Original Research

Bench Press Range-of-Motion and Velocity-based Repetition Control: Effects

on Ballistic Push-up Performance in Males
KYLE S. COLLINS†1, ADAM P. BRADLEY†1, BRYAN K. CHRISTENSEN‡1, ROMAN W.
WALDERA‡2, LUKUS A. KLAWITTER‡3, LIAM OGREN*1, and R.W. SALATTO‡4
1Department of Health, Nutrition, and Exercise Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo,
ND, USA; 2School
of Health and Consumer Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings,
SD, USA; School of Health and Human Performance, Northern Michigan University,
3

Marquette, MI, USA; 4Department of Kinesiology, Vanguard University, Costa Mesa, CA, USA
*Denotes undergraduate student author, †denotes graduate student author, ‡Denotes professional author

ABSTRACT
International Journal of Exercise Science 17(1): 38-53, 2024. The purpose of this study was to investigate
whether the ballistic push-up (BPU) is responsive to post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) after a
bench press conditioning exercise using velocity-based repetition control. Additionally, we aimed to evaluate the
effects of range of motion (ROM) conditions on subsequent BPU performance. In a randomized crossover design,
18 males performed two conditions (full ROM and self-selected partial ROM) of bench press at 80% of their 1RM
until mean concentric velocity dropped 10%. Each participant performed two pre- and six post-test BPUs to assess
the PAPE effect. Paired sample t-tests assessed bench press performance measures. Multiple two-way repeated
measures ANOVAs assessed differences in flight time, impulse, and peak power for the pre- and post-test BPUs.
No significant differences existed between ROM conditions for total repetitions, volume load, or peak velocity.
Compared to partial ROM, full ROM showed greater displacement (0.42 ± 0.05 vs. 0.34 ± 0.05 m), work (331.99 ±
67.72 vs. 270.92 ± 61.42 J), and mean velocity (0.46 ± 0.09 vs. 0.44 ± 0.08 m/s). Neither bench press ROM condition
enhanced the BPU and were detrimental in some cases. Several time points showed partial ROM (flight time: 2 min
post, impulse: 12 min post, peak power: 12 min post) significantly greater than full ROM, possibly indicating less
fatigue accumulation. The BPU may require a different stimulus or may not be practical for PAPE effects in college-
aged males. Partial ROM can be an alternative that achieves similar peak velocities while requiring less overall
work.

KEY WORDS: Spoto Press, conditioning activity, PAPE, velocity loss, linear encoder

INTRODUCTION

The bench press is a popular multi-joint exercise used to strengthen the upper-body musculature
and test upper-body strength (14, 22, 25). Full range-of-motion (ROM) is commonly used and is
characterized by lowering the bar to the chest and then pressing the bar back to full elbow
extension (14, 22, 25). However, the full ROM bench press includes a “sticking region,” or phase
 Int J Exerc Sci 17(1): 38-53, 2024

in the concentric portion of the lift where the bar decelerates, especially at higher loads. This
region is thought to be the result of reduced mechanical force output, and the most likely place
where the lift can fail (8, 14, 25, 27). While solely performing full ROM may not yield optimal
results, including partial ROM exercises can provide stimulus absent of the sticking region and
enhance performance outcomes (8, 27).

Partial ROM exercises have a long history in resistance training and have been the subject of
numerous research studies (8, 25, 26, 30). Partial ROM bench press has been shown to decrease
the concentric velocity of the movement (8, 25); however, research also shows an inverse
relationship with maximal loads and ROM, where less ROM can produce more force and
tolerate heavier maximal loads (7, 8, 25). Indeed, similar (27) and greater strength gains have
been reported with partial ROM compared to full ROM (30). Several methods exist in defining
the exact partial ROM which can involve the use of specialized equipment. For example, a recent
study concluded that using a cambered barbell (greater ROM) increased anterior deltoid muscle
activity, while the standard bar showed greater pectoralis major and triceps brachii-long head
activity (18). Mendonca et al (2021) examined the effects of partial ROM bench press with a
supramaximal load of 130% of the recorded 1 repetition maximum (1RM) and four-boards (10
cm) to control the bottom end of the ROM (28). Other studies have investigated bench press and
at one-third, two-thirds, and full ROM using a smith machine to stop and unload the bar at the
bottom (25). However, the practical application of these may be cost-prohibitive, and
anecdotally, partial ROM can be performed using a standard free-weight barbell to a self-
selected depth.

Increasing upper-body strength is important for athletes and can positively impact performance,
especially for maximal effort, short-duration movements (13, 25, 39). Additionally, performing
a heavy resistance exercise can influence the subsequent force and power output of the targeted
muscles (37, 42, 49). This increase in performance following a high-intensity, voluntary muscle
contraction is known as post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) (37, 49), which is
used in context of applied practice such as improving jump or sprint performance. This can be
differentiated from the more common term post-activation potentiation, which is suggested for
the mechanistic properties of elevated muscle twitch seen in laboratories (37, 49). Recent
literature has demonstrated a lighter, ballistic movement can be enhanced in the minutes
following a high intensity load conditioning exercise (5,42). However, careful consideration
must be given to the volume and intensity of the conditioning exercise, as the stimulus must be
great enough to elicit a PAPE response without causing detrimental acute fatigue (12).

Velocity-based training has emerged as a valid resistance training prescription method that can
account for day-to-day fluctuations in performance and readiness (24, 42, 48). Improvements in
available technology such as linear position encoders and accelerometers have made it possible
to monitor the velocity of each exercise repetition, allowing the implementation of velocity loss
thresholds (VLT) (24, 38, 42). This allows the set to be terminated if the concentric velocity drops
below a set percent (e.g., 10%) from the highest repetition velocity, which can manage
neuromuscular fatigue (38, 42, 48). For example, Tsoukos et al (2021) investigated the

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potentiation effect of a conditioning bench press at 80% 1 repetition maximum (1RM) with set
VLTs of 10% and 30%, on bench press throw performance. The 10% VLT saw significantly higher
bench press throw potentiation, whereas the 30% allowed more repetition fatigue which
possibly delayed performance benefits (42).

Studies have used the bench press throw as a post-conditioning exercise test for PAPE (42), but
recently the ballistic push-up (BPU) has been suggested as a valid measure of upper-body power
(2,45). Peak and mean power of the bench press throw has shown very large correlations with
the BPU (r = 0.74 – 0.75), and a very large correlation found (r = 0.87) between the 1RM bench
press and the 1RM predicted by the BPU (2). This indicates that the BPU may be a valid method
to estimate upper-body power (2), and used in lieu of the bench press throw. One previous study
investigated the PAPE effects of a high intensity bench press conditioning exercise on the
plyometric push-up, though the authors concluded the bench press conditions could have
caused undue fatigue (4). Additionally, the PAPE effects of self-selected partial ROM bench
press on a subsequent upper-body power test is unclear. Therefore, we aimed to test whether
the BPU is sensitive to PAPE after a conditioning exercise using 80% 1RM with a 10% VLT,
which has demonstrated PAPE in past literature (42). Secondly, we examined the differences
between the full and partial ROM conditions on enhancing the BPU in college-aged males. We
hypothesized the BPU will respond to PAPE, and that the full ROM will elicit a higher number
of repetitions, higher repetition velocity, and greater enhancement of the BPU.

METHODS

This study was a cross-sectional, crossover design with participants block randomized to bench
press condition. Each participant completed three testing sessions at the lab separated by at least
5 days, and testing was conducted at the same time of day. The first day started with completing
informed consent, screening paperwork, anthropometric measures, familiarization, and 1RM
testing. On days two and three, participants completed one set of bench press with maximal
concentric effort with a load of 80% 1RM in either the full or partial ROM condition. Repetitions
of the set ceased when a VLT of 10% (mean concentric velocity drops to 90% of highest attained
velocity) was reached. Two BPUs were performed as a pre-test to establish baseline
performance, and six as a post-test with two minutes between each to assess any PAPE effects
over time, similar to previous literature (42). Independent variables were ROM condition and
BPU time points, and dependent variables were BPU flight time, net impulse, and peak power.

Participants
An a priori power analysis using G*Power software with a medium effect size (f = 0.25; α = 0.05;
1−β = 0.80), similar to previous literature (17, 23). This indicated a minimum sample size of 16,
and a total of 18 college-aged males (Table 1) volunteered for this study. Recruitment was done
by list-serve email, flyers, and word-of-mouth. Inclusion criteria were as follows: males between
the ages of 18 to 35, a bench press 1 repetition maximum (1RM) of at least 80% of their own body
mass, and strength training experience defined as performing at least 2 resistance training
sessions per week for the last year including the bench press exercise. Exclusion criteria included

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any upper-body musculoskeletal injuries within the last 12 months, any neuromuscular
disorders, answering “yes” to any questions on the PAR-Q+ form, or self-reported use of any
performance enhancing drugs such as anabolic steroids. Participants were asked to avoid
alcohol and caffeine for 12 hours, and exercise for 24 hours prior to each testing session.
Additionally, participants filled out a dietary recall on the first day and were asked to maintain
similar dietary habits before testing. All participants read and signed an informed consent form,
and procedures were approved by the university Institutional Review Board. This research was
carried out in accordance with the ethical standards of the International Journal of Exercise
Science (31).

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics (mean ± SD) of the male participants (n = 18).

Age (y) 23.50 ± 4.32
Height (m) 1.80 ± 0.08
Body Mass (kg) 85.70 ± 13.47
1RM (kg) 102.40 ± 24.03
1RM/BM 1.19 ± 0.21
80% Load (kg) 81.94 ± 19.36
Bench Grip Width (m) 0.60 ± 0.06
Biacromial Width (m) 0.38 ± 0.02

Protocol
Anthropometric measures were taken prior to familiarization during the initial visit. Height was
measured using a portable stadiometer (SECA Corporation, Hamburg, Germany), body mass
was measured with a digital scale (Sunbeam Products Inc., Boca Raton, FL), and biacromial
distance using a large bone caliper (Lafayette Instrument, Lafayette, IN). Next, the participants
were familiarized with the BPU with hand widths calculated as 120% of biacromial distance
rounded to the nearest centimeter. This was done to standardize testing across participants, and
in accordance with previous literature where the narrower hand placement (120%) showed
higher force production (32). For each testing session, tape marks were placed on a single AMTI
force plate (AccuPower; Watertown, MA), which was large enough (76 cm × 101 cm) to
accommodate 120% of biacromial distance for all participants. Participants placed their hands
on the force plate and were instructed to lower their chest until a stable prone position was
achieved, while keeping their body generally straight. After achieving this position, participants
were instructed to push with maximal explosive effort until arms full extended and hands left
the force plate (46). Participants were given the same verbal instructions of “Up, lower, hold,
and go!” while performing the BPU.

Next, participants were familiarized with the bench press ROM conditions using free weights
and a self-selected grip position. Each participant was instructed to grip the bar in a position
where they felt the ‘strongest’ (22, 35). Grip distance was measured on the bar between index
fingers and kept the same for all sessions. The ROM conditions utilized the same tempo: a quick
eccentric phase, a brief pause at the bottom, and explosive concentric phase (X:1:X:0).
Instructions were given that during the full ROM the bar would touch the chest, and during the
partial ROM the bar would stop an estimated 3 inches from the chest. Recent literature suggests

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that the initial point of the sticking region, characterized by the first peak velocity, occurs about
3 to 5 cm (about 1 to 2 inches) off the chest (20, 25). Additionally, a 3-inch high-density foam
portable bench block was used during familiarization and on the partial ROM testing day warm-
up as a guide to indicate the desired ROM. No block was utilized during actual partial ROM
testing, and participants were instructed to stop the downward bar movement at the same
position as when the block was in place. This position was observed by the research team and
feedback given as necessary. While performing the bench press, participants laid supine on a
flat bench that supported the head, shoulders, and hips, with feet on the floor, and used a closed
pronated grip on the bar.

Finally, 1RM testing was performed with procedures adapted from previous literature and
involved incremental loading starting at 50% of an estimated 1RM (22,41). Briefly, 8 to 10
repetitions were performed at 50% of the estimated 1RM, 3 to 5 repetitions were performed at
75% of the estimated 1RM, followed by a single repetition at 90% of the estimated 1RM.
Participants then made 1RM attempts, and if successful, loads increased by 2.5 kg to 5 kg until
failure. No more than five 1RM attempts were made, and a minimum of three minutes of rest
was provided between the warm-up sets and 1RM efforts (22). All investigators are certified
strength and conditioning coaches and provided spotting and verbal encouragement.

Figure 1. Representation of the protocol for the 2nd and 3rd testing days. BPU = ballistic push-up.

On visits two and three (Figure 1), participants began with a general warm-up of five minutes
on a stationary bike and then completed upper-body dynamic movements consisting of 10
repetitions each way for ear-to-shoulder, overhead reach with side bend, crossover arm swings,
overhead arm swings, and push-ups. Two practice BPUs were then performed to further warm-
up, followed by two minutes of rest, and then two recorded BPU trials two minutes apart with
the best performance used for baseline. After five minutes of rest, participants performed a
bench press ROM-specific warm-up consisting of 1 set of 8 repetitions at 40% 1RM, three
minutes of rest, and 1 set of 5 repetitions at 60% 1RM. After a final 5-minute rest, one maximal
effort set of the bench press was performed, with load set to 80% 1RM and VLT set at 10%. A
GymAware linear position encoder (Kinetic Performance Technology, Canberra, Australia) was
placed under the collar of the barbell in-line with the lifters shoulder to measure the vertical
repetition velocity. GymAware reliability is reported as good (intraclass correlation coefficient
= 0.78, standard error of measurement percentage = 7.9%) with free weight bench press loads of

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80% 1RM (33), and ranks among the top of velocity tracking devices for reliability and validity,
possibly due to its ability to account for some horizontal displacement (47). For each session the
VLT was tracked with an iPad (Apple Inc., Cupertino, CA) and GymAware application where
an audible alarm occurred once it was reached. Investigators then instructed and assisted
participants to stop and re-rack the weight. If the participants had initiated a repetition while
the VLT occurred, they were allowed to finish the repetition. Following this, the post-
conditioning BPUs occurred every two minutes for 12 minutes on the force plate (total of 6).

Figure 2. Ballistic push-up (BPU) force-time and power-time curves illustrated from one of the participants. Flight
time, impulse, and peak power are highlighted.

For each BPU trial, force-time data was recorded at 1000 Hz and then exported to MATLAB (The
MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA) for processing with a custom script. Data were filtered using a
zero-lag, low-pass, fourth order Butterworth filter with a cutoff of 50 Hz. Flight time was
calculated by finding flight start and flight end points that were force-time data less than 10 N
and greater than 10 N, respectively (34,40). Initial system weight was established from the stable
starting position, which was then used to determine onset and offset of the concentric propulsive
phase of the BPU. Impulse was determined using trapezoidal integration to find the area under
the curve greater than the initial system weight. Peak power was the greatest value of the
product of vertical force and velocity (Figure 2). Velocity was obtained by the cumulative
trapezoidal integration of acceleration, which was calculated from the vertical force-time data.

Statistical Analysis

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Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 27 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY), with
significance set at p < 0.05 and all data presented as mean ± SD, unless otherwise stated. The
Shapiro-Wilk test and Q-Q plots were used to assess the data normality. Paired sample t-tests
assessed performance measures during the bench press ROM conditions, which included total
repetitions performed, volume load (sets × reps × load), displacement, work, mean velocity, and
peak velocity. Cohen’s d was used to estimate t-test effect size, with 0–0.19 a trivial effect, 0.20–
0.59 a small effect, 0.60–1.19 a moderate effect, 1.20–1.99 a large effect, 2.0–3.99 a very large effect,
and > 4.0 an extremely large effect (16). Multiple 2 × 7 repeated measures analysis of variance
(condition × time points) assessed the effects of the independent bench press ROM conditions
on the dependent BPU variables (flight time, impulse, and peak power). If the assumption of
sphericity was violated the Greenhouse-Geisser corrected values were used. Partial eta squared
estimated explained variance and effect size, with a value of 0.01 considered a small effect, 0.06
a medium effect, and 0.14 a large effect. Significance of pairwise comparisons and 95%
confidence intervals of the difference in means were based on the Bonferroni adjustment for
multiple comparisons.

RESULTS

The dependent variables of the BPU were normally distributed. Differences between the bench
press conditions (total repetitions performed, volume load, displacement, work, mean velocity,
and peak velocity) are listed in Table 2. There were no significant differences between ROM
conditions for total repetitions performed, volume load, or peak velocity. Full ROM showed
significantly greater displacement, work, and mean velocity when compared to partial ROM.
The repeated measures ANOVA resulted in a non-significant interaction (ROM × time) for flight
time (F = 1.655, p = 0.14, η2 = 0.089), impulse (F = 1.173, p = 0.33, η2 = 0.065), and peak power (F
= 1.034, p = 0.391, η2 = 0.057). Regarding ROM main effects, there was a non-significant main
effect for flight time (F = 0.648, p = 0.432, η2 = 0.037), impulse (F = 0.943, p = 0.345, η2 = 0.053),
and peak power (F = 1.299, p = 0.27, η2 = 0.071). Regarding time main effects, there was a
significant effect for flight time (F = 3.506, p = 0.003, η2 = 0.171), impulse (F = 4.334, p = 0.004, η2
= 0.203), and peak power (F = 5.767, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.253).

Table 2. Differences (mean ± SD) between range-of-motion (ROM) conditions during the bench press conditioning
exercise.
Full ROM Partial ROM p-value Cohen’s d
Total Reps 4.67 ± 1.03 4.78 ± 1.00 0.742 –0.079
Volume Load (kg) 377.65 ± 104.68 384.72 ± 91.99 0.785 –0.065
Displacement (m) 0.42 ± 0.05 0.34 ± 0.05 <0.001* 2.480
Work (J) 331.99 ± 67.72 270.92 ± 61.42 <0.001* 2.351
Mean Velocity (m/s) 0.46 ± 0.09 0.44 ± 0.08 0.016* 0.633
Peak Velocity (m/s) 0.67 ± 0.14 0.66 ± 0.14 0.615 0.121
* = significant (p < 0.05) difference between ROM conditions.

Comparisons of BPU flight time, impulse, and peak power between ROM conditions and across
time points are shown in Figures 3, 4, and 5, respectively. Post-hoc testing revealed that flight

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time for the partial ROM was significantly greater than full ROM at 2 minutes post (p = 0.014,
mean difference [md] = 0.028, 95% confidence interval of the difference [95% CI] = 0.006 – 0.05).
Additionally, the full ROM flight time at 2 minutes post was significantly less than the pre-test
(p = 0.016, md = 0.037, 95% CI = 0.005 – 0.07), and 12 minutes post was significantly greater than
2 minutes post (p = 0.039, md = 0.036, 95% CI = 0.001 – 0.07). For impulse, the partial ROM was
significantly greater than full ROM at 12 minutes post (p = 0.02, md = 3.93, 95% CI = 0.701 –
7.17). Additionally, the partial ROM impulse recorded at 4 minutes post (p = 0.02, md = 5.28,
Full ROM Partial ROM

0.3

0.28
Flight Time (s)

0.26

0.24
§
0.22

¥
0.2

*
0.18
Pre 2 4 6 8 10 12
Post Recovery Time (min)

Figure 3. Comparisons of ballistic push-up (BPU) flight time between range-of-motion (ROM) conditions and across
time points. 95% confidence intervals are reflected downward for full ROM and upward for partial ROM. * =
significant (p < 0.05) difference from the pre-test BPU, ¥ = significant (p < 0.05) difference from the 2 min BPU, § =
significant (p < 0.05) difference between ROM conditions.

95% CI = 0.55 – 10) and 8 minutes post (p = 0.002, md = 5.63, 95% CI = 1.74 – 9.51) were
significantly less than the pre-test. For peak power, the partial ROM was significantly greater
than full ROM at 12 min post (p = 0.009, md = 65.26, 95% CI = 18.63 – 111.89). Additionally, the
partial ROM peak power recorded at 4 minutes post (p = 0.038, md = 71.34, 95% CI = 2.35 –
140.32), 6 minutes post (p = 0.018, md = 79.01, 95% CI = 9.05 – 148.98), and 8 minutes post (p =
0.003, md = 90.57, 95% CI = 24.57 – 156.57) were significantly less than the pre-test. While some
differences existed for time and even between ROM, none of the measures were greater than the
pre-test values.

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Full ROM Partial ROM

95

90
* *
85
Impulse (Ns)

80 §

75

70

65
Pre 2 4 6 8 10 12
Post Recovery Time (min)

Figure 4. Comparisons of ballistic push-up (BPU) impulse between range-of-motion (ROM) conditions and across
time points. 95% confidence intervals are reflected downward for full ROM and upward for partial ROM. * =
significant (p < 0.05) difference from the pre-test BPU, § = significant (p < 0.05) difference between ROM conditions.

Full ROM Partial ROM

1050

1000
* *
*
950
Peak Power (W)

900
§
850

800

750

700
Pre 2 4 6 8 10 12
Post Recovery Time (min)

Figure 5. Comparisons of ballistic push-up (BPU) peak power between range-of-motion (ROM) conditions and
across time points. 95% confidence intervals are reflected downward for full ROM and upward for partial ROM. *
= significant (p < 0.05) difference from the pre-test BPU, § = significant (p < 0.05) difference between ROM
conditions.

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DISCUSSION

The purposes of this study were to assess whether the BPU is responsive to PAPE after a bench
press conditioning exercise, and to evaluate the effect of ROM conditions on BPU performance
in college-aged males. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, no BPU measures were significantly
greater than the pre-test, demonstrating that neither full ROM nor partial ROM had a PAPE
effect. Further, the VLT bench press had a detrimental effect on some of the post-test BPU
measures. Only displacement, work, and mean velocity were significantly different between
bench press ROM conditions. The differences in metrics at 2- and 12-minutes post-test and
general trends suggest partial ROM may provide less fatigue than full ROM, allowing for a faster
return to baseline in impulse and peak power. This may be due to the involved skeletal muscle
contracting repeatedly at shorter lengths, which has shown to be less fatiguing than longer
muscle lengths for a similar relative force output (21). A limited number of studies have assessed
upper-body PAPE with the bench press throw and used velocity-based repetition control bench
press as the conditioning exercise (19, 42, 43). To our knowledge, only one study compared the
effects of bench press with different ROM on subsequent bench press throw PAPE (19), and one
study compared the impact of ballistic or non-ballistic concentric-only bench press on
subsequent push-up performance (4). However, no studies to date have investigated the use of
velocity-based repetition control bench press with different ROM conditions on BPU
performance. Additionally, this study used a self-selected partial ROM performed with a
standard barbell resulting in an average displacement difference of 8 cm (3.15 inches).

Similar to other published data (25), the partial ROM condition produced less displacement, and
subsequently lesser mean velocity. Although our average mean velocity difference was only 0.02
m/s, it was consistent enough to reach significance with a moderate effect size (d = 0.633). This
may indicate that less fatigue was accrued during the partial ROM, as the volume-load between
the conditions were similar. The partial ROM bench press does not have to contend with the
energy required to accelerate the bar off the chest, reach an initial peak velocity, decelerate, and
then reach a second peak velocity as is the case with full ROM (25). Additionally, as the peak
velocity between ROM conditions was not different, the greater mean velocity of the full ROM
indicates a greater time was spent at a higher velocity through the full ROM. Perez-Castilla et
al. (2021) investigated the number of full ROM bench press repetitions completed at 75% 1RM
with a VLT of 15% and varied grip widths. The medium grip width reported was 0.58 ± 0.04 m
and 150% of the biacromial width, compared to our 0.60 ± 0.06 m that was 158% of biacromial
width (36). Despite utilizing a heavier load and a lower VLT, our cohort completed a similar
number of repetitions (4.67 ± 1.03) to Perez-Castilla’s participants (4.6 ± 1.7 repetitions) with a
comparable grip (36). Although both studies had similar inclusion criteria, our group displayed
greater relative strength (1.19 ± 0.21 vs 0.97 ± 0.19 1RM/body mass, respectively), likely
indicating a higher training status, which can impact repetitions to VLT.

While there is lack of evidence underpinning the mechanisms that contribute to PAPE, we can
assume in this study that fatigue inhibited performance enhancement by exceeding factors that
potentiate (3). The BPU may not be responsive to PAPE or may require a different stimulus other

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than heavy bench press. Contrary to our hypothesis, a performance enhancement did not occur
in the post-test BPU and was even lower in the post-test in some cases. The results of this study
align with Bodden et al. (2019), who investigated the effects of ballistic and non-ballistic
concentric only bench press on plyometric push-up performance in resistance trained men. Their
subjects used a self-selected hand placement for the push-ups which was similar to the BPU and
compared effects to a crossover control group. Both ballistic and non-ballistic bench press
conditions proved to be detrimental to impulse over the course of post-testing. The authors
concluded their bench press protocol possibly caused too much acute fatigue, which involved
increasing the load intensity over 4 sets to finish with 3 repetitions at 70% and 2 repetitions at
90% 1RM (4). Our subjects showed similar relative strength level (1.19, ranged from 0.81 to 1.58)
to their sample (1.3, ranged from 1.04 to 1.67), possibly contributing to the similar results. The
authors suggested future studies use a lighter load as the conditioning exercise (4), and it is
possible that the stimulus from 80% 1RM at 10% VLT was too similar.

The results of this study somewhat contradict similar studies that showed PAPE occurred with
the bench press throw. Tsoukos et al. (2021) found that after one set of 80% 1RM bench press,
the 10% VLT group and 30% VLT group similarly (+7–8%) enhanced the bench press throw in
mean propulsive velocity. However, the 10% VLT group saw increases early in the recovery,
while the 30% VLT showed a delayed response and increasing near 10 minutes post-test.
Additionally, for peak velocity the 10% VLT saw similar increases, but the 30% VLT was not
statistically different (42). As strength may have a role to play in achieving a PAPE effect, the
average reported 80% load from Tsoukos et al. (2021) was 87.3 kg, compared with our 81.94 kg.
With the strength discrepancy, we also had more average repetitions and a greater volume-load
for our comparable full ROM condition which could have influenced the results. Following this,
Krysztofik et al. (2022) used a similar methodology with the 10% VLT and analyzed the effects
of bench press ROM on the bench press throw PAPE response. They found that the standard
bar provided the best enhancement of bench press throw performance when compared to the
cambered bar, reverse cambered bar, and control group. Despite the cambered bar having the
greatest ROM (and the reverse cambered bar the least ROM), the authors concluded that the
standard barbell ROM was superior possibly because it is most similar to the bench press throw
(19). It can be concluded then that accumulating fatigue can delay or detract from the PAPE
effects, and ROM has some effect on PAPE.

It is possible that the bench press and BPU are too mechanically dissimilar to see a PAPE effect
in the latter. While the BPU and regular push-up exercise differ slightly, literature on regular
push-up exercises may be informative. Despite the bench press being an open chained exercise
and the push-up being a closed chained exercise, evidence shows no major difference in the
muscle activity or kinetics between the two (15, 44). However, almost twice as many push-ups
were performed by men and women compared to a bench press with similar resistance (1). This
has been attributed to distance the center-of-mass travels in a bench press being higher
compared to a push-up, as the center-of-mass on the human body is close to the mid-section (1).
Related to the center-of-mass differences the mass supported during the push-up at the top has
been reported as 67% of total body mass and 75% at the bottom (29). While not part of the main

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analysis, post-hoc examination of the force during the stable down position of the BPU during
this study showed similar results. Averaged across all trials, the system weight was about 77%
relative to body mass, and 67% relative to the recorded 1RM. This highlights the relative
intensity between the bench press and the BPU, where the BPU may require more relative
strength to overcome. Additionally, the push-up may require more core musculature activation
to maintain a relatively straight torso, compared to the bench press lying with torso and head
supported (1,11). Calatayud et al. (2014) reported greater muscle activity in pectoralis major,
anterior deltoid, triceps brachii, and serratus anterior for a 85% 1RM bench press, and greater
muscle activity in the rectus abdominis and external oblique for a regular push-up (6). This
greater activation during the bench press may have contributed to acute fatigue (1) for BPU
performance, and the additional requirement of core stability may have also been detrimental.
The bench press throws in previous studies (19,42) may be superior in responding to PAPE
because the open-chain bench press conditioning exercise progressed to a more stable smith
machine for the throws performed at a lighter intensity relative to the BPU.

This study has several limitations to consider. While we utilized a randomized crossover with
pretest-posttest design, we did not have an isolated control condition which may have been
more revealing. This study did not separate stronger and weaker participants, and the weaker
participants may have reduced any possible PAPE effects for the BPU. While the stretch-
shortening cycle was utilized to a limited extent on the bench press, it was not utilized for the
BPU possibly adding to the dissimilarity between movements. Additionally, the BPU hand
width was standardized while the bench press grip was self-selected, which may have affected
PAPE effects. Load selection was based on the 1RM performed at full ROM, which could have
influenced the relative intensity and number of repetitions performed during the partial ROM
condition. The use of vertical force has been questioned due to the positional nature of the push-
up (10), however we used recommended variables for a push-up force plate analysis (9, 10). The
present study also examined only male participants, which reduces any applicable results for
females. Lastly, the landing impact forces after each BPU could have influenced subsequent BPU
performance and added undue fatigue for the following trials. Future investigations will seek
to establish whether there is a strength cut point at which individuals do or do not experience
PAPE, whether the BPU has predictive capability to track strength performance over time, and
assess PAPE differences between males and females.

Neither full nor partial ROM bench press has a potentiating effect on BPU when performed at
80% 1RM with 10% VLT. Practitioners seeking an upper-body PAPE effect for the BPU should
seek other options. Alternatively, those who wish to reduce bench press ROM for their athletes
(such as those with shoulder limitations or athletes in throwing sports) can do so without fear
of an additional negative performance effect. Partial ROM can be utilized as an alternative
movement which achieves similar peak velocities while requiring less overall work and likely
less fatigue. Practitioners can program ROM based on need and/or preference, rather than
according to performance outcome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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This study received internal department funding. None of the authors report a conflict of
interest. The authors would like to thank the participants for their time and effort in this study.

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