Linear Algebra: : 1.1. Introduction Linear Algebra is a branch of mathematics concemed with the study of vectors, with families of vectors” called vector spaces or linear spaces and with functions that input one vector and output another, according to, certain rules. These functions are called linear maps otinear transformations and are often represented by matrices.” Matrices are rectangular arrays of numbers or symbols and maltix algebra or linear algebra provides the rules Gefining the operations that can be formed on such an abject. near Algebra and matrix theory occupy an important place in modern mathematics and has applications in almost all branches of engineering and physical sciences. An elementary application of linear algebras to the solution of a system of linear equations in several unknowns, which often result when linear mathematical models are constructed to represent physical problems. Nonlinear models can often be approximated by linear ones. Other applications can be found in computer graphics and in numerical methods |n this chapter, we shall discuss matrix algebra and its use in solving linear system of algebraic ; equations AX = Band in solving the Eigen value problem AX = AX. 1.2 Algebra of Matrices 1.2.1 Definition of Matrix Assystem of mx n numbers arranged in the form of a rectangular array having m rows and n-columns is called an matrix of order mx-n. HA= [2i)ips 9 be any matrix of order mx nthen itis written in the form: ay Ap... & Bn Sad Horizontal lines are called rows and vertical lines are called columns. 1.2.2 Special Types of Matrices 4. Square Matrix: An rmx matrix for which m = n (The number of rows is equal to numberof columns) is called square matrix. It is also called an rowed square matrix. ie. A = [aj], , The elements aj |1= jie. &y, ate called DIAGONAL ELEMENTS and the line along which they lis called PRINCIPLE DIAGONAL of matrix. Elements other than a,,, @,», etc are called off-diagonal elements ie ay li#h 123 Example:A=|4 5 6 is a square Matrix 983 xaoY | | maDe 2 CORSE) for GATE and ESE Prelims Ensy ee — 7 -mattx” ifitS diagonal] FeNOTE © "A Square sub-malrix of a square Matrix A is called a “principle sub-mattix® if its diagonay i 2 Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which all off-diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal =0 if i#j a it i=] 12 ee j elements are also the diagonal alements of the matrix A. So | 4 | isa principle sub matrix of | f 2 37. the matrix A given above, but ie 4] is not. matrix. The diagonal elements may or may not be zero. { Example: A = is a diagonal matrix coe ouo woo The above matrix can also be written as A = diag [3, 5, 9] Properties of Diagonal Ma diag [x. y. 2] + diag [p, 9. ]=diag kk + p.y+q.z+7) diag [x, y, 2] x diag [p, g, 4 = diag [xp, ya, 24 (diag [x. y. 2])*' = diag [Ux, 1, 1/2] (diag [x, y, 2})" = diag [x, y, 2] (diag I, y, ZI)" = diag [x”, y%, 27) Eigen values of diag {x, y, 2] = x, yand z, Determinant of diag [x, y, z] =| diag [x, y, 2] = xyz 3% Scalar Matrix: A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements being equal. f Ot taj 300 Example:A=|0 3 0] isa scalar matrix. 003 4 Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix: A square matrix each of whose diagonal elements is 1 and each of whose non-diagonal elements are zeros called unit matrix or an identity matrix which is denoted by 1 Identity matrix is always square. aj=0 if tej ‘Thus a square matrix A= [aj] isa unit matrixif a,= 1 when i= jand a, = Owhen i+. aet it inj eal 100 to Example:/,=|0 1 0 isunt mates. [) + 001mang Ene : 2 @ (b) Ale IAs A (o) Mat } WW rer @) When 11 entity etemont for muititiontion, ao it eatac rnuitipllanlive ldantiy, Null Mateba Tho mn matrix whoo olomonta ara all 2010 Io onllod null tt, Null mats fe danotod by ©, Null malik need not bo quae, ayOV h] 000 Examplet 0, ~ |0 0 0 of ol: 12 [bh 00 o 0 0 6 Properties of Null Matrix: () As Oe O4AGA So, O | additive Idontily, () At (AsO UpperTrangular Matrix: An uppor ilanguar matrix io equaro matte whore lawor off-diagonal olornants {810 2010, 1.0, a= O whonovor I > J Ila donotod by U, faye 0 Hote Tho diagonal andl uppor off dlagonal olomonto may or may not bo zoro, a : my [3 5 ~ Example: Ux |0 5 6 oo2 LoworTrlangular Matrix: lowor ilangular matrix 1 aquaro matic whose uppar off-diagonal tlangutar Glomonts aro zoro, 1.0. a,» 0 whonovor /< /Tho diagonal and lower off-diagonal elomonts may of ray Jaqj20 Wt t<] not bo zoro, a Wi] Nis donotod by L, 100 Example: l= |-1 9 0 236 Idempotent Matrix: A matrix A Is callod Idompotont it A? = A, -2 -4 1 0) foo) [2 i Example: ; .]-1 3. 4 | aro examples of Idempotent matrices. 0 1}'[0 0 feats. Involuntary Matrix: A matrix A is called Involutory if? = J. 4 3 3 is ‘| is involuntary. Also}-1 0 -1] is involuntary since A? = J. es -4 4 -3 Examplne, SNOT for care and tse Peaions i indox x il A‘ 10 Nilpotent Matrix: A matrix Ais said to bo nilpotent of class ¥ oF {8 the smatiest index which makes A’ = O. MADE ERsy = Oand A '4 O10, 113 #0, bul A? = Example: The matix Ae | § 26 | isniipotent clnss3, since A O and A * “1-3 5 s singular matrix, VL Singular matrix: If the dotorminant of a matrix is zoro, then matrix is callod as sing 7 12 =0e A =0eg, i | “if detemrinant is not zero, then matrix is known as non-singular matrix. matrix is singular then its inverse doesn't exist 3. 1.23 Equality of Two Matrices Two matrices 4 = [a,} and 8 = [b,] are said to be equal it, 1. They are of same size. 2. The elements in the corresponding places of two matrices are the same i.e, a subscripts i and j. Exampletei [7 eek ‘| b, for each pair of p-q x+y} ~ [1 10, Thenx-y=2,.p+q=5,p-q=tandx+y=10 = r=6.y=4,p=3and 1.2.4 Addition of Matrices Two matrices A and 8 are compatible for addition only if they both have exactly the same size say mn. Then their sumis defined to be the matrix of the type m> n obtained by adding corresponding elements of Aang B. Thus if, A= [8jJaxn& B= [Oj], then A+ B= [8, + Bln Example:A=[' 2] g-[4 §]; as} |7e avoelt JE [5 3] Properties of Matrix Addition: 1. Matrix addition is commutative A + B= B+ A. 2. Matrix addition is associative (A + 8) + C= A+ (B+ 0) 3. Existence of additive identity: If O be m x n matrix each of whose elements are zero. Then, A+ 0=Az= 0+ Afor every mx nmattix A, 4. Existence of additive inverse: Let A =[2]n, Then the negative of matrix Ais defined as matrix [-a)],,., and is denoted by ~A, = Matrix A is additive inverse of A. Because (-A) + A= O = A + (-A). Here O is null matrix of order m>xn. 5. Cancellation laws holds good in case of addition of matrices, which is X= -A, A+X=B8+X3A=8 X+AsX+B3A=8 6. The equation A + X= 0 has a unique solution in the set of all mx n matrices,mADE ERSY Linear Algebra : rae tS 4 1.2.5 Substraction of Two Matrices . ‘ If Aand Bare two mx nmatrices, then we detine, A~ B= A + (-B) ay Thus the difference A~ Bis obtained by subtracting from each element of A corresponding elementifof "NOTE: Subtraction of matrices is neither commutative nor assoolallve j 1.2.6 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar Let Abe any mx nmatrix and kbe any real number called scalar. The mx n matrix obtained by multiplying every element of the matrix A by kis called scalar multiple of A by k and is denoted by KA. e = A= [aime then Ak = kA =[KA],, 5 . S21 15 6 3 WA=|6 -5 2] then,3a=|18 15 6 13 6 3.9 18 Properties of Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar: 1. Scalar multiplication of matrices distributes over the addition of matrices i.e., K(A + 8) = kA + kB. 2. If pand qare two scalars and A is any mx nmatrix then, (p + q)A = pA + aA. a 3. If pand qare two scalers and A= [4)]n,qthen, p(gA) = (pq)A. 4. A= [4] qxq be a matrix and k be any scalar then, (-K)A = -(kA) = K-A). 1.2.7 Multiplication of Two Matrices Let A= [4]rnuni B= [Bulg x pbe two matrices such that the number of columns in Ais equal to the number of rows in B. Then the matrix C Cidmep Such that Gy = Dabs is called the product of matrices Aand Bin that order and we write C= AB. Properties of Matrix Multiplication: 1. Multiplication of matrices is not commutative. In fact, if the product of AB exists, then it is not necessary that the product of BA will also exist. For example, Ay,» x By, 4 = Cy, 4 but By. 4X Ay.p does not exist since these are not compatible for multiplication. 2. Matrix multiplication is associative, if conformability is assured. i.e., A(BC) = (AB)C where A, B, Care mxn, nx p, px q matrices respectively. 3. Multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to addition of matrices. i.e., A(B +C) = AB+ AC. The equation AB = O does not necessarily imply that at least one of matrices A and Bmust be a zero e [i ft ].fo ° matrix. Forexample, |, 4}1_4 _4]=19 |: 5. _ In the case of matrix multiplication if AB = O then it is not necessarily imply that BA = O. In fact, BA may not even exist. 6. Both left and right cancellation laws hold for matrix multiplication as shown below: AB = AC= B= C(if Ais non-singular matrix) and BA = CA= B= C((f Ais non-singular matrix).‘ ° mapE EASY | s for GATE and ESE Prelims } | F 12, 128 Trace of a matrix is called the Let A be a square maitix of order n. The sum of the oler trace of A denoted by 71(A). ments lying along principal diagonal Wesnten, THA) = 3a = ayy * Be Br Thus if A= 125 Let Az=|2 31 416 5. =14(3)+5 Then, Trace (A) = THA) Properties of Trace of a Matrix: Let A and B be two square matrices of order n and A be a scalar. Then, 1. THQA)= ATA 2 THA+B)=TA+TB i 3. Tr(AB) = Tr(BA) [Il both AB and BA are defined] 1.2.9. Transpose of a Matrix Let A= [2j]ipe,- Then the nx m matrix obtained from A by changing its rows into columns and its columns into rows is called the transpose of A and is denoted by A’ or A’. i 13 st ae [2 alma areaa[t 2 §] j 65 k Mt B = [123] { 1 H Then B= [i 2 3 =[1 2 af =|2 t 3 } Properties of Transpose of a Matrix: j If ATand BT be transposes of A and B respectively then, ; 1. (ANTSA i 2. (A+B) =AT+ BT ; 3. (kA) = kA’, kbeing any complex number ! 4. (AB)T= BTAT 5. (ABO)T= CTBT AT 1.2.10 Conjugate of a Ma The matrix obtained from given matrix Aon replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by A. 2+3i 4-71 8 -L-i 6 OFF _ [2-31 447 8 La 6 9-imanor ERSY UnearAlgebra Properties of Conjugate of a Matelx: f 11 A and B be the conjugatos of A and B rospoctivaly. Thon, 1. Bea VB = AvB (FA) » KA, Aboing any complex number 1 4. (AB) = AB, Aand B being conformable to multiplication A = Ait Ais real matrix A = -Aif Ais purely imaginary matrix 1.2.11 Transposed Conjugate of Matrix The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix Ais called transposed conjugate ol A and is denoted by A° or or (A) Itis also called conjugate transpose of A, 245 a ample = [ ae ee aa) To find AY, we first tind A [ , = e1a[2a04 64 02 ren i “ER Pal ‘Some properties: If A’ & B° be the transposed conjugates of A and B respectively then, 1. (ANA 2 (A+ B= A+ BP 3. (kA) =KA®, k—> complex number 4, (AB)? = BaP 1.2.12 Classification of Real Matrices Real matrices can be classified into the following three types based on the relationship between ATand A. 1. Multip 1. Symmetric Matrices (AT = A) 2, Skew Symmetric Matrices (47 =~A) 3. Orthogonal Matrices (AT = A~' or AAT =) 1. Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A= [@,] is said to be symmetric if its (i, /)" elements is same as its (i. element ie., a, = a; for all /& j Ina symmetric matrix, AT = A ahg Example: A=|h bf |-is a symmetric matrix, since A’ = gfe. Note: For any matrix A, (@) AATis always a symmetric matrix.er — MADE ERsy ca ae | A oewy.. ae) A “A is always symmetric matrix. i oth me : Be forGATE and ESE Prelims | Note: If A and Ban symmetric, then | (@) A+ Band A~ Bare also symmetric. | (b) AB, BA may or may not be symmetric. | 2 Skew Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A = [a)] is said to be skew symmetric it, Lt is the negative of the (j, ))" elements of Ait a, = ~2 V fj | |i skew symmetric matrix a” =~ A Askew symmetric matrix must have all 0's in the diagonal. J" elements of 4 | ong Example: A=|-h 0. | is a skew-symmetric matrix | -9 f0 : i; Note: For any matrix A, the matrix “Tis always skew symmetric. 3 Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix Ais said be orthogonal if Al = A\=3 AAT = AA = 1. Thus A will be an orthogonal matrix if, AAT = Example: The identity matrix is orthogonal since 17 = I"! = I Note: Since for an orthogonal matrix A, At. Met = laat| = Il if = lalla a4 => (aly = 4 = [Al = 41 So the determinant of an orthogonal matrix always has a modulus of 1. 1.2.13 Classification of Complex Matrices ‘Complex matrices can be classified into the following three types based on relationship between A? and A. 1. Hermitian Matrix (4° = A) 2. Skew-Hermitian Matrix (4? =-A) 3. Unitary Matrix (A° = A" or AA? = 1) 1 A necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix A to be Hermitian is that Example: A= | 2) °*!°) is a Hermitian matrix mple: A= , | o b-ic d . 2. Skew-Hermitian Matrix: A necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix to be skew-Hermitian i Abs -A 0 -2- Example: A = "| is skew-Hermitian. 2-1 0 3, Unitary Matrix: A square matrix Ais said to be unitary if: Ae wtmade ERSY x 2s UinearAlgebra fi k9 Multiplying both sides by A, wo get an alternate dofinition of unitary matrix as given below” Asquare matrix A is said to be unitary if: 9 BA ere is an example of a unitary matrix. 1.3. Determinants 13.1 Definition lan a represents the number a, 4p. @y245y (a1 oa] andis called determinants of order 2. The number 3,,, 8,2, 4,1, 2zp are Called elements of the determinant and the number 2, 8;9~ @,24, 8 Called the value of determinant Let ayy, jp. py. ap be any four numbers, The symbol. 132 Minors, Cofactors and Adjoint 11 2 aia) Consider the determinant |@1 2 3} 1 2 39| Leaving the row and column passing through the elements a, then the second order determinant thus obtained is called the minor of element a, and we will be denoted by M, 2 =| Example: The Minor of element a, M, : 2 laao ae la a Similarly Minor of element ay. = la. al = Mao 1.3.3 Cofactors The minor M, multiplied by (-1)'*/is called the cofactor of element a, We shall denote the cofactor of an element by corresponding capital letter. ; Example: Cofactor of a, = Aj = (-1)'*/ M, aie al Cofactor of element ayj= Apy = (-1)?*" Myy = | Aay= Ady ty S lan a by cofactor of element ayy = Ayy = -| Bee Ane lone ae We define for any matrix, the sum of the products of the elements of any row or column with corresponding cofactors is equal to the determinant of the matrix.MADE ERsy 10 for GATE and EE Prelims 20 ETE torcareanese ims RD BS 120 Batnple: I! Ae |-161 202 12 4-12 then, cola) = | 2 4 2-18 lal = (1x 12) + (2x4) + (Ox-12) (1x4) + (6x 2) 4 (1x4) (2x 2)+(0x-1) + (2x 8)= 20 134 Adjoint When all the elements of a matrix ‘A’ are replaced by its co-factor, then the transpose of that matrix is known as adjoint of matrix’ a> Cy Adja = IC]? Properties of adjoint matrix A(Adj A) 1. AXAGAS|Ax7 a x(AdjA) be 135 Determinant of ordern A determinant of order n has n-row and rcolumns. Ithas nx nelements A determinant of order nis a square array of nxn quantities enclosed between vertical bars. fait tgmnne Ay a= be . 2a at Frese Sel Cofactor of A,of elements a, in Dis equal'to (~1)/times the determinants of order (n-1) obtained rom D by leaving the row and column passing through element a, 3 3 3 HW Ais a3 x3 matrix, then [Al = ) Ay CoflA,) = ¥ Ap; colA,) = DA, cof(Ay) = Say cof(A,,),etc. i int is a ‘Therefore, determinant can be expanded using any row or column. 1.36 Properties of Determinants 1. The value of a determinant does not change when rows and columns are interchanged. is fatl= lal 2. Many row (or column) of a matrix A is completely zero, then [Al = 0. ‘Such a row (or column) is called a zero row: (or column). Also if any two rows (or columns) of a matrix A are identical, then lAl=o. 3. Hany wo,rows or two columns of a determinant are interchanged the value of determinant is mutiplied by -1.maok ERIN UnearAlgebra a 4, Hall elements of the one row (or one column) of a doterminant aro multiplied by same number k the value of determinant is k times the value of given determinant ~ 8 WAbe mrowed square matrix, and k be any scalar, then IkAl = k"Al & (a) Inadoterminant the sum of the products of the olements of any row (or column) with the cofactors ‘of corresponding elements of any row or column is equal to the determinant value. (©). Indeterminant the sum of the products of the elements of any row (or column) with the cofactors ‘of some other row or column is zero, ah o Example: del&® & & Ba & ca Then aA, + 6,8, +, = A aA; + DB, + ,C, = 0 a,Ay + DB, + 60, = 0 a,A, + BB, + 0,0, = a 2,A, + b,B, + 6C, = Oetc where A,, B,, C, etc., be cofactors of the elements a,, b,, ¢, in D. 7. Ito the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are added m times the corresponding elements of another row (or column) the value of determinant thus obtained is equal to the value of original determinant. ie, A214 8 then [Al = 18] andA—22._ 8 then [al = lal 8. [AB] = |Al*18] and based on this we can prove the following: (@ lal = (lal) 1 (b) |A"| = © lle [Ae AeA... ntimes| lal « [Al + JAI... atimes =(lAly Proofofb: |AA"| = |7/ =1 Proof of a: lal Nowsince, [AA = [Al |A7 ES lal lat] = 4 1 At} = 1 = lat] a 9. Using the fact that A. Adj A = || . /, the following can be proved for A, ,- (a [Adj Al = |Ale-? (b) Adj (Adj (4))| = Lal io- 9?| } | j i ss mm e : diy MADE ERsy 222 BEY for care tind ese Prtime ee: is given by the formula The inverse of a matrix A, exists if A is non-singular (i.e. [Al #0) and is 9! yy Adj(a Inverse of a matrix is always unique. 1.4.1 Adjoint of a Square Matrix ‘A, denotes the cofactor of Let A=[a,] be any nxn matrix. The transpose Bor the matrix B= [AyJnxn where Ay element a, is called the adjoint of matrix A and is denoted by symbol Adj A. 5 Adj (A) = [oof (A)]” Properties of Adjoint: fAbe any mowed square matrix, then (Adj A) A= A (Adj A)=|Al J, where J, is the nx n Identity matrix. 1.4.2 Properties of Inverse 1 AAT AMART Aand Bare inverse of each other if AB= BA=1 (ABy* = Bt At (ABC)! = C1 BA IA be an nx non-singular matrix, then (A)! = (A*)7, If Abe an nx n non-singular matrix then (4-1)8 = (A9)-1 For a 2 x 2 matrix there is a shortcut formula for inverse as given below a by" 1_fe - ie a] = wails Ai 1.5 Rank of A Matrix Rank is defined for any matrix A,,.,, (need not be square) NOMnrow Some important concept: 1 Submatrix ofa Matrix: Suppose A is any matrix of the type mx n. Then a matrix obtained by leaving ‘some rows and some columns from A is called sub-matrix of A. 2 Rank of a Matrix: A number ris said to be the rank of a matrix A, if it possesses the following properties: (@) There is atleast one square sub-matrx ofA of order r whose determinant is not equal to zer0. (0) the matrix A contains any square sub-matrix of order (r+ 1) and above, then the determinantol such a matrix should be zero. Put together property (a) and (b) give the definition of the rank of a matrix as the “size ofthe largest non-zero minor”. Note: (@)_ The rank of a matrxis e%e independent. vector. called the mvector space tors 4A Xq= otherwise they are linearly 1.632 Dependence / Independency of vector by matrix method re linear 1. Ifthe rankcof the matrico! the given vectors is equal to number of vectors, then the vectors are lincarly independent. ee 2. Ifthe rank of the matrix of the given vectors is less than number of vectors, than the vectors are linearly dependent. 1.633 A vector as a Linear Combination of a Set of Vectors Definition: A vector & which can be expressed in the form (5 = key + combination of the set {E,, &,.-.8) Of vectors. Example: Given a linearly dependent set of vectors, st combination of the remaining members of the set. Example: 1, Show that the vectors [1 23], [2-2 0] from a linearly independent set. 2. Show that the set consisting only of the zero vector, O, is linearly dependent. 4+ kg) is said to be a linear ‘how that at least one member of the set is a linear Solutio 1. Cons k,[1 23] + kpl2-20] = zero This relation is equivalent to the ordinary system of liner equations ky + 2ky = 0, 2k, ~ 2k, = 0, 3k, =O As k, = 0, ky = Oare the only values of k,, kp which satisfy these three equations, we see that the given sets linearly independent. 2. LetX=(0, 0, 0,.....0) be an n-vector whose components are all zero. Then the relation kX= Ois true or ‘some non-zero value of the number k, For example 2x = 0 and 2#0 ler the relation Hence the vector 0 is linearly dependent, 1.6.4 Some properties of linearly Independent and Dependent Sets 0 In the following, it is understood that the vectors belong to a given vecto. 1. Ifnisa linear combination of the set (&,,....6,}, then the set (n, &, E>. we have n= KE, + Ksbot tke, KE, =0 = n— kbs ~ KekemADE EASY Linear Algebra As at least one of the coefficients, viz, that ofn, in this latter relation is not zero, we establish the liar dependence of the set 5 .BynGd 2, Also, IN{E,,....8,] is a linearly independent and {E,, combination of the set (&,,....8,) -£,,n] isa linearly dependent set, then 1 is a linear {3 Every super-set of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent. (3) It may also be easily shown that every sub-set of a linearly independent set is linearly independent. 1.65 Subspaces of an N-vector space V, Definition: Any non-empty set S, of vectors of V,(F) is called a subspace of V,(F), if when 4. Ey E)are any twomembers of S, then , + Epis also a member of S: and 2, &isamember ofS, and kis a scalar, then ké is also a member of S. Briefly, we may say thata set Sof vectors of V,(F)is a subspace of V,(F) it closed wrt. the compositions of “addition” and “multiplication with scalars’. Every subspace of V, contains the zero vector; being the product of any vector with the scalar zero. Example: & = [a, b, c] is a non-zero vector of Vs, Show that the set of vectors Ke is a subspace of V,; k being variable. 1.65.1 Construction of Subspaces Theorem 1: The set S, of all linear combinations of a given set of rfixed vectors of V,, is a subspace of V,, Def.1 A subspace Spanned by a Set of Vectors. A subspace which arises as a set of alll linear combinations of any given set of vectors, is said to be spanned by the given set of vectors, Def. 2. Basis of a Subspace. A set of vectors is said to be a basis of a subspace, if 1, the subspace is spanned by the set, and 2. the setis linearly independent. Itis important to notice that the set of vectors @, = (100... 0}, €,=[010...0},. @)=(00...01] is a basis of the vector space V,, for, if Kye, + hye, +. + Ky@y= 0 then, k, = 0, ..., K, = 0 $0 that the set is linearly independent and any vector B= [8 Ap vee Aq) of V,, is expressible as Ex ae, +a) +... +.4,8, Theorem 2: A basis of a subspace, S, can always be selected from a set of vectors which span S. Let (Eyre be a set of vectors which span a subspace S. If this set is linearly independent, then it is already a basis. In case it is linearly dependent, then some member of the set is a linear combination of the preceding members. Deleting this member, we obtain another set which also spans S. Continuing in this manner, we shall ultimately, in a finite number of steps, arrive at a basis of S. FNoTe:ithasyet to be shown thalevery subspace, Sof V, possesses a basis and that ne number of vectors | [7 Vin every basis of Sis the same, i| Engineering Mathematics BOE MADE EASY 1.6.6 Row and column spaces of a matrix, Row and column ranks of a Matrix ~ Let A, be any mx n matrix over a field F. Each of the mrows of A, consisting of n elements, is an n-vector and is as such a member of VF). ‘The space spanned by the mrows which is a subspace of ¥,, is called the Row space of the m xnmattix A Again each of the n columns consisting of m elements is an m-vector and is a member of V,(F). ‘The space spanned by the n columns which is a subspace of V,, is called the Column space of the m xn matrix A The dimensions of these row and column spaces of matrix are respectively called the Row rank and the ‘Column rank of the matrix. Theorem 1: Pre-multiplication by a non-singular matrix does not alter the rank of a matrix, In a similar manner, we may prove that post-multiplication with a non-singular matrix does not alter the column rank of a matrix. 1.6.6.1 Equality of row rank, column rank and rank Theorem 2: The row rank of a matrix is the same as its rank, ‘Theorem 3: The column rank of a matrix is the same as its rank Corollary 1: The rank of a matrix is equal to the maximum number ofits linearly independent rows and also to the maximum number of its linearly independent columns. Thus a matrix of rank r, has a set of + linearly independent rows (columns), such that each of the other rows (columns), is @ linear combination of the same. Corollary 2: The rows and columns of an n-rowed non-singular square matrix form linearly independent sets and are as such bases of V,. 1.6.62 Connection between Rank and Span Asetof nvectors X,, X,%... X,spans A" they are linearly independent which can be checked by constructing matrix with X,, Xo, X,... X,a8 its rows (or columns) and checking that the rank of such a matrixis indeed n. I however the rank is less than n, say m, then the vectors span only a subspace of A”. Example: Check if the vectors [1 2 -1], [2 3 0], [-1 2 5] span’. Solution: Are: Step 1: Construct amatrixA=|2 3 0 71.2,,8. “Step 2: Find its rank 12-1 Since 2 3 0| = 1(15-0)-2(10-0)- 14 +3) 125 = 18-20-7=-12 #0 So, rank = 3 ‘The vectors are linearly independent and hence span A. Example: Cheek if the vectors [1 2 3], [4 5 6] and[7 8 9] span A’. Solution: Since, A= yas ean coemage EASY hasa Soits Since, Rank So the vectors [1 2 3],[4 5 6] and[7 8 9] spana subspace of A? but do not span A. 1.6.7 Orthogonality of Vectors 1. Two vectors X, and X, are orthogonal if each is non zero and the dot product X,’ X, = 0. Example: The vectors [a b c] and[d ef] are orthogonal if la 6 cl x[a e 4] ie. ad+ be + ct 0 0 Example: The vectors [1 2] and [-2 1] are orthogonal since ) ayxpe qe fl x[-2 4] (1x2) + (21) 0 Example: The vectors [1 2 3] and(-1 2 5] arenot orthogonal since (1x-1)+(2x2)+(8x5) = 1840 2. Three vectors X,, X, and X, are orthogonal if each is non zero and they are pairwise orthogonal. ie. XX = 0 and XX = 0 and XX = 0 Example: The vectors [1 0 0], [0 1 0] and [0 0 1] areorthogonal since [1 0 of fo 1 0] = fo 0 oO} and fo 1 of [0 0 4 = [0.0 oO} and [1 0 of [0 0 1] = [0 0 o} 3. If n vectors Xj, Xp, Xqy « X, @ach of which is in R”, are orthogonal, then they are surely linearly independent and hence span R” and therefore form a basis for A”. Example: The vectors [1 0 0], [0 1 0] and [0 0 4] are orthogonal and hence are linearly independent and hence span R®. They form a basis for A°. The vectors [0-2]. [-2 0] are orthogonal and hence are linesrly independent and span A? and form a basis of R®.18 4, for GATE and ESE Prelims The set of n vectors Xj, Xp XX, re called orthonormal ifthey are MADE EASY (@) orthogonal and (o) if each vector has unit length. The two conditions together can be written as 1 if i=j ai {0 ia) Aset of orthogonal vectors Xcan be converted toa set of orthonormal vectors by devising each vector in the orthogonal set by its length (Euclidean norm |I XI). Example: The set (1, 2, 1],[2, 1,-4] and [3, 2, 1]is an orthogonal basis of vectors for A®, since these are pairwise orthogonal and hence are linearly independent and hence span A®. To convert this set to an orthonormal basis of A°, we need to divide each vector by its length Ilu,ll = JT¥447 = Je Hull = J4+1+76 = V2i lull = Joe4e1 = Ja ick A) (Se a) aa (hes) fe Fe Je) Yer ei Vet) 9 aa aa a) : So an orthonormal basis of Ais 1.7 System of Equations 1.7.1, Homogenous Linear Equations ‘Suppose, Is a system of m homogenous equations in n unknowns x,, x, Let yg) + pkg + nent Anh =O apy + oata + (i) + amin amit + Arata +mabe EASY Unear Algebra 19, where A, X, Oare mxn, nx 1, mx 1 matrices respectively. Then obviously we can the system of : equations in the form of a single matrix equation s he AX=0 w= (il) The matrix A is called coefficient matrix of the system of equation (i) 2 The set S= {k= 0, x) = 0, «x, = 0} Le., X= O is always a solution of equation (i. But in general there may be infinite number of solutions to equation (il) ‘Again suppose X, and X, are two solutions of (i). Then their linear combination, R,X, + FX, when A, and Rare any arbitrary numbers, is also solution of (i). 47.1.1 Important Results ‘The number of linearly independent infinite solutions of m homogenous linear equations in n variables, AX=0,is (n= 1), where ris rank of matrix A, nis also the number of parameters in the infinite solution. 17.12 Some important results regarding nature of solutions of equation AX = 0 ‘Suppose there are m equations in n unknowns. Then the coefficient matrix A will be of the type mx». Let r be rank of matrix A. Obviously rcannot greater than n. Therefore we have either r= norr| Al =Oi.e. Aisa singular matrix, 1.7.2. System of Linear Non-Homogeneous Equations App + AIQIg + vovreoeee t Binh Gerry + Bare + wo (i) Anns + Bra%2 +: + Amn = On| be a system of mnon-homogenous equations in n unknown, xX). % Bit Ataenndin Itwe write Azmane EASY 20 GEPICCUIMEUNUOn ed for GATE and ESE Prelims by ae |? Pa Smet where A, X, Bare msn, nx 1, and mx 1 matrices respectivel form of a single matrix equation A X *Any set of values of xy. « solutions of the system. When the system of ‘equatic 4 be consistent otherwise they are sald to be inconsistent ly. The above equations can be written in the ese equation is called a x, which simultaneously satisfy all th Foca he equation are said to ions has one or more solutions, t Ay Aia~-2y a Toe matix[A B=] 22 22-~Bn Be Bm Aro~Am bn, is called augmented matrix of the given system of equations. Condition for Consistency: The system of equations AX = Bis consistent i.e., possess a sol coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A 8] are of the same rank. i.e. r(A) (A, B). Case 1: Inconsistency: If r(A) # r(A| B) the system AX = B, has no solution. We say that such a system is inconsistent. Cases 2and 3: Consistent systems: Now, when r(A) We say, that the rank of the system is r. Now two cases arise. Case 2: Consistent Unique Solution: If (A) = r(A| 8) = r= n (where nis the number of unknown variables of the system), then the system is not only consistent but also has a unique solution. Case 3: Consistent Infinite solution: If r(A) = r(A| B) = r< n, then the system is consistent, but has infinite number of solutions. In summary we can say the following: 1. Ifr(A)#r(Al 8) (Inconsistent and hence, no solution) 2. It(A) = r(A] B) = r= n (consistent and unique solution) 3. If'(A) = r(A|B) = r< n(consistent and infinite solution) a re aka 3 syten at eauatonsas Pa 7 Ce (ititexists) can be obtained by a procedure called 2 i 's Echelon form and then by counting the number of non-zero rows in that matrix we get the rank of A. (Al B) =r. The system is consistent and has solution. Kosene nese wana Ate Find rank of| Aand A: 8 to" HA) A:8) System consistent [Saethanaen| | | 1 "Noon MA)=AA:B)=0 A)=AA:B) then [2,| =1 for all 2 1 then 2, is real for all IME, GATE-2005, 2 marks] [CE, GATE-2005, 2 marks] Q.23 Multiplication of matrices E and Fis G. Matrices 3-2 2 Eand Gare Q.19 Forthe matixA=|0 -2 1), one ofthe eigen cose -sind 0 100 oo 1 Es| sine cosd 0} andG=|0 1 Oj. o o 14 oo4 values is equal to-2. Which of the following is an What is the matrix F? eigen vector? 3 “3 ‘cose -sine O @ |-2 | 2 @ ane on 2 1 -1 ea (cl 2 @|2 ols cosé cose 0 3 . (b) |-cose sine 0 [EE, GATE-2005, 2 marks] . Cra 4 2 ; cosé sing 0 0.20 Grennemann[ ¢ 2] eign tri G [= eed 3 4 o 01 of. #f ‘ sind -cose 0 © i i] oft (a) | cose a 0 1 2 0 1 [EC, GATE-2005, 2 marks) IME, GATE-2006 Ks) . GATE-2006, 2 marksmpDE EASY Unear Algebra 29 Q.24 Match List-! with Listll and select the correct Q.27 The following vector is linearly dependent upon answer using the codes given below he isis: the Soltiontothe previous problem List-I ‘A. Singular matrix: 8 2 B. Non-square matrix (a 9 (o) |-17 C. Real symmetric 3 30 D. Orthogonal matrix Listll 4 13 1. Determinantis not defined © |4 {2 2. Determinant is always one 5 a 3. Determinantis zero 4. Eigen values are always real (EE, GATE-2006, 2 marks) 5. Eigen values are not defined Q.28 Solution for the system defined by the set of Codes: equations 4y + z= 8; 2r-z=2and 3x + 2y=5 A B C OD @ise 1° tas 72 cygenaes)s eae) @3 2 5 4 3 4 2 4 sid [ME, GATE-2006, 2 marks] (2) non-existent (CE, GATE-2006, 1 mark] dealt 0.25 the rari of te metre: (=e Oi Q.29 For the matrix i ‘] the eigen value ileal 24 (a0 (b) 1 (2 3 107 EC, GATE-2006, 1 mark] corresponding to the eigen vector E al is (2 (04 oy fay 27 os (8 Q.26 P=| -1 -5| andR=|-7| are three [EC, GATE-2006, 2 marks] + 3 9 12 vectors. An orthogonal set of vectors having a 2-23 span that contains P, Q, Ris Q.30 For a given matrix A=|-2 -1 6], oneof the 6] [4 120 (a) |-3] |-2 lls eigen values s 3. The other two eigen values are (2-5 ()3,-5 <4] 81/8 (25 (0) 3,5 (b) | 2 Cala: [CE, GATE-2006, 2 marks] 4} [+1] [-3 [| [z : 0.31 Eigen values of a matrix s-[} él are Sand. @}7] }2] 9 23 “U L2) 4 What are the eigen values of the matrix 4] [1] [5 S?= 85? @}3] |s1] |3 (@) tand25 (b) 6and 4 ty La] [4 () Sand1 (@) 2and 10 [EE, GATE-2006, 2 marks] (ME, GATE-2006, 2 marks]* Q.32 The eigen values and the corresponding oigen vectors of a 2 x 2 matrix are given by % Elgon value Eigon vector 1 and ve[] ‘The matrix is 6 2 4 6 of] ole 4) 24 a8) ef] obs] [EC, GATE-2006, 2 marks] 'Q.33 [A] is square matrix which is neither symmetric nor skew-symmetric and [A]"isits transpose. The sum and difference of these matrices are: ‘defined as [S] = [A] + [A]” and [0] = [A] - [A)’, respectively. Which of the following statements: jis TRUE? (a) Both [S] and [D] are symmetric (b) Both [S] and [D] are skew-symmetric. (©) [S]is skew-symmetric and [D] is symmetric (@) [S] is symmetric and [D] is skew-symmetric [CE, GATE-2007, 1 mark] 0.34 The inverse of the 2 x 2 matrix [: ;| is yar 2 a7 2 a at 5 A (b) HH ‘| yo7 -2 af-7 -2 wy 4s ‘| @ iE | (CE, GATE-2007, 2 marks) Q.35 X= [xy.19, ...%4]7 is an n-tuple nonzero vector, Then xn matrix V= XX7 (@) hasrank zero. (b) hasrank 1 (© isorthogonal —_(d) has rankn (EE, GATE-2007, 1 mark] Q.36 It is given that X,, X, .. Xy are M non-zero, % orthogonal vectors. The dimension of the vector ‘space spanned by the 2M vectors X,, Xp... Xp HX Xe on Ny is (a) 2M (b) M41 (Mm (d) dependent on the choice of X,, Xp, Xy IEC, GATE-2007, 2 marks] @ ra mApe EASY 30 ELON for GATE and ESE Prelims got of (column) vectors defined by = 0, whorg ew fre Mix, + tt % ihe scl? Which of tho folowing is TRUE? a Oy, [1, 0, nand Zis an identity matrix. Let matrix A’ = (A7A)" AT, Then, which one of the following statement is TRUE? (@) AWA=A (b) (AA)P=A (© ANA=1 (6) AWA =A [EE, GATE-2008, 2 marks} Q.47 If the rank of a (5 x 6) matrix Qis 4, then which one of the following statements is correct? (@) Quill have four linearly independent rows and four linearly independent columns (©) Quill have four linearly independent rows and five linearly independent columns (©) QQ" will be invertible (d) Q"Qwill be invertible [EE, GATE-2008, 1 mark] Q.48 The following simultaneous equations xtytz=3 x+2y+3z=4 xtay+kz=6 Unear Algebra 31 will NOT have a unique solution for kequal to (a) 0 (0) 5 ‘ (6 (7 [CE, GATE-2008, 2 marks] Q.49 For what value of a, if any, will the following system ‘of equations in x, y and z have a solution? Ox4 Bya4ixtyezadix42y-z2a (@) Anyrealnumber (b) 0 1 (A) Thereis no such value [ME, GATE-2008, 2 marks] Q.50 The system of linear equations 4x4 2y=7 arty =6 has (@) aunique solution (b) no solution (©) an infinite number of solutions (d) exactly two distinct solutions [EC, GATE-2008, 1 mark] Q.51 The following system of equations xy tay +221 xy + 2x + Bry = 2 x4 4x + ax, = 4 has a unique solution. The only possible value(s) for ais/are fo (b) either O or 1 (c) one of 0,1 or-1 (A) any real number other than § [CS, GATE-2008, 1 mark] 45 Q.52 The Eigen values of the matrix [P] = [3 3 are (a) -7 and 8 (c) Sand4 (b) -6and 5 (A) 1and 2 [CE, GATE-2008, 2 marks} 1 2) Q.53 The eigen vectors of the matrix [3 2] are written in the form | and A What is a+ b? a b. @o (b) 12 @1 (2 [ME, GATE-2008, 2 marks] *Q.54 How many of the following matrices have an oigon, value 17 1 0}fo 1] [1-1 10 0 offo ofr +JaFf1 =r {a) one (0) two {c) three (6) tour ICS, GATE-2008, 2 marks) 124 Q.55 The matrix [ 0 ahs one eigen value equal 112, to3, The sum of the other two eigen values is, (@)p (b) p~1 (©) p-2 (d) p-3 IME, GATE-2008, 1 mark] Q.56 All the four entries of the 2 x 2 matrix [20 P2] arenonzeo, anconectis eigen Por Pao, values is zero, Which of the following statements is true? (2) yy Pra ~ Pre Pas = (©) Pyy Boo ~ Pro Par = (©) 2s Poa Pre Par (9) Py Peo ProPar (EC, GATE-2008, 1 mark) Q.57 The characteristic equation of a (3 x 3) matrix Pis defined as a(t) = [P22] =29422+ 204120 if | denotes identity matrix, then the inverse of matrix Pwill be (a) (P?+P+2) — (b) (P2+ P+ 1) (0) -(P?+P+1) (d)-(P2+ P+ 2N [EE, GATE-2008, 1 mark] Q.58 A square matrix B is skew-symmetric if (@) B"=-8 (0) 87=B © B'=8 (6) B= BT ICE, GATE-2009, 1 mark] Q.59 Fora matrix [M4] = , the transpose of the ale oa, matrix is equal to the inverse of the matrix, [IM] = (MJ. The value of xis given by 32 GXRISSIPLNUTSY for GATE and ESE Prelims MADE ERSy 4 3 ira bo) “2 Ord 0) -§ 3 4 oz Or IME, GATE-2009, 1 mark) Q.60 Tho trace and determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix are known to be ~2 and ~35 respectively. It eigen values are (a) -30 and-5 (b) -37 and -1 (c) -7ands (d) 17.5 and-2 [EE, GATE-2009, 1 mark) ‘Q.61 The eigen values of the following matrix are 135 “3-16 003 (2) 3,3+5,6-{ (b)-6 + 5,34 /,.3-j (©) 341 3-j 5+) (3-143, -1-3) [EC, GATE-2009, 2 marks} ICE, GATE-2010, 2 marks) Q.63 For the set of equations xy + 2x tg + Ary = 2 Bx, + Gry + Gx, + 12x, the following statement is true: (@) Only the trivial solution 2, exists (©) There are no solution (©) Aunique non-trivial solution e3 s (d) Multiple non-trivial solutions exist (EE, GATE-2010, 2 marks]made ERSY 0.84 Onocl tho vigen vectors of tho matrix: A -[ ‘| ) t q #(] [ME, GATE-2010, 2 marks) Q.65 An eigen vector of P= is oo. one ene (bo) [1 2017 (2.4 -7" TEE, GATE-2010, 2 marks] @uwi9r ft -1 ay G66 The eigen values of a skew-symmetric matrix are e (a) always zero (©) always pure imaginary (©) either zero or pure imaginary (@) alwaysreal (EC, GATE-2010, 1 mark] Q.67 Consider the following matrix. ae Ifthe eigen values of A are 4 and 8, then Q.68 Consider the following system of equations 2x, +x +3520 =-3,=0 x,+2,=0 This system has (2) aunique solution (b) no solution (C) infinite number of solutions (0) five solutions [ME, GATE-2011, 2 marks] Q.69 The system of equations x+y+z=6 x+4y+6z=2 xe ays+hzap has NO solution for values of and y given by (2) 2=6,p=20 (db) A= 6, #20 ()Ar6,u=20 (A) A#6,p#20 [EC, GATE-2011, 2 mark] Linear Algebra 33 Q.70 Eigen values of a real symmotric matrix are always, (a) positive (b) negative (©) real (A) complex [ME, GATE-2011, 1 mark] Q.71 Consider the matrix as given below: nan 123 5 047 003 Which one of the following options provides the CORRECT values of the eigen values of the matrix? (a) 1,4,3 (b) 3,7,3 () 73,2 (A) 1,2,3 {CS, GATE-2011, 2 marks] Q,72 The eigen values of matrix E a are (b) 3.48 and 13.53 (d) 6.86 and 9.50 [CE, GATE-2012, 2 marks] (a) -2.42 and 6.86 (c) 4.70and 6.86 Q73x+2y+z=4 aety+2z=5 x-y+z=1 The system of algebraic given below has (a) Aunique solution of x = 1, y= 1andz=1 (b) only the two solutions of (x = 1, y= 1, and (x = 2, y= 1, 2=0) (c) infinite number of solutions (2) no feasible solution [ME, GATE-2012, 2 marks] Q.74 Let Abe the 2 x 2 matrix with elements 4, = Ay = a, = + 1 and ay =-1 Then the eigen values of the matrix Al? are (a) 1024 and - 1024 (o) 1024/2 and -1024/2 (©) 4V2 and 4/2 (d) 5122 and -512/2 ICS, GATE-2012, 1 marks} 5 39 Q.75 Forthe matrix A= [; 3] , ONE of the normalized eigen vectors is given as= wy @|> we [ME, GATE-2012, 2 marks] Q.76 Grventhat [5-3 ft af SJour-[ Oh the value Ais (@) 15A+ 127 () 19A+307 (0) 172157 ()17A+2T [EC, EE, IN GATE-2012, 2 marks) Q.77 There are three matrixes A$ x2), Q(2 x4) and FRG x1). The minimum of multiplication required to compute the matrix POR is ICE, GATE-2013, 1 Mark] Q.78 Let A be an m xnmatrix and Ban nx m matrix. It is given that determinant (/,,+ AB) = determinant (7, + BA), where I, is the kxk identity matrix. Using the above property, the determinant of the matrix given below is eae 14 24 12 (5 (0) 16 [EC, GATE-2013, 2 Marks) Q.79 Which one of the following does NOT equal Tr 2 ty Yi? 1z2 1 oafx+t) x44] @/1 yy+) y+) 1 az+ z+ 1 1 1 eae (a2 oes Tx4t Po] (o) 1 y+t oy 1 z+1 2+] MADE EASy [CS, GATE-2013, 1 Mark] Q.80 The dimension of the null space of the matrix ee fold [343 -1 0-1 @o (1 @2 (d)3 [IN, GATE-2013 : 1 mark] Choose the CORRECT set of functions, which are linearly dependent. (@) sinx, sin? x and cos? x (0) cos x, sin.x and tanx (0) cos 2x, sin? x and cos? x (@) cos 2x, sin.x and cos x [ME, GATE-2013, 1 Mark] Q.82 The equation [; 2 2105)_[]nag -1]Lx | Lo @) nosolution (©) only one solution ls | = (ol 2 (6) non-zero unique solution (@) multiple solutions (EE, GATE-2013, 1 Mark] Q.83 One pair of eigen vectors corresponding to the A 0-1 3% two eigen values of the matrix [ | is “OL fe) oli Yi e) (h tl [IN, GATE-2013 ; 2 marks] Q.84 The eigen values of asymmetric matrix are all a Complex with non-zero positive imaginary part ‘complex with non-zero negative ir he legative imaginary part () pure imaginary (ME, GATE-2013, 1 Mark}mabe EASY Linear Algebra 35 Q.85 A matrix has eigen vatuos 1 and -2, The q Y respectively. The mattix is. pr ot 12 @ [ s © IB 4] -1 0 o7 ° [: é| A [3 al [EE, GATE-2013, 2 Marks} 0.86 Theminimum eigen value ol the following matrxis, 35 2 5 127 275 fa) 0 (o)1 (2 (3 [EC, GATE-2013, 1 Mark] 0.87 Real matioes (Als. [B)3,3 [Ch ys: (Og. [Els and [Fs , ate given, Matrices [8] and [E] are symmetic. Following statements are made with respect to these matrices 1, Matrix product (F]" [C]"[B] [C] [F] is a scalar. 2. Matix product [0]"[F][D] isahvays symmetric With reference to above statements, which of the following applies? (@) Statement 1 is true but 2is false () Statement 1 is false but 2s true (6) Both the statements are true (6) Both the statements are false ICE, GATE-2004, 1 mark] 327 Q.88 Given the matrices J=|2 4 2] and 126) 1 =| 2], the product KT Jkis_. -1 ICE, GATE-2014: 1 Mark] With reference to the conventional Cartesian (x,y) Coordinate system, the vertices of a triangle have the following coordinates; (x,, y,) = (1, 0); Gp. Yq) = (2, 2); (ty, Yq) = (4, 3). The area of the triangle is equal to 3 (5 nie (a) 5 () M5 ole [CE, GATE-2014 : 1 Mark] Q.90 Which one of the following equations is a correct identity for arbitrary 3 x 3 real matrices P, Qand io (@) P(Q+ R)=PO+ AP (b) (P- OF = P?- 2PO 4 @? (©) det (P+ Q) = det P+ det O (d) (P+ OF = P+ PO+ OP + [ME, GATE-2014 : 1 Mark] Q.91 Which one of the following statements is true for X__ allreal symmetric matrices? (2) Allthe eigen values are real (b) Allthe eigen values are positive. (c) All the eigen values are distinct (0) Sum of all the eigen values is zero. (EE, GATE-2014 : 1 Mark] Q.92 For matrices of same dimension M, N and” scalar ¢, which one ofthese properties DOES NOT ALWAYS hold? (@) (My = (b) (cM) = o(ny? (c) (M+ N)T= MT + NT (@) MN=NM (EC, GATE-2014: 1 Mark] .93 Which one ofthe following statementsis NOT rue sf fora square matrix A? (a) It Ais upper triangular, the eigen values of A are the diagonal elements of i (0) It Ais real symmetric, the eigen values of A are always real and positive (c) It Ais real, the eigen values of Aand AT are always the same (@) Ifallthe principal minors of A are positive, all the eigen values of Aare also positive (EC, GATE-2014 : 2 Marks] 3 012 1030 0.94 The determinant ofa minantotmai| oF OT is 3012] (CE, GATE-2014 : 1 Mark]