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Web Engineering (UNIT-I, II) (R-18)

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33 views47 pages

Web Engineering (UNIT-I, II) (R-18)

WE notes

Uploaded by

babjichintu123
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Web Engineering (UNIT-I,II)(R-18)

UNIT - I
SHORT ANSWERS
1. List and explain the various semantic elements of HTML 5.
A. HTML5 introduced semantic elements to improve the structure and meaning of
web documents. Some key semantic elements include <header>, <nav>, <main>,
<section>, <article>, <aside>, and <footer. These elements provide better clarity
and improve SEO.
1. <header>: This element represents the introductory content or a container for
a section's heading. It often contains a logo, site title, or main navigation.
2. <nav>: Used for defining navigation links, such as menus or navigation bars. It
helps organize links to different parts of a website.
3. <main>: Represents the main content area of a web page. There should be
only one <main> element per page, and it typically includes the core content
of the page.
4. <section>: A generic container for grouping related content. It doesn't imply a
specific meaning but is used to structure content within a document.
5. <article>: Defines a self-contained, independently distributable piece of
content, such as a blog post, news article, or a forum post.
6. <aside>: Typically used for content that is tangentially related to the main
content, such as sidebars, pull-quotes, or advertising.
7. <footer>: Represents the footer of a section or a page. It often contains
copyright information, contact details, and links to related documents.
Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Beta</title>
</head>
<body>
<header>
<h1>Welcome to Site</h1>
</header>
<nav>
<a href="#">Home</a> |
<a href="#">About Me</a> |
<a href="#">Services</a> |
<a href="#">Contact</a>
</nav>
<main>
<section>
<h2>About Us</h2>
<p>This is the main content section.</p>
</section>
<section>
<article>
<h3>Latest News</h3>
<p>Read about HTML5 semantic elements.</p>
</article>
<aside>
<h3>Advertisement</h3>
<p>Dont Buy fake products!</p>
</aside>
</section>
</main>
<footer>
&copy; 2023 Samrath. All rights reserved.
</footer>
</body>
</html>

2. Briefly explain the new features added to CSS 3.


A. CSS3 introduced several new features and enhancements to the CSS language,
providing web developers with more flexibility and capabilities in styling web pages.
Some of the key features added in CSS3 include:
1. Selectors: CSS3 introduced several new selectors to target specific elements
more efficiently, such as attribute selectors, pseudo-classes (:nth-child, :not),
and pseudo-elements (::before, ::after).
2. Box Model: CSS3 introduced new properties and features related to the box
model, including box-sizing, which allows developers to control how the width
and height of elements are calculated.
3. Flexible Box Layout (Flexbox): Flexbox is a layout model introduced in CSS3
that provides a more efficient way to design complex layouts. It allows
developers to align and distribute space among elements within a container,
making it easier to create responsive and flexible designs.

2
4. Grid Layout: CSS Grid Layout is a powerful two-dimensional layout system
introduced in CSS3 that allows developers to create complex grid-based
layouts with rows and columns. It provides precise control over the placement
and sizing of elements within the grid, enabling the creation of sophisticated
designs.
5. Transitions and Animations: CSS3 introduced transitions and animations,
allowing developers to create smooth and visually appealing effects without the
need for JavaScript or Flash. Transitions enable smooth transitions between
different states of an element (e.g., hover effects), while animations allow
developers to define custom animations for elements.
6. Media Queries: Media queries were introduced in CSS3, allowing developers to
apply different styles based on various factors such as screen size, device
orientation, and resolution. This enables the creation of responsive designs that
adapt to different devices and screen sizes.
7. Custom Fonts: CSS3 introduced the @font-face rule, allowing developers to
use custom fonts in web pages. This enables greater typographic flexibility and
design possibilities, as developers are no longer limited to using standard
system fonts.
8. Gradient and Shadow Effects: CSS3 introduced support for creating gradient
backgrounds and text shadows directly in CSS, eliminating the need for images
or complex markup to achieve these effects. This provides greater design
flexibility and performance benefits.
9. Transforms and Transitions: CSS3 introduced 2D and 3D transforms, allowing
developers to manipulate the position, size, and rotation of elements in both
two and three-dimensional space. Transitions enable smooth animations
between different states of an element, enhancing the user experience.
3. W
⁠ hat are media queries?
A. Media queries in CSS enable responsive web design by applying different styles
based on screen size or characteristics. For example, you can use @media (max-
width: 768px) to specify styles for screens smaller than 768 pixels wide. This allows
websites to adapt to various devices, enhancing user experience.
/* Extra small devices (phones, 600px and down) */
@media only screen and (max-width: 600px) {...}
/* Small devices (portrait tablets and large phones, 600px and up) */
@media only screen and (min-width: 600px) {...}
/* Medium devices (landscape tablets, 768px and up) */
@media only screen and (min-width: 768px) {...}
/* Large devices (laptops/desktops, 992px and up) */
@media only screen and (min-width: 992px) {...}
/* Extra large devices (large laptops and desktops, 1200px and up) */

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@media only screen and (min-width: 1200px) {...}

4. G
⁠ rid box vs Flex box with example
A.
Grid: CSS Grid Layout, is a two-dimensional grid-based layout system with rows and
columns, making it easier to design web pages without having to use floats and
positioning. Like tables, grid layout allow us to align elements into columns and rows.

To get started you have to define a container element as a grid with display: grid,set
the column and row sizes with grid-template-columns and grid-template-rows, and
then place its child elements into the grid with grid-column and grid-row.

Example:In this example, we are using the above-explained method.


HTML
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<style>
.main{
display: grid;
grid: auto auto / auto auto auto auto;
grid-gap: 10px;
background-color: green;
padding: 10px;
}
.gfg {
background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);
text-align: center;
padding: 25px 0;
font-size: 30px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2 style="text-align: center;">
Welcome To GeeksForGeeks
</h2>
<div class="main">
<div class="gfg">Home</div>
<div class="gfg">Read</div>
<div class="gfg">Write</div>
<div class="gfg">About Us</div>
<div class="gfg">Contact Us</div>
<div class="gfg">Privacy Policy</div>
</div>
</body>

4
</html>

Untitled Attachment

Flexbox: The CSS Flexbox offers a one-dimensional layout. It is helpful in allocating


and aligning the space among items in a container (made of grids). It works with all
kinds of display devices and screen sizes.
To get started you have to define a container element as a grid with display: flex;

Example:In this example, we are using the above-explained method.


HTML
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<style>
.main{
display: flex;
grid: auto auto / auto auto auto auto;
grid-gap: 10px;
background-color: green;
padding: 10px;
}
.gfg {
background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);
text-align: center;
padding: 25px 0;
font-size: 30px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>
<h2 style="text-align: center;">
Welcome To GeeksForGeeks
</h2>
<div class="main">
<div class="gfg">Home</div>
<div class="gfg">Read</div>
<div class="gfg">Write</div>
<div class="gfg">About Us</div>
<div class="gfg">Contact Us</div>
<div class="gfg">Privacy Policy</div>
</div>
</body>

5
</html>

Untitled Attachment

5. M
⁠ edia transition with example
A. The transition property in CSS allows you to control the transition effect when a
CSS property changes its value. It enables smooth animation effects for changes in
CSS properties over a specified duration and timing function.

The syntax for the transition property is as follows:


transition: property duration timing-function delay;

• property: Specifies the CSS property you want to apply the transition effect to.
It can be a single property, multiple properties separated by commas, or the
keyword all to apply the transition effect to all properties that change.
• duration: Specifies the duration of the transition effect in seconds or
milliseconds. It determines how long the transition takes to complete.
• timing-function: Specifies the timing function that defines the speed curve of
the transition. It determines the rate of change of the property values over time.
• delay: Specifies a delay before the transition effect starts. It can be a positive
value in seconds or milliseconds.

Here's an example to illustrate the use of the transition property:


<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Transition Example</title>
<style>
.box {
width: 100px;
height: 100px;
background-color: blue;
transition: width 0.5s ease;
}
.box:hover {
width: 200px;
}
</style>
</head>
<body>

6
<div class="box"></div>
</body>
</html>

In this example:
• We have a .box element with a default width of 100px and a blue background
color.
• We apply a transition effect to the width property of the .box element with a
duration of 0.5s and an easing function of ease. This means that when the
width of the .box element changes, it will transition smoothly over a duration of
0.5s with an easing effect.
• When the mouse hovers over the .box element (:hover), the width changes to
200px. Because of the transition effect, the change in width will be smooth and
gradual over the specified duration, creating a visually appealing animation
effect.
6. E
⁠ xplain Various properties of CSS and its values
A. CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is a stylesheet language used to describe the
presentation of a document written in HTML or XML. It defines how elements should
be displayed on the screen, in print, or spoken by a text-to-speech program. CSS
properties and their values play a crucial role in determining the appearance and
layout of web content. Here are some commonly used CSS properties along with
their possible values:
1. Color Properties:
• color: Specifies the text color.
• background-color: Specifies the background color.
• border-color: Specifies the color of the border.
2. Typography Properties:
• font-family: Specifies the font family.
• font-size: Specifies the font size.
• font-weight: Specifies the font weight (e.g., normal, bold).
• line-height: Specifies the line height.
• text-align: Specifies the alignment of text (e.g., left, center, right).
• text-decoration: Specifies text decorations (e.g., underline, line-through).
3. Box Model Properties:
• width: Specifies the width of the element.
• height: Specifies the height of the element.
• margin: Specifies the margin around the element.
• padding: Specifies the padding inside the element.

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• border: Specifies the border around the element.

7. W
⁠ hat is versioning.
A. In the context of Git version control system (VCS), versioning refers to the process
of managing and tracking changes to files and directories in a software project. Git
provides mechanisms to assign unique identifiers to different versions of files and
directories, facilitating collaboration among developers and enabling the tracking of
project history.

Here are some key aspects of versioning in Git:


1. Commit Hashes: In Git, each commit (a snapshot of changes) is identified by a
unique 40-character hexadecimal string called a commit hash or object ID.
These hashes are generated based on the content of the commit, including the
changes made, author information, and commit message.
2. Branches and Tags: Git allows the creation of branches, which are pointers to
specific commits in the repository's history. Each branch can represent a
separate line of development. Tags are also used in Git to mark specific points
in history, such as release points or significant milestones.
3. Commit Messages: When making a commit in Git, developers are encouraged
to provide descriptive commit messages that explain the changes being made.
This helps other developers understand the purpose and context of each
commit.
4. Version History: Git maintains a complete history of changes made to the
project, including all commits, branches, and tags. Developers can use
commands like git log to view the history and git diff to compare different
versions of files.
5. Reverting and Rolling Back: Git provides mechanisms to revert changes or roll
back to previous versions of files or commits. This allows developers to undo
changes if needed and maintain a stable project state.
6. Collaboration: Git enables collaboration among multiple developers by
allowing them to work on different branches simultaneously and merge their
changes together. This facilitates parallel development and helps manage
complex software projects.
Overall, versioning in Git plays a crucial role in tracking changes, managing project
history, facilitating collaboration, and ensuring the integrity and stability of software
projects.
8. L
⁠ ist the different basic Protocols used in Internet?
A.

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1. Internet Protocol (IP):
• No specific port number. IP operates at the network layer and does not use
port numbers for communication.
2. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
• Port number: No specific port number. TCP is a transport-layer protocol that
operates using port numbers assigned dynamically during the establishment
of connections.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
• Port number: No specific port number. Similar to TCP, UDP operates using
dynamically assigned port numbers for communication.
4. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
• Port number: 80
• Default port for unencrypted HTTP communication.
5. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS):
• Port number: 443
• Default port for encrypted HTTP communication using SSL/TLS.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
• Port number: 21
• Default port for FTP control connections.
7. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP):
• Port number: 25
• Default port for SMTP communication for sending email messages.
8. Post Office Protocol (POP3):
• Port number: 110
• Default port for POP3 communication for retrieving email messages.
9. Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP):
• Port number: 143
• Default port for IMAP communication for retrieving email messages.
10. Domain Name System (DNS):
• Port number: 53
• Default port for DNS resolution, translating domain names to IP addresses.
11. Secure Shell (SSH):
• Port number: 22
• Default port for SSH communication, providing secure remote access to
systems.
12. Telnet:
• Port number: 23

9
• Default port for Telnet communication, allowing remote terminal access to
systems.

These are some of the basic Internet protocols along with their commonly used port
numbers. Note that while these port numbers are standardized, they can be
configured differently in certain scenarios or customized based on specific
requirements.
9. List any four ES6 features.
A. ES6, also known as ECMAScript 2015, introduced several new features and
enhancements to JavaScript. Here are four prominent features of ES6:

Arrow Functions: Arrow functions provide a more concise syntax for writing
anonymous functions. They use a shorter syntax and automatically bind the this
keyword to the surrounding context.
// ES5 function
var add = function(a, b) {
return a + b;
};
// ES6 arrow function
const add = (a, b) => a + b;

Let and Const: ES6 introduced block-scoped variables using let and const. let allows
variable declarations that are block-scoped, and const declares constants that cannot
be reassigned.
// ES5 variable
var x = 10;
x = 20; // Reassigning is allowed
// ES6 let
let y = 10;
y = 20; // Reassigning is allowed within the block
// ES6 const
const z = 10;
z = 20; // Error: Cannot reassign a constant variable

Template Literals: Template literals provide a convenient way to create strings using
backticks () instead of single or double quotes. They support multiline strings and
string interpolation using ${}` syntax.
// ES5 string concatenation
var name = 'John';
var message = 'Hello, ' + name + '!';
// ES6 template literal
const name = 'John';

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const message = `Hello, ${name}!`;

Destructuring Assignment: Destructuring assignment allows you to extract values


from arrays or objects into distinct variables, making code more concise and
readable.
// ES5 array destructuring
var numbers = [1, 2, 3];
var a = numbers[0];
var b = numbers[1];
var c = numbers[2];
// ES6 array destructuring
const numbers = [1, 2, 3];
const [a, b, c] = numbers;

These are just a few of the many features introduced in ES6, which significantly
improved the capabilities and readability of JavaScript code. Other features include
classes, default parameters, rest parameters, spread operators, and more.
10. Name and explain few git commands along with their commands
and syntax
A. Few common Git commands along with their syntax and explanations:

1. git init:
• Syntax: git init [directory]
• Explanation: Initializes a new Git repository in the specified directory or in
the current directory if no directory is provided. This command creates a
new .git directory with the necessary files to start tracking changes.
2. git clone:
• Syntax: git clone [repository URL] [directory]
• Explanation: Copies an existing Git repository along with its files and history
to a new directory. The repository URL specifies the source repository to
clone from, and the optional directory specifies the destination directory.
3. git add:
• Syntax: git add [file(s) or directory]
• Explanation: Adds changes in the working directory to the staging area for
the next commit. This command stages new files, modified files, or file
deletions.
4. git commit:
• Syntax: git commit -m "Commit message"
• Explanation: Records the changes staged in the staging area into the Git
repository. The commit message describes the changes made in the commit.
-m flag is used to provide a commit message inline.

11
5. git status:
• Syntax: git status
• Explanation: Displays the current status of the working directory and staging
area. It shows which files are modified, which files are staged for the next
commit, and which files are not tracked by Git.
6. git push:
• Syntax: git push [remote] [branch]
• Explanation: Pushes local commits to a remote repository. The remote is the
name of the remote repository, and the branch is the branch name to push
commits to.
7. git pull:
• Syntax: git pull [remote] [branch]
• Explanation: Fetches changes from a remote repository and merges them
into the current local branch. It is equivalent to running git fetch followed by
git merge.
8. git branch:
• Syntax: git branch [branch-name]
• Explanation: Lists existing branches or creates a new branch with the
specified name. When used without arguments, it lists all branches in the
repository.
9. git checkout:
• Syntax: git checkout [branch-name] or git checkout -b [new-branch-name]
• Explanation: Switches between branches or creates a new branch and
switches to it. When used with -b flag, it creates a new branch with the
specified name and checks it out.
10. git merge:
• Syntax: git merge [branch]
• Explanation: Merges changes from the specified branch into the current
branch. It combines the changes made in the specified branch with the
current branch.

These are just a few of the many Git commands available. Each command serves a
specific purpose and helps in managing the version control of your project.
11. Differentiate Centralized vs Distributed version control system?
A.

12
12. Write a short note on destructing in ES6.
A. Destructuring assignment is a feature introduced in ES6 (ECMAScript 2015) that
provides a concise syntax for extracting values from arrays or objects into distinct
variables. It allows you to unpack values from arrays or properties from objects into
separate variables, making code more readable and expressive.

In destructuring assignment, you use square brackets [] for arrays and curly braces {}
for objects. Here's a brief overview of how destructuring works:

Array Destructuring:
• Syntax: const [var1, var2, ...] = array;
• Example:

const numbers = [1, 2, 3];


const [a, b, c] = numbers;
console.log(a); // Output: 1
console.log(b); // Output: 2
console.log(c); // Output: 3

Object Destructuring:
• Syntax: const { prop1, prop2, ... } = object;
• Example:

const person = { name: 'John', age: 30 };


const { name, age } = person;
console.log(name); // Output: John
console.log(age); // Output: 30

13
Default Values:
• You can also provide default values for variables in destructuring
assignments, which will be used if the corresponding value does not exist in
the array or object.
• Example:

const numbers = [1, 2];


const [a, b, c = 0] = numbers;
console.log(c); // Output: 0 (default value)

Nested Destructuring:
• Destructuring assignment can also be nested, allowing you to extract values
from nested arrays or objects.
• Example:

const nestedArray = [1, [2, 3]];


const [x, [y, z]] = nestedArray;
console.log(y); // Output: 2
console.log(z); // Output: 3

Destructuring assignment is a powerful feature that simplifies code and makes it


more expressive by allowing you to extract values from arrays or objects in a concise
and readable manner. It's commonly used in functions that return multiple values or
when working with complex data structures.
13. ⁠Features and significance of GIT
A. Git is a distributed version control system (DVCS) designed for tracking changes
in source code during software development. It offers a plethora of features and
holds significant importance in modern software development workflows. Here are
some of its key features and significance:
1. Distributed Development: Git allows developers to work on their own local
copies of a project's repository. This decentralized approach enables developers
to work offline and collaborate with others without being dependent on a
central server.
2. Branching and Merging: Git provides robust support for branching and
merging, allowing developers to create separate branches to work on features
or fixes independently. Branches can be easily merged back into the main
codebase, facilitating parallel development and experimentation.
3. Lightweight and Fast: Git is designed to be lightweight and highly performant,
making it suitable for both small and large projects. Operations such as
committing changes, switching branches, and merging are typically fast, even in
repositories with thousands of files.

14
4. Data Integrity: Git ensures the integrity of your data through the use of
cryptographic hashing. Each commit in Git is identified by a unique hash,
computed based on the contents of the commit. This ensures that the entire
history of changes is tamper-proof and can be verified.
5. Staging Area: Git introduces the concept of a staging area (also known as the
index), which allows developers to selectively stage changes before committing
them to the repository. This provides finer control over what changes are
included in each commit.
6. Flexible Workflow: Git supports various workflow models, including
centralized, feature branching, Gitflow, and others. Teams can choose a
workflow that best suits their development process and adapt it as needed.
7. Collaboration: Git enables seamless collaboration among developers through
features like remote repositories, pull requests, and code reviews. Developers
can push their changes to a shared remote repository, review each other's code,
and propose changes via pull requests.
8. Open Source and Community Support: Git is an open-source project with a
large and active community. This community-driven development model
ensures continuous improvement, ongoing support, and a wealth of resources
and tools available to developers.
9. Support for Large Projects: Git is well-suited for managing large and complex
codebases with thousands of files and contributors. Its efficient handling of
branching, merging, and distributed workflows makes it scalable and reliable
for projects of all sizes.
10. Integration with Tools: Git integrates seamlessly with a wide range of
development tools and services, including IDEs, code hosting platforms (e.g.,
GitHub, GitLab, Bitbucket), continuous integration (CI) pipelines, and issue
tracking systems.

In summary, Git offers a powerful set of features that streamline the development
process, improve collaboration, and ensure the integrity and reliability of version-
controlled codebases. Its widespread adoption and robust ecosystem make it an
indispensable tool for modern software development.
14. In how many ways we can define variables in JS?
A. In JavaScript, variables can be defined using three keywords: var, let, and const.
• var: The traditional way of declaring variables in JavaScript. It has function
scope or global scope, depending on where it is declared.
• let: Introduced in ES6, let allows you to declare block-scoped variables, which
are limited to the block, statement, or expression in which they are defined.

15
• const: Also introduced in ES6, const allows you to declare variables whose
values are constant and cannot be re-assigned. It also has block scope.

15. Discuss about let and const keywords used for defining the
members in JS.
A.
• let: It declares a block-scoped variable that can be reassigned a new value.
let x = 10;
x = 20; // Valid

• const: It declares a block-scoped constant that cannot be reassigned. However,


for objects and arrays, the properties or elements can be modified.
const y = 10;
y = 20; // Error: Assignment to constant variable

16. What are arrow functions?


A. Arrow functions, introduced in ES6, provide a concise syntax for writing function
expressions. They are especially useful for callbacks and shorter function definitions.
// Traditional function expression
const add = function(a, b) {
return a + b;
};
// Arrow function
const add = (a, b) => a + b;

17. What are modules? How to create module and use in other JS
documents?
A. Modules in JavaScript allow you to break down your code into smaller, reusable
components. ES6 introduced the import and export keywords for defining modules.
• To create a module, you use the export keyword to export functions, objects, or
variables from a file.
• To use a module in another file, you use the import keyword followed by the
module's path and the name of the exported member.
// math.js
export const add = (a, b) => a + b;
// main.js
import { add } from './math.js';

18. What are function generators?

16
A. Function generators are a special type of function that can pause execution and
yield multiple values. They are declared using function* syntax.
function* generator() {
yield 1;
yield 2;
yield 3;
}

19. How to employ the asynchronous nature into java script?


A. Asynchronous JavaScript allows you to execute code concurrently without
blocking the main thread. This is achieved using asynchronous functions, callbacks,
promises, and async/await.
• Callbacks: Traditional approach to handle asynchronous operations. Functions
are passed as arguments and called when the operation completes.
• Promises: Introduced in ES6, promises represent a value that may be available
now, in the future, or never. They provide a cleaner alternative to callbacks for
handling asynchronous operations.
• Async/Await: Introduced in ES8, async/await is a syntactic sugar built on top of
promises, making asynchronous code look more synchronous and easier to
read.
async function getData() {
try {
const response = await fetch('https://api.example.com/data');
const data = await response.json();
console.log(data);
} catch (error) {
console.error('Error:', error);
}
}

LONG ANSWERS
1. What is Version Control System? Explain the various git commands
that are used in order to manage the local repository?
A. Version Control System (VCS): Version Control System (VCS) is a software tool
that helps in managing changes to source code over time. It allows developers to
track modifications, collaborate with others, revert to previous versions, and manage
different versions of their codebase efficiently. VCS is crucial for software
development projects to maintain code quality, track progress, and facilitate
collaboration among team members.

17
Git Commands for Managing Local Repository:
git init: Initializes a new Git repository in the current directory.
git init

git clone: Copies a repository from a remote source to the local machine.
git clone <repository_URL>

git add: Adds changes in the working directory to the staging area.
git add <file_name>

git commit: Records changes in the repository along with a commit message.
git commit -m "Commit message"

git status: Shows the current status of the working directory and staging area.
git status

git diff: Displays the differences between the working directory and the staging area.
git diff

git log: Shows the commit history of the repository.


git log

git checkout: Switches branches or restores files from the staging area or a specific
commit.
git checkout <branch_name>

git branch: Lists, creates, or deletes branches in the repository.


git branch

git merge: Combines changes from one branch into another.


git merge <branch_name>

git pull: Fetches changes from a remote repository and merges them into the
current branch.
git pull

git push: Uploads local repository changes to a remote repository.


git push

These are some of the commonly used Git commands for managing a local
repository. They help in version control, collaboration, and tracking changes

18
effectively during software development.
2. Create a simple web application using HTML 5 and CSS 3 features,
add it to the local repository. Explain the steps needed to push the
local repository to the remote repository using git bash console. (use
either GitHub or bitbucket for the remote repository)
A. To create a simple web application using HTML5 and CSS3 and push it to a
remote repository using Git Bash console, follow these steps:
1. Create a Simple Web Application:
• Create a new directory for your project.
• Inside the directory, create an HTML file (e.g., index.html) and a CSS file (e.g.,
style.css).
• Write your HTML code for the web page layout in the index.html file.
• Use CSS3 features to style your web page in the style.css file.
Example index.html:
html
Copy code
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<title>Simple Web Application</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="style.css">
</head>
<body>
<header>
<h1>Welcome to My Web Application</h1>
</header>
<main>
<p>This is a simple web application created using HTML5 and CSS3.</p>
</main>
<footer>
<p>&copy; 2024 Samrath</p>
</footer>
</body>
</html>

Example style.css:
css
Copy code
body {
font-family: Arial, sans-serif;
background-color: #f0f0f0;

19
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
}

header {
background-color: #333;
color: #fff;
padding: 20px;
text-align: center;
}

main {
padding: 20px;
}

footer {
background-color: #333;
color: #fff;
padding: 10px;
text-align: center;
}

2. Initialize a Git Repository:


• Open Git Bash console.
• Navigate to the directory of your project using the cd command.
• Initialize a new Git repository using the git init command:
git init

2. Add and Commit Files:


• Add the HTML and CSS files to the staging area using the git add command:

git add index.html style.css

• Commit the changes to the local repository with a meaningful commit


message using the git commit command:
git commit -m "Initial commit: Added HTML and CSS files"

2. Create a Remote Repository:


• Go to GitHub or Bitbucket and create a new repository.
• Copy the repository URL.

20
2. Add Remote Repository:
• Add the URL of the remote repository as the origin using the git remote add
command:
git remote add origin <remote_repository_URL>

2. Push to Remote Repository:


• Push the local repository to the remote repository's master branch using the
git push command:
git push -u origin master

• You may be prompted to enter your credentials for authentication.


2. Verify on Remote Repository:
• Go to your GitHub or Bitbucket account and verify that the files have been
pushed to the remote repository.
By following these steps, you have successfully created a simple web application
using HTML5 and CSS3, initialized a Git repository, and pushed it to a remote
repository using Git Bash console.
3. How to create a new Git repository and make the repository public?
A. Create a New Repository on GitHub:
• Go to the GitHub website (https://github.com/).
• Log in to your GitHub account or create a new one if you don't have an
account.
• Click on the "+" icon in the top-right corner of the page and select "New
repository" from the dropdown menu.
• Enter a name for your repository.
• Optionally, you can add a description for your repository.
• Choose whether you want your repository to be public or private. To make it
public, leave the checkbox unchecked.
• Optionally, you can initialize the repository with a README file, add a .gitignore
file, or choose a license.
• Click on the "Create repository" button to create your new repository.
4. List and explain the differences between var, let and const. Discuss
about the arrow functions. How these functions are different from
regular functions in Java Script. Explain with suitable example.
A.

21
Arrow functions, introduced in ES6 (ECMAScript 2015), provide a concise syntax for
writing anonymous functions in JavaScript. They offer a more concise and cleaner
way to define functions compared to traditional function expressions. Here are some
key differences between arrow functions and regular functions in JavaScript:

1. Syntax:
• Arrow function syntax is more concise than traditional function syntax.
• Arrow functions do not have their own this, arguments, super, or new.target
keywords.
• Arrow functions are defined using the => arrow syntax.
2. this Binding:
• Arrow functions inherit the this value from the surrounding lexical context.
They do not have their own this value.
• Regular functions have their own this value, which is determined by how
they are called.
3. Implicit Return:
• Arrow functions with a single expression implicitly return the result of that
expression without using the return keyword.
• Regular functions require the return keyword to explicitly return a value.
4. No arguments Object:
• Arrow functions do not have an arguments object.
• Regular functions have an arguments object that contains all the arguments
passed to the function.

22
5. Cannot Be Used as Constructors:
• Arrow functions cannot be used as constructors to create objects using the
new keyword.
• Regular functions can be used as constructors to create objects.

Here's an example to illustrate the differences:


// Regular Function
function greet(name) {
return "Hello, " + name + "!";
}
console.log(greet("Jack")); // Output: Hello, Jack!
// Arrow Function
const greetArrow = name => "Hello, " + name + "!";
console.log(greetArrow("Tillu")); // Output: Hello, Tillu!

In this example:
• The greet function is a regular function that takes a name parameter and
returns a greeting message.
• The greetArrow function is an arrow function with a single expression that
implicitly returns the greeting message.
• Both functions produce the same output, but the arrow function syntax is more
concise and doesn't require the return keyword.
5. What is the importance of asynchronous programming? How to
achieve it in Java Script using async / await? Explain with an example.
A. Asynchronous programming is crucial in JavaScript because it allows code
execution to continue without waiting for time-consuming operations to complete.
This is particularly important when dealing with tasks such as fetching data from an
API, reading files, or waiting for user input. Asynchronous programming helps
prevent blocking, making applications more responsive and efficient.
JavaScript provides several mechanisms for asynchronous programming, including
callbacks, Promises, and async/await.
Async/await is a modern approach to asynchronous programming introduced in
ES2017 (ES8). It provides a more readable and concise syntax for working with
asynchronous code compared to traditional callback-based or Promise-based
approaches.

Here's how async/await works in JavaScript:


1. async Function:
• The async keyword is used to define a function as asynchronous.

23
• An async function always returns a Promise, which resolves with the
function's return value, or rejects with an error thrown inside the function.
2. await Operator:
• The await keyword is used to pause the execution of an async function until
a Promise is resolved.
• It can only be used inside async functions.
• When used with a Promise, await waits for the Promise to settle (either
resolve or reject) and returns the resolved value.

Here's an example demonstrating how to use async/await in JavaScript:

// Simulating an asynchronous operation (fetching user data from an API)


function fetchUserData() {
return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
setTimeout(() => {
const userData = { id: 1, name: 'John Doe', email: '[email protected]' };
resolve(userData); // Resolve with user data after 1 second delay
}, 1000);
});
}
// Asynchronous function using async/await
async function getUserDetails() {
try {
// Wait for the Promise to resolve and get user data
const userData = await fetchUserData();
console.log('User Details:', userData);
return userData; // Return user data
} catch (error) {
console.error('Error fetching user data:', error);
throw error; // Throw error if Promise is rejected
}
}
// Calling the async function
getUserDetails()
.then(userData => {
console.log('Async Function Completed');
})
.catch(error => {
console.error('Async Function Failed:', error);
});

In this example:
• The fetchUserData function simulates an asynchronous operation of fetching
user data from an API. It returns a Promise that resolves with user data after a
1-second delay.

24
• The getUserDetails function is defined as an async function. Inside this function,
await is used to wait for the fetchUserData Promise to resolve. Once resolved, it
logs the user data and returns it.
• We call the getUserDetails function using .then() and .catch() to handle the
resolved value or any errors that occur during execution.
6. Explain difference between synchronous and asynchronous
programming?
A.

In JavaScript, synchronous and asynchronous programming refer to two different


approaches for handling code execution and managing tasks.
1. Synchronous Programming:
• In synchronous programming, code is executed sequentially, one statement
at a time, in the order in which it appears.
• Each statement waits for the previous one to complete before executing.
• Synchronous operations block the execution of subsequent code until they
are finished.
• This can lead to blocking behavior, where the entire application becomes
unresponsive while waiting for a task to complete.
•Example: Reading a file synchronously, where the code waits until the entire
file is read before continuing.
2. Asynchronous Programming:
• In asynchronous programming, code does not wait for a task to complete
before moving on to the next one.
• Asynchronous operations run concurrently with other code and do not block
the execution of subsequent tasks.
• Asynchronous operations are non-blocking, meaning that the program can
continue to execute while waiting for I/O operations (such as fetching data
from an API, reading files, or waiting for user input) to complete.
• Asynchronous programming is typically used for tasks that may take some
time to complete, such as network requests or file I/O, to prevent blocking
the main thread and keep the application responsive.
• JavaScript provides several mechanisms for working with asynchronous
code, including callbacks, Promises, and async/await.
• Example: Fetching data from an API asynchronously, where the code
continues to execute while waiting for the response from the server.

25
In summary, synchronous programming follows a sequential execution model where
each operation blocks the next one, while asynchronous programming allows tasks
to run concurrently, improving performance and responsiveness by preventing
blocking behavior.
7. Explain the concept of destructing using both arrays and objects.
A. Destructuring assignment is a feature introduced in ES6 (ECMAScript 2015) that
provides a concise syntax for extracting values from arrays or objects into distinct
variables. It allows you to unpack values from arrays or properties from objects into
separate variables, making code more readable and expressive.

In destructuring assignment, you use square brackets [] for arrays and curly braces {}
for objects. Here's a brief overview of how destructuring works:

Array Destructuring:
• Syntax: const [var1, var2, ...] = array;
• Example:

const numbers = [1, 2, 3];


const [a, b, c] = numbers;
console.log(a); // Output: 1
console.log(b); // Output: 2
console.log(c); // Output: 3

Object Destructuring:
• Syntax: const { prop1, prop2, ... } = object;
• Example:

const person = { name: 'John', age: 30 };


const { name, age } = person;
console.log(name); // Output: John
console.log(age); // Output: 30

8. Explain Function Generators with suitable example.


A. Function generators are a special type of function in JavaScript that allow you to
control the execution of a function using iteration. They are defined using the
function* syntax and utilize the yield keyword to pause and resume execution.

Here's a brief explanation of function generators along with a suitable example:

Function Generators:

26
• Function generators are functions that can be paused and resumed, allowing
you to generate a sequence of values over time.
• They are defined using the function* syntax, and the body of the generator
function contains one or more yield expressions.
• When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator object that can be
used to iterate over the sequence of values generated by the generator.
function* generateSequence() {
yield 1;
yield 2;
yield 3;
}
// Creating an iterator from the generator function
const iterator = generateSequence();
// Iterating over the sequence of values
console.log(iterator.next()); // Output: { value: 1, done: false }
console.log(iterator.next()); // Output: { value: 2, done: false }
console.log(iterator.next()); // Output: { value: 3, done: false }
console.log(iterator.next()); // Output: { value: undefined, done: true }

In this example:
• We define a generator function generateSequence using the function* syntax.
• Inside the generator function, we use the yield keyword to yield three values: 1,
2, and 3.
• We create an iterator object iterator by calling the generateSequence function.
• We use the next() method of the iterator to iterate over the sequence of values
generated by the generator.
• Each call to next() returns an object with two properties: value, which contains
the next generated value, and done, which indicates whether the generator has
finished generating values.

Function generators are useful for generating sequences of values lazily, handling
asynchronous operations, and implementing iterators and iterables in JavaScript.
They provide a powerful mechanism for controlling the flow of execution in complex
asynchronous scenarios.
9. What are Promises? Explain how to create, use, and chain Promises
with an example.
A. Promises in JavaScript are objects that represent the eventual completion or
failure of an asynchronous operation and its resulting value. They allow you to
handle asynchronous operations in a more readable and manageable way compared
to traditional callback-based approaches.

27
Creating a Promise:
You can create a new Promise using the Promise constructor. The constructor takes a
function as an argument, which in turn takes two parameters: resolve and reject.
Inside this function, you perform the asynchronous operation, and when it's done,
you call resolve with the result or reject with an error if any.
const myPromise = new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
// Perform an asynchronous operation
setTimeout(() => {
const randomNumber = Math.random();
if (randomNumber > 0.5) {
resolve(randomNumber); // Resolve with a value
} else {
reject(new Error('Random number is too low')); // Reject with an error
}
}, 1000);
});

Using a Promise:
You can use the then() method to handle the fulfillment of a Promise and the catch()
method to handle its rejection.
myPromise
.then((result) => {
console.log('Success:', result);
})
.catch((error) => {
console.error('Error:', error.message);
});

Chaining Promises:
You can chain multiple Promises together using the then() method, allowing you to
execute asynchronous operations sequentially.
const promise1 = new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
setTimeout(() => resolve('First'), 1000);
});
const promise2 = new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
setTimeout(() => resolve('Second'), 500);
});
promise1
.then((result) => {
console.log(result);
return promise2;
})
.then((result) => {
console.log(result);

28
.catch((error) => {
console.error(error);
});

In this example:
• We create two Promises (promise1 and promise2) that resolve with different
values after a certain delay.
• We chain these Promises together using the then() method.
• When promise1 resolves, we log its result, and then we return promise2 from
the then() handler.
• When promise2 resolves, we log its result as well.

Promises provide a cleaner and more structured way to handle asynchronous code,
especially when dealing with multiple asynchronous operations or complex
asynchronous workflows. They improve code readability, maintainability, and error
handling.

UNIT - II
SHORT ANSWERS
1. What is NoSQL?
A. NoSQL, or "Not Only SQL," refers to a family of database management systems
that are designed to store and retrieve data in formats other than the tabular
relations used in relational databases. NoSQL databases are typically used for large-
scale distributed data stores, real-time web applications, and other scenarios where
traditional relational databases may not be the best fit due to scalability,
performance, or schema flexibility requirements.
2. Write short notes on unstructured data. Compare structured and
unstructured data.
A. Unstructured Data: Unstructured data refers to data that does not adhere to a
particular data model or schema, making it difficult to organize, process, and analyze
using traditional methods. Examples of unstructured data include text documents,
images, videos, social media posts, and sensor data. Structured data, on the other
hand, is organized into a predefined format with a well-defined schema, such as
relational databases where data is stored in tables with rows and columns.
Comparison:

29
• Structured Data: Organized into a predefined format with a fixed schema.
Easier to analyze and query using SQL. Examples include relational databases.
• Unstructured Data: Does not adhere to a particular schema. More challenging
to analyze and process, often requiring specialized tools and techniques.
Examples include text documents, images, and sensor data.
3. Explain the difference between SQL and NoSQL.
A.

4. What are the different types of NoSQL databases?


A.

30
There are four main types of NoSQL databases, each designed to handle specific
types of data and use cases. Here are the types along with examples:

1. Document Stores:
• Description: Document stores store data in a semi-structured format,
typically using JSON or BSON (binary JSON) documents. Each document can
have its own schema, allowing for flexibility.
• Examples:
◦ MongoDB: A popular document-oriented database that provides high
performance, scalability, and flexible data modeling. It is widely used for
a variety of applications, including content management, real-time
analytics, and IoT data storage.
◦ Couchbase: A distributed NoSQL database that combines the flexibility of
JSON documents with the scalability of key-value stores. It is often used
for caching, session management, and mobile applications.
2. Key-Value Stores:
• Description: Key-value stores store data as a collection of key-value pairs.
They offer fast and efficient data access but lack advanced query capabilities.
• Examples:
◦ Redis: An in-memory data store that supports various data structures like
strings, hashes, lists, sets, and sorted sets. It is often used for caching,
session management, real-time analytics, and messaging.
◦ Amazon DynamoDB: A fully managed NoSQL database service provided
by AWS. It offers seamless scalability, high availability, and low latency for
applications with large-scale data requirements.
3. Wide-Column Stores:
• Description: Wide-column stores organize data into columns instead of
rows, allowing for efficient storage and retrieval of large volumes of data.
They are commonly used for time-series data, sensor data, and content
management systems.
• Examples:
◦ Apache Cassandra: A distributed NoSQL database designed for scalability
and high availability. It provides linear scalability and fault tolerance
across multiple data centers, making it suitable for large-scale, real-time
applications.
◦ HBase: An open-source, distributed database modeled after Google's
Bigtable. It is built on top of the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)
and is used for random, real-time read/write access to large datasets.

31
4. Graph Databases:
• Description: Graph databases model data as nodes, edges, and properties,
allowing for the representation and querying of complex relationships
between entities. They are used for social networks, recommendation
engines, fraud detection, and network analysis.
• Examples:
◦ Neo4j: A popular graph database that provides a flexible data model and
powerful query language (Cypher). It is optimized for traversing and
querying highly connected data, making it ideal for applications that
require complex relationship analysis.
◦ Amazon Neptune: A fully managed graph database service provided by
AWS. It supports both property graph and RDF graph models, making it
suitable for a wide range of graph-based applications in areas such as
social networking, knowledge graphs, and recommendation systems.
5. What do you mean by Sharding?
A. Sharding is a technique used in distributed database systems, including
MongoDB, to horizontally partition data across multiple servers or nodes. It involves
breaking up a large dataset into smaller, more manageable chunks called shards.
Each shard is stored on a separate server or replica set, allowing for improved
scalability, performance, and fault tolerance.

The process of sharding typically involves the following steps:

1. Data Partitioning: The dataset is divided into smaller subsets, or shards, based
on a shard key. The shard key is a field or combination of fields chosen to
evenly distribute data across shards. MongoDB automatically assigns each
document to a shard based on the shard key.
2. Shard Cluster Setup: MongoDB uses a shard cluster to manage the distribution
of data across shards. A shard cluster consists of multiple shard servers, each
responsible for storing a portion of the dataset, and one or more config servers
that maintain metadata about the cluster configuration.
3. Shard Distribution: Once the shard cluster is set up, MongoDB distributes the
shards evenly across the available servers. Each shard contains a subset of the
dataset, and MongoDB ensures that each shard is balanced in terms of data
size and query load.

32
4. Query Routing: When a client application sends a query to the MongoDB
cluster, the query router (mongos) routes the query to the appropriate shard
based on the shard key. The query router is responsible for directing read and
write operations to the correct shard servers.
5. Data Migration: As the dataset grows or changes over time, MongoDB may
need to rebalance data across shards to maintain even distribution and
performance. Data migration involves moving data between shards while
ensuring minimal impact on the overall system performance.

Sharding allows MongoDB to scale horizontally by distributing data across multiple


servers, enabling high availability, fault tolerance, and improved read and write
throughput. It also allows MongoDB to handle large datasets that would not fit in
memory on a single server. However, sharding adds complexity to the database
architecture and requires careful planning and management to ensure optimal
performance and scalability.
6. List the mapping of SQL things with MongoDB.
A. Below is a mapping of common SQL concepts to their counterparts in MongoDB:

1. Database:
• SQL: Database
• MongoDB: Database
2. Table:
• SQL: Table
• MongoDB: Collection
3. Row/Record:
• SQL: Row or Record
• MongoDB: Document
4. Column:
• SQL: Column
• MongoDB: Field
5. Primary Key:
• SQL: Primary Key (Usually a unique identifier for each row)
• MongoDB: _id field (Automatically generated unique identifier for each
document)
6. Schema:
• SQL: Schema (Defines the structure of the database, including tables,
columns, data types, constraints, etc.)

33
• MongoDB: Schema-less (MongoDB does not enforce a schema; each
document can have a different structure within the same collection)
7. Query Language:
• SQL: Structured Query Language (Used to query and manipulate relational
databases)
• MongoDB: MongoDB Query Language (Provides methods and operators for
querying MongoDB databases)
8. JOIN:
• SQL: JOIN (Combines rows from two or more tables based on a related
column between them)
• MongoDB: No JOINs (MongoDB denormalizes data and uses embedded
documents or references for related data instead of JOIN operations)
9. Index:
• SQL: Index (Improves the performance of queries by providing faster data
retrieval)
• MongoDB: Index (Similar concept to SQL indexes, used to improve query
performance)
10. Transaction:
• SQL: Transaction (A sequence of operations treated as a single unit of work that
must be either fully completed or fully rolled back)
• MongoDB: Limited support (MongoDB supports multi-document transactions
starting from version 4.0 for replica sets and version 4.2 for sharded clusters)
11. ACID Properties:
• SQL: ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability)
• MongoDB: ACID (MongoDB provides ACID compliance at the document level,
ensuring that individual operations are atomic, consistent, isolated, and
durable)

These mappings provide a basic understanding of how SQL concepts align with
MongoDB's document-oriented data model. However, it's important to note that
MongoDB has its own unique features and capabilities that differ from traditional
relational databases.

7. What are the steps to follow to create a database in firebase cloud.


A. Steps to Create a Database in Firebase Cloud:
1. Create a Firebase Project: Sign in to the Firebase Console, click on "Add
Project," and follow the prompts to create a new Firebase project.

34
2. Set Up Firebase SDK: Add Firebase to your web app by copying the Firebase
SDK configuration snippet into your HTML file.
3. Enable Firebase Database: In the Firebase Console, navigate to the "Database"
section and choose either Firestore or Realtime Database. Enable the database
for your project.
4. Define Database Rules: Configure security rules for your database to control
who has read and write access to your data.
5. Start Using the Database: You can now start using the Firebase SDK to interact
with your database from your web or mobile app.

LONG ANSWERS
1. List and explain the different types of NoSQL databases.
A.
There are four main types of NoSQL databases, each designed to handle specific
types of data and use cases. Here are the types along with examples:

1. Document Stores:
• Description: Document stores store data in a semi-structured format,
typically using JSON or BSON (binary JSON) documents. Each document can
have its own schema, allowing for flexibility.
• Examples:
◦ MongoDB: A popular document-oriented database that provides high
performance, scalability, and flexible data modeling. It is widely used for
a variety of applications, including content management, real-time
analytics, and IoT data storage.
◦ Couchbase: A distributed NoSQL database that combines the flexibility of
JSON documents with the scalability of key-value stores. It is often used
for caching, session management, and mobile applications.
2. Key-Value Stores:
• Description: Key-value stores store data as a collection of key-value pairs.
They offer fast and efficient data access but lack advanced query capabilities.
• Examples:
◦ Redis: An in-memory data store that supports various data structures like
strings, hashes, lists, sets, and sorted sets. It is often used for caching,
session management, real-time analytics, and messaging.
◦ Amazon DynamoDB: A fully managed NoSQL database service provided
by AWS. It offers seamless scalability, high availability, and low latency for
applications with large-scale data requirements.

35
3. Wide-Column Stores:
• Description: Wide-column stores organize data into columns instead of
rows, allowing for efficient storage and retrieval of large volumes of data.
They are commonly used for time-series data, sensor data, and content
management systems.
• Examples:
◦ Apache Cassandra: A distributed NoSQL database designed for scalability
and high availability. It provides linear scalability and fault tolerance
across multiple data centers, making it suitable for large-scale, real-time
applications.
◦ HBase: An open-source, distributed database modeled after Google's
Bigtable. It is built on top of the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)
and is used for random, real-time read/write access to large datasets.
4. Graph Databases:
• Description: Graph databases model data as nodes, edges, and properties,
allowing for the representation and querying of complex relationships
between entities. They are used for social networks, recommendation
engines, fraud detection, and network analysis.
• Examples:
◦ Neo4j: A popular graph database that provides a flexible data model and
powerful query language (Cypher). It is optimized for traversing and
querying highly connected data, making it ideal for applications that
require complex relationship analysis.
◦ Amazon Neptune: A fully managed graph database service provided by
AWS. It supports both property graph and RDF graph models, making it
suitable for a wide range of graph-based applications in areas such as
social networking, knowledge graphs, and recommendation systems.
2. What is the CAP theorem? How is it applicable to NoSQL systems?
A. The CAP theorem, also known as Brewer's theorem, states that it is impossible for
a distributed computer system to simultaneously provide all three of the following
guarantees:

1. Consistency (C): Every read receives the most recent write or an error.
2. Availability (A): Every request receives a response, without the guarantee that it
contains the most recent write.
3. Partition tolerance (P): The system continues to operate despite network
partitions or message loss between nodes.

36
In distributed systems, partition tolerance is a must, as network partitions are
inevitable. However, the CAP theorem states that when there is a network partition
(P), a distributed system must choose between maintaining consistency (C) or
availability (A).

NoSQL databases often prioritize either consistency and availability (CA systems) or
consistency and partition tolerance (CP systems), sacrificing availability during
network partitions. The choice between CA and CP systems depends on the specific
requirements and use cases of the application.

Some NoSQL systems, such as MongoDB, tend to prioritize consistency and partition
tolerance (CP), ensuring data integrity even in the face of network partitions. On the
other hand, systems like Cassandra prioritize availability and partition tolerance (AP),
ensuring that the system remains available even in the event of network partitions,
even if it means sacrificing immediate consistency.

Understanding the CAP theorem helps developers and architects make informed
decisions when designing and choosing NoSQL databases based on the specific
needs of their applications.

3. List and explain the various mongoDB commands used to create and
use the database table.
A. In MongoDB, the mongod command is primarily used to start the MongoDB
server. It's not used directly to create or manage databases and collections (which
are akin to tables in relational databases). Instead, you would typically use the
mongo shell or a MongoDB client application to interact with the server.

However, let's discuss some important commands related to managing databases


and collections using the mongo shell:

37
use <database>: Switches to the specified database. If the database does not exist,
MongoDB creates it.
Example:
use my_database

show dbs: Lists all databases on the MongoDB server.


Example:
show dbs

db.createCollection(name, options): Creates a new collection in the current


database with the specified name and options.
Example:
db.createCollection("my_collection")

show collections: Lists all collections in the current database.


Example:
show collections

db.collection.insertOne(document): Inserts a single document into the specified


collection.
Example:
db.my_collection.insertOne({ name: "John", age: 30 })

db.collection.insertMany(documents): Inserts multiple documents into the


specified collection.
Example:
db.my_collection.insertMany([{ name: "Alice", age: 25 }, { name: "Bob", age: 35 }])

db.collection.find(query): Retrieves documents from the collection that match the


specified query criteria.
Example:
db.my_collection.find({ age: { $gt: 25 } })

db.collection.updateOne(filter, update): Updates a single document in the


collection that matches the filter criteria.
Example:
db.my_collection.updateOne({ name: "John" }, { $set: { age: 32 } })

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db.collection.updateMany(filter, update): Updates multiple documents in the
collection that match the filter criteria.
Example:
db.my_collection.updateMany({ age: { $lt: 30 } }, { $set: { status: "Young" } })

db.collection.deleteOne(filter): Deletes a single document from the collection that


matches the filter criteria.
Example:
db.my_collection.deleteOne({ name: "Alice" })

db.collection.deleteMany(filter): Deletes multiple documents from the collection


that match the filter criteria.
Example:
db.my_collection.deleteMany({ status: "Old" })

These are some of the basic commands used to create and interact with databases
and collections in MongoDB.
4. Create a simple application that demonstrate the usage of firebase
database and perform the various CRUD operations.
A. Below is a simple Node.js application that demonstrates the usage of Firebase
Realtime Database to perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations:

const firebase = require('firebase');


// Firebase configuration
const firebaseConfig = {
apiKey: "YOUR_API_KEY",
authDomain: "YOUR_AUTH_DOMAIN",
databaseURL: "YOUR_DATABASE_URL",
projectId: "YOUR_PROJECT_ID",
storageBucket: "YOUR_STORAGE_BUCKET",
messagingSenderId: "YOUR_MESSAGING_SENDER_ID",
appId: "YOUR_APP_ID"
};
// Initialize Firebase
firebase.initializeApp(firebaseConfig);
// Get a reference to the database service
const database = firebase.database();
// Create operation
function createUser(name, email) {
const newUserRef = database.ref('users').push();
newUserRef.set({
name: name,
email: email
});

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}
// Read operation
function readUsers() {
database.ref('users').once('value', (snapshot) => {
snapshot.forEach((childSnapshot) => {
const userData = childSnapshot.val();
console.log(`Name: ${userData.name}, Email: ${userData.email}`);
});
});
}
// Update operation
function updateUser(userId, newName) {
const userRef = database.ref('users/' + userId);
userRef.update({ name: newName });
}
// Delete operation
function deleteUser(userId) {
const userRef = database.ref('users/' + userId);
userRef.remove();
}
// Test CRUD operations
createUser('Leo', '[email protected]');
createUser('Partiban', '[email protected]');
readUsers();
updateUser('-Mabcd1234', 'Leo Das');
deleteUser('-Mxyz7890');

Replace the placeholders in the firebaseConfig object with your Firebase project
credentials. This script performs the following operations:
1. Initializes Firebase with your project configuration.
2. Defines functions for CRUD operations: create, read, update, and delete users.
3. Demonstrates the usage of these functions to perform CRUD operations on a
"users" collection in the Firebase Realtime Database.
Make sure you have the Firebase Admin SDK installed in your Node.js environment
by running npm install firebase-admin.
5. What are the key features of MongoDB? Summarize collections in
MongoDB.
A. MongoDB is a popular NoSQL database known for its flexibility, scalability, and
performance. Some key features of MongoDB include:
1. Document-Oriented: MongoDB stores data in flexible, JSON-like documents,
allowing for easy modeling of complex data structures.
2. Scalability: MongoDB scales horizontally, allowing for easy distribution of data
across multiple servers. It supports sharding to distribute data across clusters,
providing high availability and scalability.

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3. High Performance: MongoDB's native support for indexing and query
optimization ensures fast read and write operations, making it suitable for high-
performance applications.
4. Flexible Schema: MongoDB's schema-less design allows for dynamic and
flexible data modeling. Documents within a collection can have different fields,
and fields can vary across documents.
5. Rich Query Language: MongoDB provides a powerful query language with
support for complex queries, aggregation pipelines, and geospatial queries.
6. Replication and Fault Tolerance: MongoDB supports replica sets for data
redundancy and fault tolerance. Replica sets provide automatic failover and
data recovery in case of node failures.
7. Ad Hoc Queries: MongoDB allows for ad hoc queries on any field within a
document, making it easy to query and analyze data without predefined
schema or structure.

Collections in MongoDB:
• Collections are analogous to tables in relational databases.
• A collection is a group of MongoDB documents.
• Collections do not enforce a schema, meaning documents within a collection
can have different fields.
• Collections are schema-less, allowing for flexibility in data modeling.
• Each document within a collection is uniquely identified by a _id field, which
acts as the primary key.
• Collections are typically used to store documents with similar characteristics or
belonging to the same domain.
6. Differentiate between SQL and NoSQL databases.
A.

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7. Explain the process of sharding. What are shards.
A. Sharding is a technique used in distributed database systems, including
MongoDB, to horizontally partition data across multiple servers or nodes. It involves
breaking up a large dataset into smaller, more manageable chunks called shards.
Each shard is stored on a separate server or replica set, allowing for improved
scalability, performance, and fault tolerance.

The process of sharding typically involves the following steps:

42
1. Data Partitioning: The dataset is divided into smaller subsets, or shards, based
on a shard key. The shard key is a field or combination of fields chosen to
evenly distribute data across shards. MongoDB automatically assigns each
document to a shard based on the shard key.
2. Shard Cluster Setup: MongoDB uses a shard cluster to manage the distribution
of data across shards. A shard cluster consists of multiple shard servers, each
responsible for storing a portion of the dataset, and one or more config servers
that maintain metadata about the cluster configuration.
3. Shard Distribution: Once the shard cluster is set up, MongoDB distributes the
shards evenly across the available servers. Each shard contains a subset of the
dataset, and MongoDB ensures that each shard is balanced in terms of data
size and query load.
4. Query Routing: When a client application sends a query to the MongoDB
cluster, the query router (mongos) routes the query to the appropriate shard
based on the shard key. The query router is responsible for directing read and
write operations to the correct shard servers.
5. Data Migration: As the dataset grows or changes over time, MongoDB may
need to rebalance data across shards to maintain even distribution and
performance. Data migration involves moving data between shards while
ensuring minimal impact on the overall system performance.

Sharding allows MongoDB to scale horizontally by distributing data across multiple


servers, enabling high availability, fault tolerance, and improved read and write
throughput. It also allows MongoDB to handle large datasets that would not fit in
memory on a single server. However, sharding adds complexity to the database
architecture and requires careful planning and management to ensure optimal
performance and scalability.
8. What is the difference between a Document and a Collection in
MongoDB?
A.

43
1. Document:
• A document is a basic unit of data in MongoDB, similar to a row in a
relational database table.
• It is represented as a JSON-like structure consisting of field-value pairs.
• Documents are analogous to records or objects in other database systems.
• Each document in a collection can have a different structure, meaning fields
can vary between documents.
• Documents are stored in BSON format (Binary JSON) which extends JSON
with additional data types such as Date and Binary.
• Example:
{
"_id": ObjectId("60992c36f0f315e25e5c739e"),
"name": "John Doe",
"age": 30,
"email": "[email protected]"
}

1. Collection:
• A collection is a group of documents stored in MongoDB, similar to a table
in a relational database.
• Collections do not enforce a schema, meaning documents within a
collection can have different fields and structures.
• Each database can have multiple collections, and each collection can contain
zero or more documents.

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• Collections are not typically pre-allocated, and they are created
automatically when the first document is inserted into them.
• Collections are schema-less, allowing for flexible data modeling and schema
evolution over time.
• Example:
users:
- { "_id": ObjectId("60992c36f0f315e25e5c739e"), "name": "John Doe", "age": 30, "email":
"[email protected]" }
- { "_id": ObjectId("60992c4df0f315e25e5c739f"), "name": "Jane Smith", "age": 25,
"email": "[email protected]" }
- { "_id": ObjectId("60992c5af0f315e25e5c73a0"), "name": "Alice Johnson", "age": 35,
"email": "[email protected]" }

In summary, a document is a single record or object in MongoDB, while a collection


is a grouping of related documents within a database. The flexibility of MongoDB's
document-oriented model allows for dynamic schemas and the storage of diverse
data types within a collection.
9. Write the challenges in migrating from SQL to NoSQL?
A.Migrating from SQL to NoSQL databases poses several challenges due to
fundamental differences in data models, query languages, and design principles.
Some of the key challenges include:

1. Data Model Differences:


• SQL databases follow a rigid, tabular data model with predefined schemas,
while NoSQL databases typically offer flexible, schema-less document, key-
value, wide-column, or graph-based data models.
• Mapping relational data models to NoSQL data models can be complex and
may require restructuring or denormalizing data to fit the new schema.
2. Query Language Differences:
• SQL databases use SQL (Structured Query Language) for querying and
manipulating data, while NoSQL databases often use proprietary query
languages or APIs.
• SQL queries are declarative and powerful, supporting complex joins and
aggregations, whereas NoSQL queries are often simpler and focused on
document retrieval or key-value operations.
3. Transaction Support:

45
• SQL databases typically provide ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability) transactions, ensuring data integrity and consistency, while
NoSQL databases may offer eventual consistency and relaxed transaction
guarantees.
• Ensuring consistency and handling transactions in NoSQL databases may
require redesigning application logic and adopting different concurrency
control mechanisms.
4. Scalability and Performance:
• NoSQL databases are designed for horizontal scalability, enabling
distributed storage and processing across multiple nodes, whereas SQL
databases may face scalability limitations with vertical scaling.
• Migrating to NoSQL may require optimizing data partitioning and sharding
strategies to achieve high availability, fault tolerance, and performance at
scale.
5. Data Migration and Compatibility:
• Migrating data from SQL to NoSQL databases involves extracting,
transforming, and loading (ETL) large volumes of structured data into the
new schema.
• Ensuring data integrity, consistency, and compatibility between the old and
new databases during migration is crucial to avoid data loss or corruption.
6. Tooling and Ecosystem:
• SQL databases have a mature ecosystem of tools, libraries, and frameworks
for data management, administration, and analytics, while NoSQL databases
may have fewer mature tools and community support.
• Adopting new tools, integrating with existing systems, and training
personnel on NoSQL technologies may require additional time and
resources.
7. Application Changes:
• Migrating from SQL to NoSQL may require significant changes to
application code, queries, and data access patterns to leverage the strengths
of the new database.
• Adapting applications to handle eventual consistency, schema evolution,
and different error handling mechanisms in NoSQL databases is essential for
a successful migration.

Overall, migrating from SQL to NoSQL databases involves addressing these


challenges through careful planning, architecture design, data modeling, and testing

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to ensure a smooth transition and maximize the benefits of the new database
technology.
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