the rotation capacity
cannot be defined with confidence (e.g. in the corners of prestressed frames).

(6) For the design of columns the elastic moments from frame action should be used
without any redistribution.

The Relevant changes from the National Annex follow :

Subclause Nationally Determined Eurocode recommendation UK decision

Parameter
5.5 (4) Moment k1 = 0,44 For steels with fyk ≤ 500 MPa
redistribution k2 = 1,25(0,6 + 0,001 4/εcu2) k1 = k3 = 0,4
formula: k3 = 0,54 k2 = k4 = 0,6 + 0,001 4/εcu2
values of k1, k2, k3, k4 = 1,25(0,6 + 0,001 4/εcu2) k5 = 0,7
k4, k5 and k6 k5 = 0,7 k6 = 0,8
k6 = 0,8 For steels with fyk > 500 MPa, more
restrictive values than those given for
steels with fyk ≤ 500 MPa may need to
be used.
PD 6687 gives further guidance on the
redistribution of
bending moments.

εcu2 = εcu3

Practical outworking.

Moment re-distribution is an optional procedure and may be applied to frames, sub-

frames and continuous beams. Generally it is accepted that moments can be re-distributed
by up to 30%

Benefits of Moment Re-distribution.

1. A more balanced distribution results in terms of magnitude of span and support

moments.
2. A reduction in the range of the moment envelope results.
3. A corresponding reduction in the reinforcement requirements leading to easier
placement and fit.

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Background to Moment Distribution.

Relationship between a fully fixed, simply supported and continuous beam’s

moments.

Interior span of a continuous Same beam but with ends Same beam but simply
rectangular beam of length L fully fixed supported.
and subject to a uniform load
of w/m per metre
wL2/8
2
wL /8
wL2/8

wL2/12
wL2/16

The overall value of moment between span and supports remains the same, it‟s just
the distribution of the moment that changes.

The most important conditions which can be gleaned from the code clauses are :

1. The moments calculated from a linear elastic analysis may be re-distributed in a

continuous beam or slab where the ratio of adjacent spans is between 0.5 and 2.0.
2. Equilibrium between internal and external forces is maintained under all
appropriate combinations of design ultimate load.
3. When using high ductility steel (Class B and Class C – Characteristic yield
strength between 400 – 600MPa ) no section is to be designed for a moment less
than 70% of the maximum moment obtained from a linear elastic analysis at that
section for any load case. This figure is increased to 80% for normal ductility
steel (Class A – 400 – 600MPa)
4. When the maximum moment at a support or in the span is reduced the section
should be designed so that :-
x  (  k1 ) d / k 2 as given in expression 5.10(a)
Where,
x is the depth of the neutral axis
d is the effective depth
δ is the ratio of the redistributed moment to the moment before
distribution
εcu2 is the ultimate concrete comp. strain (εcu3 gives the same result)

According to the UK annex, k1 = │0.4│

k2 = │0.6 + 0.0014/εcu2│

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When  =1.0, x/d = 0.6, and when  =0.7, x/d = 0.3. The Concrete Centre and Mosley,
Bungey and Hulse, recommend limiting x/d to 0.45. Based on this the following table
can be derived.
δ x/d theoretical x/d as used in code
1.0 0.6 0.45
0.95 0.55 0.45
0.9 0.5 0.45
0.85 0.45 0.45
0.8 0.4 0.4
0.75 0.35 0.35
0.7 0.3 0.3

Moment re-distribution – Example.

A three span continuous beam is analysed using conventional elastic analysis. Three load
cases are assessed and these are given in the Figure below. Spans are not equal

max max max

min max min

max min max

The load case which produces the maximum support moments of 452 and 550kNm does
not produce the maximum span moment of 375kNm. If the maximum support moments
were reduced to the maximum support moments produced by the maximum span moment
case, namely 358 and 349kNm, we would produce an identical moment diagram because
both load cases have maximum loading on the span. Identical in this context means of
the same shape and overall value, but obviously in different vertical positions. Therefore
we can reduce the maximum support moments without increasing the maximum span
moment. The bending moments from each load case are given in the figure below.

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550
452
349
358 240
max max max

144
min max min

max min max

375
Redistribution in accordance with the code.

For high ductility steel the code permits a 70% reduction in moment thus :

452 x 0.7 = 316.4kNm 550 x 0.7 = 385kNm

However there is no advantage in reducing 452 below 358 as this is the value of the
support moment for the min max min case. Consequently we are only able to reduce
moments by 21% in this case.

If we then superimpose the free bending moment from this load case on support moments
of 358 and 385, the diagram shown below is obtained.

Redistributed moment
diagram 550
452
349
358 240
144

375

21 and 30% reduction of support moments linked by a

free body diagram

At first sight it seems as if we have gained something for nothing and to some extent this
is true. In practice sufficient plasticity over the supports to ensure moment re-distribution
can occur must be ensured. This achieved by limiting the depth to the neutral axis and is
covered in more detail in unit 5.

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Re-distributed moment envelope.

This is obtained by selecting the greatest positive (span) moments and negative (support)
moments at each section along the beam, bearing in mind that we select 70% of the
support moments (or moments which will influence the amount of top steel in the beam)
and that in certain regions of the beam 70% reduction may not be appropriate as at the
left of the above span.
Envelope representing 70% of
maximum ultimate moments 550 385
452 349
358 240
144

375
FINAL BENDING MOMENT ENVELOPE AFTER RE-DISTRIBUTION

The span above has been considered in isolation to explain the process of re-distribution
and to satisfy the conditions given in the code.

In practice, we have to consider the effects of moment re-distribution on all spans, for
example reducing a support moment for a given load case, not only increases the span
moment in this span but also in the adjacent span.

Moment re-distribution – Justification.

Consider a beam, where the flexural resistance is equal at the centre and supports and
with uniformly distributed load. Ultimate moments according to elastic theory give a
central moment of half the support moments.

Loading diagram

Wl2/12
Ultimate moments
2
Wl /24

As the load is increased the beam continues to behave elastically until the plastic moment
of one or more critical sections is reached. In this example this will occur at the supports.
If this load is wkN/m, then :-

Elastic support moment = wL2/12

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Elastic span moment = wL2/24

Initial plastic hinges at supports

Further loading of the beam will cause the plastic hinges to rotate although they will still
sustain their moment. The extra moment required to balance the load is carried by other
parts of the beam. This continues until the mid section of the beam reaches its plastic
moment at which point the beam becomes a mechanism and collapses.
Three plastic hinges resulting in a
mechanism
Collapse mechanism

At collapse, wL2/12 (at the centre) = wL2/24 + waL2/8, assuming wa is the additional load
required to cause final collapse. wa = w/3.

From the design point of view, the collapse moment is 1.33 x the elastic capacity, this
being achieved by plastic behaviour at the supports, brought about by re-distribution.

The percentage by which a moment is reduced from the elastic value is a measure of the
rotation of the hinge. Design can therefore be undertaken by applying a limited amount
of re-distribution to the elastic analysis. This is limited to 30% for high ductility steel to
restrict the rotation of the hinge.

The design of the critical sections must then be such that they can sustain the rotations
implied by the re-distribution. This is achieved in practice by limiting neutral axis depth.
See Clause 5.5(4)

Elastic moment diagram

under collapse loading

Re-distributed
moment diagram

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Moment re-distribution and serviceability loads.

region region Elastic moment diagram

x x under collapse loading

Re-distributed
moment diagram

Service load moment diagram

The bending moment diagram for service loading, gives a region „x‟ where no
reinforcement (in the top of the beam) is required for the ultimate load condition. Wide
cracking could occur in this region but supplying reinforcement to carry at least 70% of
the maximum moment at any section means that the behaviour will remain roughly
elastic at loads equal to or less than 70% of total ultimate load.

The loading corresponding to serviceability limit state is always less than this, and thus
the possibility of wide cracking is eliminated.

Shear Force Considerations.

The shear force at a section is a combination of effects due to

 The bending moment values at the end of the member

 The loads

Shear force diagrams must therefore be calculated after re-distributing the bending
moments. This may increase or reduce the shear values.

If a structure is designed for a shear force which is reduced by re-distribution, and in

practice, re-distribution does not occur because say the strength of the reinforcement is
above its design value, then the structure will have a reduced factor of safety.

It is therefore considered prudent to use the worst of the re-distributed and un-distributed
shear forces as the design values.

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Shear walls.

Introduction.

In reinforced concrete framed structures, the effect of wind forces and earthquake actions
increase in significance as the structure increases in height. Codes of practice impose
limits on horizontal movement or sway. One way to limit the sway and reduce horizontal
movement is to increase the section sizes to create a more rigid frame with greater
horizontal resistance but doing this increases column and beam sizes and the overall cost
of a building. This technique is rarely used in structures beyond 7 - 8 storeys. Another
way of stabilising a building is to provide stiff shear resisting walls linked to a flexible
frame. The wall can be external or internal such as the walls around the lift and service
shafts. With some oversimplification, the stiff walls called „shear walls‟ resist the lateral
forces whilst the frame supports the vertical loads.

Framed structure.

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Framed structure with shear walls either end.

Framed structure with shear walls either end,

and along length.

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Typical Examples.

The following illustrations indicate shear walls of various types in buildings.

Shear walls are at either side of the building with splayed columns at the base.

Shear walls exist either side. A lift shaft near one end provides additional lateral support.

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This building is curved in plan and includes shear walls at either end. These are at 90o to
each other providing good lateral resistance to the building. In addition each shear wall is
flanged in section to provide additional support.

The lift shaft provides the shear resistance.

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Types of shear wall.

Monolithic shear walls are classified as short, squat or cantilever according to their
height/depth ratio.

Short Squat Cantilever

H/D<1 1<H/D<3 H/D>3

Shape of shear walls.

1. Plane in section.
2. Flanged in section
3. Channel in section. Lift cores.

Plane Flanged Channel

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Coupled shear walls.

These are two walls coupled by beams or slabs, usually because there are openings in the
wall (e.g. lift opening). With coupled shear walls the stiffness of the connecting beam or
slab will determine how effective the shear wall is as a whole.

Connecting beams

Connecting slabs

a. Linked by beams b. Linked by slabs

Coupled shear walls

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Positioning of shear walls.

Typical examples of shear walls.

1. If a building is to have two shear walls the best position for them is at the centre of
each half of the building i.e. at the quarter points.

Framed structure with shear walls at the quarter point

The shear walls provide lateral stiffness in the direction of the arrow although in reality
this would be a udl across the building. Stiffness in this example in the other direction is
supplied by the columns.

2. Corner shear walls. Two way stiffness.

Shear walls –
shown grey

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3. Central core – Shear wall.

The lift shaft provides lateral resistance in both directions, but as it is eccentric, the
building as a whole will be subject to torsional effects and needs to be designed for these.
If at all possible, symmetrical arrangements are preferred.

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Frame and Wall Behaviour.

1. Rigid frames and short shear walls subjected to horizontal forces, deflect in a near
pure shear form.
2. Cantilever shear walls (tall walls) deflect in a flexural manner.
3. Squat and coupled shear walls deform in a manner intermediate between shear
and beam flexure.
4. A symmetrical form of structure implies all elements deform in the same way and
in the direction of the horizontal force.
5. The high stiffness of the floors also ensures all elements achieve identical
deflection profiles provided the structure is symmetrical.
6. Frames and walls do not attract the same proportion of load throughout their
height. The shape of the deflection curves indicate that a rigid frame attracts a
higher proportions of the load near the top whereas a shear wall tends to attract
more of the horizontal force near its base.

Short shear wall

Shear deflection

Tall shear wall

Flexural deflection

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Coupled Shear Walls.

A coupled shear wall consists of two or more shear walls in the same plane joined by
beams or slabs at each floor level. Usually coupled walls are a single wall with openings.

If the stiffness of the linking beams or slabs is low compared to the walls or if the joint
between the beam and wall is inadequate allowing hinge like behaviour, then the shear
wall will in effect need to be designed as two walls linked by the beam or floor elements
which only transmit axial (horizontal) loads. The two walls will have the same deflection
profile but in reality the forces in the connecting beams will vary with height and this will
alter the deflections slightly. In many practical instances the joint between connecting
beam and shear wall is rigid and the connectors are relatively stiff.

Poor connection between Rigid connection between

Structure
connecting beams and connectors and shear wall.
shear walls. Low Relatively stiff connectors.
stiffness connectors.

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Failure of shear walls.

1. Flexural failure
2. Horizontal shear failure
3. Vertical shear failure.

Shear
tension
crack

Yielding Crushing

Flexural Horizontal Vertical shear

failure shear failure failure

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Analysis of Shear walls

Symmetrical shear walls.

With symmetrical shear forces, there is no torsional effect so only direct forces need be
considered.

Consider forces on a building one direction at a time

• Force on each component (shear wall) :

• Σ (direct force component + torsional rotation component)
The figure below illustrates a building with symmetrical shear walls in the north / south
direction hence torsional effects are not included.

0.3m 0.3m
29.7m
0.3m

0.3m 0.3m

D
A
19.4m

C
B
12m
0.3m

5m 20m 5m

15m 15m
100kN

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How do we calculate the proportion of the load carried by walls A, B, C and D?

Examine problem in N-S dirn – Dirn of load

 Ignore effect of transverse walls. They resist orthogonal forces
 Force is distributed between the walls in proportion to the relative stiffness of
each wall.
 Relative stiffness (RS)  Second moment of area.
 Wall A - kA (RS) = 0.3 x 203/12 = 200 = wall kD
 Wall B - kB (RS) = 0.3 x 123/12 = 43.2 = wall kC
 Σk = 2(200 + 43.2) = 486.4

Force in each wall

Wall A = Wall D = 100 x 200/486.4 = 41.12kN

Wall B = Wall C = 100 x 43.2/486.4 = 8.88kN
Check : Total force = 2(41.2 + 8.88) = 100.16kN OK

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Non-symmetric shear wall

Consider the forces in one direction at a time. Ignore the resistance of shear walls
orthogonal to the direction of force. The diagram below illustrates the principle.

Basic Principle 3 - Resisting forces are in

proportion to the stiffness of the shear wall.
Resisting forces also provide a moment which
acts about centre of rotation of building
L
Y t t

E
Basic principle 2 - Applied forces
Typical shear C
A c provide a rotating moment to the
wall c building which acts about the
centre of rotation of the building.
Centre of rotation (cr).
xc
Shear centre
H
rcx
x(cr)
t e
D
yc Shear walls
B shown hatched
b

F
X
x – usually L/2 Fy – Horizontal force on building
usually due to wind but possibly
Basic principle 1 - Applied earthquake forces
forces on a building act at the
mid point of the length
Non-symmetric
shear walls

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Location of centre of rotation of building

Y xc y

E
C
A x x y

Shear centre
xcr D yc
Centre of rotation

ycr
B F
X

( k x x ) ( k y y )
x( cr )  y( cr ) 
k x k y

xcr – distance of centre of rotation from y axis

ycr – distance of centre of rotation from x axis
kx – stiffness of shear wall orientated in the x direction (about x axis) – Use wall C for
explanation
ky – stiffness of shear wall orientated in y direction (about y axis) – Use wall E.
x – distance of shear wall from y axis (xc for wall C)
y – distance of shear wall from x axis (yc for wall E)

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Torsional moment acting on group of shear walls.

Y
C
E
A

e = L/2 - xcr D

Centre of rotation

B F
X
Fy
L/2 L/2

My = Fy e

My – applied torsional moment on building

Fy - Applied force on the side of the building acting in the y direction. Assumed to
act at centre of area of building face.
e – ecc‟n of Fy from centre of rotation in direction orthogonal to Fy

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Determination of force in each wall

Consider the wall in the x direction first.

Pc  Pdirect  Ptorsional
Pc – Force acting on wall c
Pdirect – Direct force acting on wall c {Determine as before}
Ptorsional – Force due to torsional moment acting on c
k cx k cx rcx
 Fy   My 
Pc
k x 
 k x rx2 
Direct component Torsional component
Notation
• kcx – stiffness of wall c in x direction (about y axis).
• Σkx – Sum of the stiffnesses of all shear walls in x direction (about y axis).
• rcx – distance of centre of gravity of wall C from centre of rotation (cr) of building
perpendicular to Fy
• Σ(kx rx2) - Sum of the stiffnesses of individual walls in the x direction (about x
axis) multiplied by the square of the distance between the centre of gravity of the
wall and the centre of rotation of the building in a direction perpendicular to Fy

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Derivation of torsional component in ‘x’ direction

The following derivation applies to walls bending about the x-x axis.

Overall resisting moment due to torsional effects M = Σ(Fix rix)

Where :
M - resisting moment due to torsional effects
Fix – Force I wall I in x direction. i.e. Force is orthogonal to x – x
rix – Distance of wall i from shear centre in a direction parallel to x – x.

For wall i, Mix = Fix rix

Where :
Mix Resisting moment of wall i in x direction due to torsional effects

But Fix  kix rix = K kix rix

Therefore, Mix = K kix rix rix = K kix rix2

Hence M = K Σ (kix rix2)

So K = M/(Σkix rix2)

M
And so Fix  k ix rix
k ix rix
2

Considering wall C specifically,

M
Fcx  k cx rcx
k ix rix
2

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Example.

A wind load of 100 kN acts on the south face of a building. Determine the force the
shear walls A, B, C and D each carry as a result of the wind force Fy.

Y 40.15m
0.3m 14.55m 0.3m 0.3m

A
10m

C
Centre of rotation (cr). D
Shear centre

20m
rcx
x(cr)
0.3m e

yc Shear walls
B shown hatched
5m

b
F

10m X
Fy – Horizontal force on building
usually due to wind but possibly
20m earthquake forces. Assumed to
act 20.0m from Y axis

Stiffness of each wall (Proportional to stiffness)

Wall Breadth (m) Height (m) Second moment

of area (m4)

A 0.3 20 200
B 0.3 5 3.125
C 0.3 10 25.0
D 0.3 20 200

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Centre of rotation in direction perpendicular to load

(Taking moments about the y axis)

(k x x) 200  0.15  3.125 10  25 15  200  40
x( cr )    19.71m
k x 200  3.125  25.0  200

Torsional moment perpendicular to load

M y  Fy  (20  19.71)  29kNm

k cx k r
For typical wall C : Pc  Fy   M y  cx cx2
k x 
 k x rx 

Tabulate remainder of results [200x19.56/159706]x 29

Wall kx ky rx kxrx kxrx2 Pdirect Ptor Ptotal

A 200 0 19.56 3912.0 76519 46.71 -0.71 46.00

(19.71 – 0.15) (200/428.13)100
B 3.125 0 9.71 30.34 295 0.73 -0.01 0.72
(19.71 – 10.0) (3.125/428.13)100
C 25 0 4.71 117.75 555 5.84 -0.02 5.82
D 200 0 -20.29 -4058.0 82337 46.72 0.74 47.42
Σ 428.13 -2.09 159706 100.0 0.00 100.00

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Design of Shear Walls.

1. Shear walls are designed as storey high panels which are restrained laterally at
each floor level.
2. Panels are designed to resist axial compressive forces, in plane moments MZ and
sometimes transverse moments My.

N
My Mz

Hw
x
z

y Lw

Total section in
compression :
Mz/N≤Lw

Tensile forces in
section Mz/N≥Lw

Design Procedure.

The wall can be designed in two ways :-

1. With a single zone of vertical reinforcement (uniform reinforcement)

2. With the in-plane moment Mz being resisted by reinforcement concentrated in end
zones with lighter reinforcement in the remainder of the wall.

Where Hw/Lw >1, flexure will govern the failure but when Hw/Lw is small shear
failure will occur.

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Example.

Consider a shear wall 5m long and 150mm thick which is subject to a factored axial load
of 6000kN, Mz = 3625kNm and My = 290kNm. Find the maximum compressive stress in
the wall due to N and Mz. Assume horizontal transverse restraint every 3.5m (floor
level).

1. Single zone of vertical reinforcement.

Stress due to N = N/A = 6000 x 1000/(5000 x 150) = 8MPa
At end of wall due to MZ (stress) = MZy/I = 3625 x 106 x 2500/(150 x 50003/12) =
5.8MPa

Divide the wall into sections, say 500mm long and design each as a column subject to an
axial load and a moment. Start with the most heavily loaded section at the end of the
wall.

Average stress in end section = 5.8 x 2250 / 2500 + 8 = 13.22MPa

Load on end section = 13.22 x 500 x 150 / 1000 = 991.5kN
Transverse moment on end section = 290 x 500 / 5000 = 29kNm

This problem now becomes :- Design a column which is 500mm long and 150mm wide.
The column is subject to factored axial loads and transverse moments of 991kN and
29kNm.

Only the most highly stressed sections of the wall need be considered and Mz is usually
considered reversible. Different areas of reinforcement are required (at the extreme
fibres) in each of the sections, but in most cases the reinforcement required in the end
section is provided across the whole wall.

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2. Vertical bars in end zones.

150

500 4000 500

Find the load in each end zone, 500mm long.

Lever arm z = 5000-500 = 4500mm

Load due to Mz = Mz/Z = 3625 x 103/4500 = 805.6kN
Load due to N = 6000/10 = 600kN

Design each end zone as a column subject to axial load of 805.5 + 600 = 1405kN and a
moment of 29kNm (290 x 500/5000)

Design the middle zones as columns subject to an axial load of 600kN and a moment of
29kNm.

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Design for shear.

There is no method in the code for checking the in-plane shear force. However, the
following assumptions are suggested as being reasonable.

The critical section for shear is taken at a distance from the base of the wall as the lesser
of 0.5Lw and 0.5Hw, where…..

If VEd > VRd,ct then VEd ≤ Vwd

The shear resistance of the section without shear, VRd,ct is taken to be the minimum
design shear resistance of the concrete, thus ……..

VRd,ct = (vmin + 0.15ζcp)Lefft

Where :-

vmin = 0.0035k1.5fck0.5
K = 1 + (200/d)0.5
ζcp = NEd/Lwt
Leff = αLw with say α = 0.8 – 0.9

The shear resistance provided by the horizontal reinforcement Vwd is ….

Vwd = ρwfywdLefft, where ρw is the horizontal reinforcement ratio.

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Detailing requirements.

Typical details.

Reinforcement Area Spacing

Vertical Between 0.002Ac and 0.04Ac, Not to exceed three times
generally provided as 50% in each the wall thickness nor
face. 400mm
Horizontal Not less than 25% of the vertical Not to exceed 400mm
reinforcement nor 0.001Ac

To prevent bursting, transverse reinforcement in the form of links should be provided, in

accordance with the requirements for columns, under large compressive forces. This is
taken to be when the area of vertical reinforcement exceeds 0.02Ac.

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Self assessment questions.

1. Determine the final bending moment and shear force diagrams and the reactions
for the beam in Figure 1. All beams have the same stiffness, I.
80kN D
A B C 18kN/m

10.0m 10.0m 10.0m

FIGURE 1

2. Determine the final bending moment and shear force diagram and reactions for
the beam in Figure 2.

50kN 100kN
A B 10kN/ D
C
m
2.5m
5.0m 5.0m 5.0m 5.0m
FIGURE 2

3. Find the bending moment diagram for the frame shown in Figure 3. Also
evaluate the propping force P.

13.5kN/m
Prop P
B I=2 C
3.33m

I=1
I=1
5.0m

A FIGURE 3

3.33m

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4. Determine the bending moment and shear force diagrams and the reactions. for
the beam shown in Figure 4. EI is constant.

65kN/m
32.0kN/m

A B C

FIGURE 4
3.0m 3.6m

5. How would you determine the moments (and shears) in a braced as opposed to an
un-braced frame.

6. What are the benefits of moment re-distribution and to what extent can it be
undertaken in a beam.

7. This represents a typical exam question. Figure Q7 indicates a plan and

elevation of a 7 storey building. Shear walls are positioned as shown on the
figure. The characteristic permanent loading on each floor and the roof is
6.0kN/m2 and the variable loads are 4.0kN/m2. Columns are 400 x 400mm and
assume EI for the beams to be constant

a. Consider the column X.

i. Determine the design axial force on the top of the foundations below X.
You may assume half the slab loads are shed to the beams either side,
and half the beam load are shed to the columns (or shear walls) either
end.
[4 marks]
ii. Determine the end (top and bottom) moments on column X between the
first and second storey about axis VV. Assume column moments result
from the beams entering the column only and that the columns above
and below do not affect the moments. Assume the ends of the beam at
W and Y are fully fixed.
[8 marks]
iii. Determine the bending moment diagram for the beam WXY.
[3 marks]
.

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b. Shear wall AB is 200mm thick. Consider a 1000mm length of this wall

denoted AC. If the building is subject to a wind load of 0.5kN/m2 in the
direction of F, determine using the worst possible load case,

i. The axial force on section AC of the wall due to slab and self weigh
effects.
[4 marks]
ii. The axial force on section AC due to the building being subject to a
wind load in the direction of F of 0.5kN/m2.
[6 marks]

Additional design information.

Use γG = 1.35, γQ = 1.50, and γQwind = 1.2

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A U
5.0m 5.0m 5.0m 100mm
Indicates direction of
span of simply supported
C W precast slabs
1000mm

6.0m
Shear walls
V X V

6.0m
B Y

U
F

Seventh floor

24 000mm

Second floor

First floor
Ground bearing slab
Ground floor

2000mm

FIGURE Q7

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Learning outcomes.

At the end of this unit you should be conversant with :

 Braced and un-braced frames.

 Analysis of structures with respect to overall stability and structural analysis of
the frame and elements of the structure.
 Division of braced frames into sub-frames and continuous beams.
 Loading arrangements to produce worst cases.
 Moment distribution and re-distribution.
 Types and positioning of shear walls in structures.
 Analysing shear walls for direct forces and torsional effects.
 Designing shear walls using a single zone of reinforcement or vertical bars in
ends zones.

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Solutions to self assessment questions.

Question 1.

Determine the final bending moment and shear force diagrams and the reactions for the
beam in Figure 1. All beams have the same stiffness, I.
80kN D
A B C 18kN/m

10.0m 10.0m 10.0m

FIGURE 1

Stiffness of beam I I I

Stiffness Factor

Modified Stiffness Factor

Distribution factors

Fixed end moments

Question 2.

Determine the final bending moment and shear force diagram and reactions for the beam
in Figure 2.

50kN 100kN
A B 10kN/ D
m C
2.5m
5.0m 5.0m 5.0m 5.0m
FIGURE 2

Stiffness of beam I 2I 3I

Stiffness Factor

ModStiff Factor
Distribution factors

Fixed end moments

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Question 3.

Find the bending moment diagram for the frame shown in Figure 3. Also evaluate the
propping force P.

13.5kN/m
Prop P
B I=2 C

3.33m
I=1
I=1
5.0m

A FIGURE 3

3.33m

Question 4.

Determine the bending moment and shear force diagrams and the reactions. for the beam
shown in Figure 4. EI is constant.

65kN/m
32.0kN/m

A B C

3.0m 3.6m

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SOLUTIONS

Question 1 - Solution. Determine the bending moment and shear force diagrams and the
reactions for the beam in Figure 1. All beams have the same stiffness, I.

80kN
18kN/m

FIGURE 1 10.0m 10.0m 10.0m

Stiffness of beam I I I

Stiffness Factor I/10 I/10 I/10

Modified Stiffness Factor I/10 I/10 ¾(I/10

Distribution factors 0.5 0.5 0.57 0.43

Fixed end moments 0 -100 +100 -150 +150

Support A B C D
Dist factor 0.5 0.5 0.57 0.43
FEM 0 0 -100 +100 -150 +150
Release 50 50 28.5 21.5 -150
Carry over 25 14.3 25 -75
Release -7.2 -7.2 28.5 21.5
Carry over -3.6 14.3 -3.6
Release -7.2 -7.2 2.1 1.5
Carry over -3.6 1.0 -3.6
Release -0.5 -0.5 2.1 1.5
Carry over -0.2 1.0 -0.2
Release -0.5 -0.5 0.1 0.1
TOTAL 17.6 34.6 34.8 178.9 -179.9 0

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Bending moment diagram.

SUPPORT MOMENTS
179
34.6
17.6

FREE BODY MOMENTS

M = wL2/8 = 18 x 102/8 =
M = WL/4 = 80 x 10/4 = 200kNm 225kNm

FINAL BM
DIAGRAM
179
34.6 200
225
17.6

Shear force diagram.

Span AB.
Shear force due to end moments = [(-17.6 –34.6)]/10 = -5.22kN
Shear force due to applications = 0

SPAB BC
Shear force due to end moments = (34.6 – 179)/10 = -14.44
Shear force due to point load = 80/2 = 40kN (rectangular0

Span CD
Shear due to end moments = (179 – 0)/10 = 17.9kN
Shear due to UDL = 18 x 10/2 = 90kN

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90 + 17.9 = 107.9kN

40 – 14.44 = 25.56

5.22kN

40 + 14.44 = 54.44kN

90 - 17.9 = 72.1kN

Reactions.
R(A) = -5.22
R(B) = 5.22 + 25.56 = 30.78kN
R(C) = 54.44 + 107.9 = 162 34kN
R(D) = 72.1kN

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Question 2 – Solution
Determine the final bending moment and shear force diagram and reactions for the beam
in Figure 2.
.
50kN 100kN
A B 10kN/ D
C
m
2.5m
5.0m 5.0m 5.0m 5.0m

Stiffness of beam I 2I 3I

Stiffness Factor

ModStiff Factor
Distribution factors

Fixed end moments

Support A B C D
Orig SF I/5 2I/5 3I/10
Mod SF I/5 2I/5 (3/4)3I/10
Dist factor 0.33 0.67 0.64 0.36
FEM -31.25 31.25 -20.8 20.8 -125 +125
Release -3.5 -7 66.7 37.5 -125
Carry over -1.8 33.4 -3.6 -62.5
Release -11 -22.4 42.3 23.8
Carry over -5.5 21.2 -11.2
Release -7.0 -14.2 7.2 4.0
Carry over -3.5 3.6 -7.1
Release -1.2 -2.4 4.5 2.6
TOTAL -42.1 8.6 -8.6 119.6 -119.6 0

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Bending moment diagram.

SUPPORT MOMENTS
119.6
42.1
8.6

FREE BODY MOMENTS

31.25kNm
M = WL/4 = 50 x 5/4 = 62.5kNm 250kNm

32.15kNm 119.6
42.1
8.6
62.5kNm
250kNm

FINAL BENDING
MOMENT DIAGRAM

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Shear force diagram.

Span AB.
Shear force due to end moments = [(42.1 – 8.6)]/5 = 6.7kN
Shear force due to applications = 25kN rectangular.

SPAB BC
Shear force due to end moments = (8.6 – 119.6)/5 = -22.22kN
Shear force due to udl load = 50/2 = 25kN (triangular)

Span CD
Shear due to end moments = (119.6 – 0)/10 = 11.96kN
Shear due to point load = 100 x 10/2 = 50kN (rectangular)

Shear force diagram

25kN
50 + 11.96 = 61.96kN
25 – 22.22 = 2.78kN

22.22 + 25 = 47.22kN
6.7kN
25 – 6.7 = 18.3kN
50 – 11.96 = 38.04kN

Reactions
RA = 31.7kN
RB = 21.08kN
RC = 109.18kN
RD = 38.04kN

Sum of reactions = 200kN so OK.

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Question 3.
Find the bending moment diagram for the frame shown in Figure 3. Also evaluate the
propping force P.
13.5kN/m
Prop P
B I=2 C

3.33m
I=1
I=1
5.0m

3.33m
FIGURE 3
A

With two dimensional problems no problems exist except the layout of the table. Initially
assume there is no sway.

a). Distribution factors.

Joints A and D are both built in and consequently we know that any moments carried to
these joints are distributed into the joints.
Joint B (Leg BA) = [1/5]/[1/5 + 2/3.33] = 0.2/0.8 = 0.25
Joint B (Leg BC) = [2/3.33]/[1/5 + 2/3.33] 0.6/0.8 = 0.75
Joint C (LegCB) = [2/3.33]/[2/3.33 + 1/3.33] = 0.6/0.9 = 0.67
Joint C (Leg CD) = [1/3.33]/[2/3.33 + 1/3.33] = 0.3/0.9 = 0.33
b). Fixed end moments.
Member AB, FEM‟s = 0
Member CD, FEM‟s = 0
Member BC, FEM‟s = (13.5 x 3.332)/12 = 12.5kNm
Joint A B C D
Dist factor 0.25 0.75 0.67 0.33
FEM 0 0 -12.5 12.5 0 0
Release +3.125 9.375 -8.375 -4.125
Carry over 1.563 -4.188 4.688 -2.063
Release 1.047 3.141 -3.141 -1.547
Carry over 0.524 -1.571 1.571 -0.774
Release -0.393 1.178 -1.053 -0.518
Carry over 0.197 -0.527 0.589 -0.259
Release 0.132 0.395 -0.395 -0.194
Carry over 0.066 -0.198 0.198 -0.097
Release 0.05 0.149 -0.133 -0.065
Carry over 0.025 0.067 0.075 -0.033
Release -0.017 -0.05 -0.05 -0.025
TOTAL 2.375 4.73 -4.73 6.474 -6.474 -3.266

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Support / Node moments.

4.73 6.474
B C

Free body diagram

D

3.266 M = wL2/8 =
13.5 x 3.332/8 =
18.71kNm
A
2.375

4.73 6.474
B 18.71kNm, C

FINAL BENDING
MOMENT DIAGRAM
D

3.266

2.375

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Evaluation of propping force.

Assume horizontal member does not extend.
Free body diagrams for AB and BC
PB PC

4.73 6.474

3.266
D
2.375 HD
A HA

Moments about A : 4.73 + 2.375 + 5PB = 0 so PB = -1.421 kN

Moments about D : 6.474 + 3.266 + 3.33PC = 0 so PC = -2.93 kN
Therefore P = -PB - PC = -4.351 kN

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Question 4.

Determine the bending moment and shear force diagrams and the reactions. for the beam
shown in Figure 4. EI is constant.

65kN/m
32.0kN/m

A B C

3.0m 3.6m

1). Distribution Factors.

Because EI is constant, Point B (left) = (I/3)/[I/3.0 + I/3.6] = 0.545
Point B (right) = (I/3.6)/[I/3.0 + I/3.6] = 0.455

2). Fixed end moments.

AB(left) = -65 x 32/12 = -48.75kNm, AB(right) = 65 x 32/12 = +48.75kNm
BC(left) = -32 x 3.62/12 = -34.56kNm, BC(right) = 32 x 3.62/12 = 34.56kNm

Solution in Tabular form.

A B C
Dist factors 0.545 0.455
FEM‟s -48.75 48.75 -34.56 34.56
Release -7.73 -6.46
Carry over -3.87 -3.23
Totals -52.62 41.02 -41.02 31.33
No further releases are possible.

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SUPPORT MOMENTS

52.62 41.02 31.33

FREE BODY MOMENTS

M = 32 x 3.62/8 = 51.84kNm
M = 65 x 32/8 = 73.13kNm

FINAL BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

52.62
73.13kNm 41.02 51.84kNm 31.33

Shear force diagram.

Span AB.
Shear force due to end moments = [52.62 – 41.02)]/3 = 3.87kN
Shear force due to applications = 97.5kN (Triangular).

SPAB BC
Shear force due to end moments = (41.02 – 31.33)/3.6 = 2.69kN
Shear force due to udl load = 57.6kN(triangular)
57.6 + 2.69 = 60.29kN
97.5 + 3.87 = 101.37kN

57.6 – 2.69 = 54.91kN

97.5 – 3.87 = 93.63kN

B C
A

Reactions
RA = 101.37kN RB = 153.92kN RC = 54.91kN
RA + RB + RC = 310.2kN

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Total loading = 65 x 3 + 32 x 3.6 = 310.2kN so OK

Question 7.
Figure Q7 indicates a plan and elevation of a 7 storey building. Shear walls are
positioned as shown on the figure. The characteristic permanent loading on each floor
and the roof is 6.0kN/m2 and the transient loads are 4.0kN/m2. Columns are 400 x
400mm beams are 300 x 600 mm deep and assume E for the beams and columns to be
constant. Take the column height as 4.0 m.

a. Consider the column X.

i. Determine the design axial force on the top of the foundations below X. You
may assume half the slab loads are shed to the beams either side, and half the
beam load are shed to the columns (or shear walls) either end.
[4 marks]
ii. Determine the end (top and bottom) moments on column X between the first
and second storey about axis VV. Assume the ends of the beam at W and Y
are fully fixed.
[8 marks]
iii. Determine the bending moment diagram for the beam WXY.
[3 marks]
.
b. Shear wall AB is 200 mm thick. Consider a 1000 mm length of this wall
denoted AC. If the building is subject to a wind load of 0.45 kN/m2 in the
direction of F, determine using the worst possible load case,

i. The axial force on section AC of the wall due to slab and self weigh
effects.
[4 marks]
ii. The axial force on section AC due to the building being subject to a wind
load in the direction of F of 0.45 kN/m2.
[6 marks]

Additional design information.

Use γG = 1.35, γQ = 1.50, and γQwind = 1.2

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A U
5.0m 5.0m 5.0m 100mm
Indicates direction of
span of simply supported
C W precast slabs
1000mm

6.0m
Shear walls
V X V

6.0m
B Y

U
F

Seventh floor

24 000mm

Second floor

First floor
Ground bearing slab
Ground floor

2000mm

FIGURE Q7

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Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Physical Science, University of Surrey

Solution.

7ai). Loads on foundation are determined using unfactored loads.

Load from each floor falling on column x = (6 + 4) (6 x 5) = 300kN

Load from 8 floors = 8 x 300 = 2400kN
Column load = 0.4 x 0.4 x 25 x 26 = 104kN
Total axial load = 2504kN

7aii). Use of moment distribution.

Maximum load = 1.35 x 5 x 6 Minimum load = 1.0 x 5 x 6
+ 1.5 x 5 x 4 = 70.5kN/m + 0 x 5 x 4 = 30kN/m
X
W Y

6.0m 6.0m

To carry out this analysis, use the fact that we from a substitute frame which includes
beams WX ansd XY and the columns above and below the point X. Also, we assume
that the stiffness of beams WX and XY are halved because in the substitute frame we
have built in the ends at W and Y an actually there will be some rotation there so :

kWX 1 bh 3 1  0.3  0.6 3 

Member stiffness      0.45  10 3
2 2 12 LWX 2  12.0  6.0 

0.4  0.4 3
Column stiffness k col   0.71  10 3
12.0  3.0

Distribution factor for column = 0.71/(0.45+0.45+2x0.71) = 0.306

Fixed end moments for beam WX = +/- 70.5 x 62/12 = +/-211.5 kNm
Fixed end moments fro beam XY = +/- 30 x 62/12 = - 90 Knm

So bending moment imparted to column = 0.306 x (211.5 – 90.0) = 37.2 kNm

7aiii). Bending moment diagram for beam WXY.

Using some of the data from 7aii)., and in addition :

Distribution factor [left of W] = ∞/(1/6 + ∞) = 1.0

Distribution factor [right of W] = (1/6)/(1/6 + ∞) = 0.0
Distribution factor [left of X] = 1/6/(1/6 + 1/6) = 0.5
Distribution factor [right of X] = 1/6/(1/6 + 1/6) = 0.5
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Distribution factor [left of Y] = (1/6)/(1/6 + ∞) = 0.0

Distribution factor [right of Y] = ∞/(1/6 + ∞) = 1.0

Member left end (kNm) right end (kNm)

AB 70.5 x 62/12 = -211.5 +211.5
BC -30 x 62/12 = - 90 + 90
A B(left) B(rt) C
Dist 0 0.5 0.5 0
factors
FEM‟s -211.5 211.5 -90 90
Release -60.75 -60.75
Carry -30.38 -30.38
over
TOTAL -241.88 150.75 -150.75 59.62
Free body
moments
70.5 x 36/8=317.25kNm 30 x 36/8=135kNm

7aiii).
Final BM 150.75
59.62
241.88

diagram
WXY

120.9 29.82kNm

7bi). Axial load per m of shear wall assuming full loads are acting
From slab loads = 1.35 x 6 x 2.5 + 1.5 x 4 x 2.5 = 20.25 + 15 = 35.25 kN/m
Total load from slabs = 35.25 x 8 = 282 kN/m
Force at base of wall due to self weight = 0.2 x 1 x 25 x 1.35 x 26 = 175.5 kN/m
Force on AC = 282 + 175.5 = 457.5 kN

7bii). Force to shear wall from wind effects.

Force on exposed part to building = 0.45 x 1.2 x 15.2 x 24 = 197 kN

Moment about VV = 197 x 14 = 2758 kNm (split 50-50 between 2 walls)

Stress = M/Z = 2758/2 x 106/(200 x 122002/6) = 0.28 N/mm2.

Force over 1.0m end length = [0.28 x 5.6/6.1]x[1000 x 200] x 10-3 = 51.4 kN

Total axial load on AC = 51.4 + 457.5 = 508.9 kN

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