INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

Introduction
Data is useful once it has been transferred from the source to the recipient. The transfer of
such data involves various techniques and technology of essence to facilitate fast, efficient
and effective data transfer so that delays and eavesdropping by unintended recipients is
avoided.

Principles of data communication

Data communications
This refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more computers.
Computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers
to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing devices is
established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network
is the Internet

Data communication systems

These are the electronic systems that transmit data over communication lines from one
location to another. End users need to know the essential parts of communication
technology, including connections, channels, transmission, network architectures and
network types. Communication allows microcomputer users to transmit and receive data
and gain access to electronic resources

Communication is always governed by three main principles

1. Delivery
The system must carry data to correct destination and deliver to the right recipient
2. Accuracy
The system must deliver accurate data as per sending format
3. Timeliness
The system must deliver data in time since late delivery may not be effective

Components:
A data communications system has five components
 The physical data communication system consist of the following five main
components
1. Source– creates the data, could be a computer or a telephone
2. Transmitter – encodes the information e.g. modem, network card
3. Transmission system – is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio wave
4. Receiver– decodes the information for the destination e.g. modem, network
card
5. Destination – accepts and uses the incoming information, could be a computer or
telephone

The following determine successful communication

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of In formation include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot
be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Representation:
Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text:
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called
a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding
system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any
language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII),
developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in
Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.

Numbers:
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations. Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.

Images:
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel
depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000
pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution),
but more memory is needed to store the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each
pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image.

Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different
from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone
to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.

Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to
a digital or an analog signal.

Communication channels
The transmission media used in communication are called communication channels. Two
ways of connecting microcomputers for communication with each other and with other
equipment is through cable and air.
There are five kinds of communication channels used for cable or air connections:
 Telephone lines
 Coaxial cable
 Fibre-optic cable
 Microwave
  Satellite

Data transmission
Technical matters that affect data transmission include:
 Bandwidth
 Type of transmission
 Direction of data flow
 Mode of transmitting data
 Protocols

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the bits-per-second (bps) transmission capability of a communication channel.

There are three types of bandwidth:

 Voice band – bandwidth of standard telephone lines (9.6 to 56 kbps)
 Medium band – bandwidth of special leased lines used (56 to 264,000 kbps)
 Broadband – bandwidth of microwave, satellite, coaxial cable and fiber optic (56 to
30,000,000 kbps).

Types of transmission – serial or parallel

Serial data transmission
In serial transmission, bits flow in a continuous stream. It is the way most data is sent over
telephone lines. It is used by external modems typically connected to a microcomputer
through a serial port. The technical names for such serial ports are RS-232C connector or
asynchronous communications port.
Parallel data transmission
In parallel transmission, bits flow through separate lines simultaneously (at the same time).

Parallel transmission is typically limited to communications over short distances (not

telephone lines). It is the standard method of sending data from a computer’s CPU to a
printer.

Direction of data transmission

There are three directions or modes of data flow in a data communication system.
 Simplex
 Half-duplex
 Full-duplex

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in

Figure below
Simplex:
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure a). Keyboards
and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of
the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex mode
is like a one -lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices
is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex
systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.

Full-Duplex:
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure c). The full-
duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals
going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain
two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or
the capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions. One
common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people
are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network, is a collection of computers and other hardware components
interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information
A computer network is an interconnection of computers, printers, scanners and other
hardware devices and software applications.
Networks connect users within a defined physical space (such as within an office building).
The Internet is a network that connects users from all parts of the world. Educational
institutions, government agencies, health care facilities, banking and other financial
institutions, and residential applications use computer networking to send and receive data
and share resources.

Network architecture is a description of how a computer is set-up (configured) and what

strategies are used in the design. The interconnection of PCs over a network is becoming
more important, especially as more hardware is accessed remotely and PCs
intercommunicate with one another

Terms used to describe computer networks

 Node–any device connected to a network such as a computer, printer or data storage
device.
 Client–a node that requests and uses resources available from other nodes. Typically
a microcomputer.
 Server – a node that shares resources with other nodes. May be called a file server,
printer server, communication server, web server or database server.
 Network Operating System (NOS) – the operating system of the network that controls
and coordinates the activities between computers on a network, such as electronic
communication and sharing of information and resources.
 Distributed processing– computing power is located and shared at different
locations. Common in decentralized organizations (each office has its own computer
system but is networked to the main computer).
 Host computer– a large centralized computer, usually a minicomputer or mainframe.

Features of computer networks

Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner. For
example, we can do video conferencing, email messaging, etc. over the internet. Therefore,
the computer network is a great way to share our knowledge and ideas.

File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantage of the computer network. Computer network
provides us to share the files with each other.

Back up and Roll back is easy

Since the files are stored in the main server which is centrally located. Therefore, it is easy to
take the back up from the main server.
Software and Hardware sharing
We can install the applications on the main server, therefore, the user can access the
applications centrally. So, we do not need to install the software on every machine. Similarly,
hardware can also be shared.

Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files
and applications.

Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be
scalable so that we can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the
speed of the connection and data of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases the
chances of error occurring. This problem can be overcome by using the routing or switching
devices.

Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any
hardware failure.

Uses of computer networks

Communication and Access to Information

A network allows a user to instantly connect with another user, or network, and send and
receive data. It allows remote users to connect with one other via videoconferencing, virtual
meetings and digital emails.
Computer networks provide access to online libraries, journals, electronic newspapers, chat
rooms, social networking websites, email clients and the World Wide Web. Users can benefit
from making online bookings for theaters, restaurants, hotels, trains and airplanes. They can
shop and carry out banking transactions from the comfort of their homes.
Computer networks allow users to access interactive entertainment channels, such as video
on demand, interactive films, interactive and live television, multiperson real-time games
and virtual-reality models.

Resource Sharing
Computer networks allow users to share files and resources. They are popularly used in
organizations to cut costs and streamline resource sharing. A single printer attached to a
small local area network (LAN) can effectively service the printing requests of all computer
users on the same network. Users can similarly share other network hardware devices, such
as modems, fax machines, hard drives and removable storage drives.
Networks allow users to share software applications, programs and files. They can share
documents (such as invoices, spreadsheets and memos), word processing software, videos,
photographs, audio files, project tracking software and other similar programs. Users can
also access, retrieve and save data on the hard drive of the main network server.
Centralized Support and Administration
Computer networking centralizes support, administration and network support tasks.
Technical personnel manage all the nodes of the network, provide assistance, and
troubleshoot network hardware and software errors. Network administrators ensure data
integrity and devise systems to maintain the reliability of information through the network.
They are responsible for providing high-end antivirus, anti-spyware and firewall software to
the network users. Unlike a stand-alone system, a networked computer is fully managed and
administered by a centralized server, which accepts all user requests and services them as
required.
Other uses
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging

Network Services
Computer systems and computerized systems help human beings to work efficiently and
explore the unthinkable. When these devices are connected together to form a network, the
capabilities are enhanced multiple-times. Some basic services computer network can offer
are.
 Directory services
 File services
 Communication services
 Application services

Directory Services
These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be variable value or
fixed. This software system helps to store the information, organize it, and provides various
means of accessing it.
 Accounting
In an organization, a number of users have their user names and passwords mapped
to them. Directory Services provide means of storing this information in cryptic form
and make available when requested.
 Authentication &and Authorization
User credentials are checked to authenticate a user at the time of login and/or
periodically. User accounts can be set into hierarchical structure and their access to
resources can be controlled using authorization schemes.
 Domain Name Services
DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which internet works. This
system maps IP addresses to domain names, which are easier to remember and recall
than IP addresses. Because network operates with the help of IP addresses and
humans tend to remember website names, the DNS provides website’s IP address
 which is mapped to its name from the back-end on the request of a website name
from the user.

File Services
File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.
 File Sharing
One of the reasons which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File sharing
enables its users to share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a
specific server, which is accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, user can
make its file shared on its own computer and provides access to intended users.
 File Transfer
This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another computer or to
multiple computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its user to
locate other users in the network and transfers files.

Communication Services
 Email
Electronic mail is a communication method and something a computer user cannot
work without. This is the basis of today’s internet features. Email system has one or
more email servers. All its users are provided with unique IDs. When a user sends
email to other user, it is actually transferred between users with help of email server.
 Social Networking
Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer savvy peoples, can
find other known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can share thoughts,
pictures, and videos.
 Internet Chat
Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts. Two or more
people can communicate with each other using text based Internet Relay Chat
services. These days, voice chat and video chat are very common.
 Discussion Boards
Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple peoples with same
interests. It enables the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can be
seen by all other users. Other may respond as well.
 Remote Access
This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote computer. This
feature is known as Remote desktop. This can be done via some remote device, e.g.
mobile phone or home computer.

Application Services
These are nothing but providing network based services to the users such as web services,
database managing, and resource sharing.
 Resource Sharing
To use resources efficiently and economically, network provides a mean to share
them. This may include Servers, Printers, and Storage Media etc.
 Databases
 This application service is one of the most important services. It stores data and
information, processes it, and enables the users to retrieve it efficiently by using
queries. Databases help organizations to make decisions based on statistics.
 Web Services
World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet. It is used to connect to the
internet, and access files and information services provided by the internet servers.