RENEWABLE ENERGY

DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING - utmspace

 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Expected Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• Describe the definitions and concept of alternative energy
• List several types of alternative energy technologies
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of alternative energy
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
•ALTERNATIVE ENERGY ANY SOURCE
OF ENERGY THAT IS ALTERNATIVE TO
THE FOSSIL FUEL.
•THESE ALTERNATIVES ENERGY ARE
INTENDED TO ADDRESS ALL ISSUES
ABOUT FOSSIL FUELS.
DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

FOSSIL
FUEL
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
10 THINGS ABOUT FOSSIL FUEL
1. THREE MAIN TYPES: OIL; COAL; NATURAL GAS
2. TAKE MILLIONS OF YEARS TO FORM
3. CANNOT BE REPLACED ONCE USED: NON-RENEWABLE
4. FOUND UNDER THE GROUND
5. CAN BE DIFFICULT TO GET
6. BURNT TO GIVE OFF HEAT
7. BURNT IN POWER STATIONS TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY
8. GIVE OFF CARBON DIOXIDE WHEN BURNT
9. THEY ARE THE MAIN CAUSE OF AIR POLLUTION
10. ONE DAY THEY COULD RUN OUT
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

SOLAR HYDROGEN
BIOMASS GEOTHERMAL
WIND WAVE
TIDAL HYDRO
NUCLEAR
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF RENEWABLE AND

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

vs

RENEWABLE ENERGY
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

RENEWABLE ENERGY (RE)

•DEFINITION: ENERGY THAT COMES FROM RESOURCES WHICH
ARE NATURALLY REPLENISHED ON A HUMAN TIMESCALE SUCH
AS WIND, SUNLIGHT, HEAT, RAIN, TIDES AND WAVES.
•RE REPLACES THE CONVENTIONAL FUELS IN FOUR DISTINCT
AREAS: ELECTRICITY GENERATION, MOTOR FUELS, HOT
WATER/SPACE HEATING AND RURAL (OFF-GRID) ENERGY
SERVICES.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

SOLAR HYDROGEN
BIOMASS GEOTHERMAL
WIND WAVE
TIDAL HYDRO Renewable

NUCLEAR Non-renewable
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SOLAR ENERGY
DIRECT CONVERSION OF SUNLIGHT INTO ELECTRICITY
SIMPLE IN DESIGN AND REQUIRE VERY LITTLE MAINTENANCE.
CAN BE CONSTRUCTED AS STANDALONE SYSTEMS TO GIVE OUTPUTS
FROM MICROWATTS TO GRID-CONNECTED SYSTEM OF MEGAWATTS
SCALE.
APPLICATION:
 OFF-GRID (STAND-ALONE SYSTEM) FOR REMOTE AREA
 CENTRAL POWER PLANTS
 GRID CONNECTED RESIDENTIAL OR COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS
 REMOTE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

WIND ENERGY
 THE CONVERSION OF WIND ENERGY INTO ELECTRICITY
USING WIND TURBINES.
 THE POWER IS EXTRACTED BY ALLOWING IT TO BLOW PAST MOVING
BLADES.
 AMOUNT OF POWER IS DEPENDENT ON:
 ROTOR SIZE
 WIND SPEED.
 RANGE FROM SMALL FOUR HUNDRED WATT (FOR RESIDENTIAL
USE) TO SEVERAL MEGAWATT MACHINES (WIND FARMS AND
OFFSHORE).
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TIDAL / WAVE ENERGY

PRODUCED BY THE SURGE OF OCEAN WATERS DURING THE RISE AND FALL
OF TIDES.

POTENTIAL SOURCE OF RE BECAUSE TIDES ARE STEADY AND PREDICTABLE

HYDROPOWER THAT CONVERTS THE ENERGY OBTAINED FROM TIDES INTO

USEFUL FORMS OF POWER, MAINLY ELECTRICITY.

HIGH COST AND LIMITED AVAILABILITY OF SITES

 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
THE THERMAL ENERGY THAT IS GENERATED AND
STORED IN THE EARTH
THE SOURCE IS SUSTAINABLE
HEAT ENERGY IS DERIVED FROM THE EARTH FROM
HOT SPRINGS, HYDROTHERMAL CIRCULATION OR
MAGMA CONDUITS
SPIN THE TURBINES TO GENERATE ELECTRICITY
DISADVANTAGE - THIS ENERGY IS DIFFUSE AND
AVAILABLE IN CERTAIN LOCATION
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BIOMASS ENERGY

THE MOST WIDELY USED FORM OF RE SOURCES

USE OF ORGANIC MATERIALS AND CONVERT IT INTO OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
SOURCE OF HEATING FOR ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION.
BIOMASS MATERIALS: SUCH AS WOOD, AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES AND ANIMAL AND HUMAN WASTE.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
HYDROGEN FUEL CELL
 THE ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED THROUGH
AN ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESS
 NO MOVING PARTS: QUIET AND HIGHLY
EFFICIENT POWER GENERATION
 CHEMICAL ENERGY COMES FROM HYDROGEN
CONTAINED IN VARIOUS TYPES OF FUELS:
 PURE HYDROGEN
 HYDROCARBON FUELS (EG: BIOGAS,
NATURAL GAS, ETHANOL, METHANOL, ETC.)
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

1.RENEWABLE SOURCES
2.LESS MAINTENANCE
3.LOW OPERATION COST, FREE
ENERGY
4.NO WASTE PRODUCT AND
POLLUTION
5.ECONOMIC BENEFITS, TOURISM
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

•REQUIRE MORE ENERGY FACILITIES OR LAND USE
•MAY NOT BE AVAILABLE WHEN WE NEED IT:
•DAILY AND SEASONAL VARIATION
•TO SMOOTH OUT SUPPLY NEED ENERGY STORAGE
SYSTEMS
•NOT EQUALLY AVAILABLE IN ALL LOCATIONS
•HIGH INSTALLATION COST
RENEWABLE ENERGY
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THANK YOU
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 2
SOLAR ENERGY RESOURCE
Expected Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• Understand solar energy resources
• To do site analysis

References
• Grid-connected Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert
Handbook by Geoff Stapleton and Susan Neill, 2010.
• Stand-alone Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert Handbook for Planning, Design
and Installation by Mark Hankins, Earthscan, 2010.
DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SOLAR RADIATION
•IRRADIANCE (G) - The rate of solar radiation falling on a given
area at a moment in time (Eg: daily, monthly or annually).
Measured in W/M2 or KW/M2

•IRRADIATION/INSOLATION (H)- The amount of solar

energy received on a specified area over a specified period of
time. Measured in KWH/M2.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SOLAR RADIATION
1. DIRECT RADIATION, 𝒃:

Radiation from the sun that reaches the earth

without scattering

2. DIFFUSE RADIATION, 𝒅:

Radiation that is scattered by the atmosphere

and clouds

3. GLOBAL RADIATION, 𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒍

𝒈𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒍 𝒃 𝒅
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

AIR MASS (AM)

• THE SUNLIGHT SPECTRUM CHANGES WHEN PASSING THROUGH THE ATMOSPHERE. THE EFFECT IS
GREATER, THE LONGER THE PATH OF THE LIGHT.
• THE TERM AM 1.5 MEANS THAT THE LIGHT HAS TRAVELLED 1.5 TIMES THE DISTANCE IN COMPARISON
TO THE VERTICAL PATH THROUGH THE ATMOSPHERE.
• AT A KNOWN SUN HEIGHT ANGLE OF THE SUN (Θ) THE AM VALUE :
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PEAK SUN HOUR (PSH)

• Daily irradiation is commonly referred as PSH
• PSH for the day is the number of hours for which energy at the
rate of 1 would give an equivalent amount of energy
to the total for that day.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PEAK SUN HOUR (PSH)

• To get maximum solar radiation, PV module must be directly
faced to the sun
• Therefore, we need some knowledge about the earth-sun
geometry in order to find the best PV module orientation and
location
• Study about the best tilt angle of the module and the effect of
shading around the location
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUN GEOMETRY AND SUN PATH

The coordinate of any location on the surface of the earth can be described using latitude and longitude
angles measured in degrees described as follows

• Latitude:the location of a site either in the geographical northern (ᵒN) or southern (ᵒS)
hemispheres that is divided by the equator.

• Longitude: the location of a site either in geographical east or west of an accepted reference, I.E.
The prime meridian at greenwich meridian (GM) defined as 0ᵒ. This gives rise to the clock time of
the site, being either ahead (negative) or behind (positive) that of greenwich meridian time
(GMT).
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUN GEOMETRY AND SUN PATH

• The earth’s axis of spin declined at 23.45˚
• Due to the declination during spin and revolution around the sun, the
earth surface receives different amounts of solar radiation
Declination angle
Earth axis of spin

Solar
Radiation
Tropic of Cancer
Equator
Tropic of Capricon
True South
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUN GEOMETRY AND SUN PATH

N
Mar 21

N S N

Dec 21
Jun 21
S N S
Sep 21

S
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUN GEOMETRY AND SUN PATH

Parameter Latitude (degree) Specific meaning and implication

Line that marks the southern extremity of the polar day and
Arctic Circle +66.57
polar night.

Line that indicates the highest latitude the Sun’s line of sight
Tropic of Cancer +23.45
ever reaches in the Northern Hemisphere

Line that divides the Northern and Southern

Equator 0.00
Hemispheres equally

Line that indicates the highest latitude the Sun's line of

Tropic of Capricorn -23.45
sight ever reaches in the Southern Hemisphere

Line that marks the northern extremity of the polar

Antarctic Circle -66.56
day and polar night.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION MAP

• To estimate the available solar energy, it is necessary to obtain the global radiation
data of the site.
• The most important characteristic for this is the year’s total H of the global radiation
on a horizontal level.
• Nowadays global radiation maps are
available that show this characteristic
• The basis of these is many years of
measurements by a dense network of
measuring stations, satellite pictures and
simulation tools. Attribution: SolarGIS © 2013 GeoModel Solar
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SITE ANALYSIS
 Max performance is achieved when modules are
perpendicular to the sun’s rays
 PV module Direction and Orientation
 Tilt Angle

 PV modules are normally installed on pitched roofs so that

the module is at an angle β to the horizontal.
Tilt angle (β)
 In case of flat roofs or open air plants it is usual to tilt the
modules in order to achieve a higher annual yield
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEASURING TOOLS/EQUIPMENT

A sunshine recorder is a Pyrheliometer for measuring direct

device that records the radiation: The instrument must
amount of sunshine at a continuously track the Sun
given location
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEASURING TOOLS/EQUIPMENT
• Solar Pathfinder provides fast, accurate solar site analysis.
• In just minutes, the Solar Pathfinder determines and records year-round, site-
specific solar data, with precision and ease
• Very useful for studying the shading effect at a particular site
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MEASURING TOOLS/EQUIPMENT
Pyranometer Solarimeter Weather station

• A pyranometer/solarimeter used to measure broadband solar irradiance on a planar surface

• A Weather station can also be used to collect the same data
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

OTHER USEFUL TOOLS/EQUIPMENT

Thermometer/
Infrared Thermometer
Sun eye
Magnetic compass
Inclinometer
RENEWABLE ENERGY
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 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 3
PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Expected Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• Understand about PV system configuration

References
• Grid-connected Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert Handbook by Geoff Stapleton
and Susan Neill, 2010.
• Stand-alone Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert Handbook for Planning, Design
and Installation by Mark Hankins, Earthscan, 2010.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PV MODULE SPECIFICATION
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TESTING STANDARDS
• Standard Test Condition (STC) is defined as follows:
PARAMETER SYMBOL VALUE
Irradiance at normal
G 1,000
incidence
Cell temperature T 25°C
Solar Spectrum (Air Mass) AM 1.5

• All PV cell/module manufacturers provide their datasheet at

this conditions
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PV MODULE SPECIFICATION

Output at
STC

Temperature
coefficient

Nominal operating
cell temperature
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PV SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
• The configuration depends on the type of PV system
• PV systems are generally divided
into three major categories:
– grid–connected (also known as grid - tied )
systems that are interfaced to an electricity
grid;
– stand-alone (off grid) systems that are self -
contained.
– Hybrid system
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GRID-CONNECTED SYSTEM
• The main components for a
grid-connected system is PV
modules, grid-inverter and
energy meter
• Inverter will convert from DC
voltage into AC voltage
• Use two energy meters: PV
meter and consumption meter
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ARRANGEMENT OF GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS

• Type of grid inverter
– Central inverter
– String inverter
– Multi string inverter
– Modular inverter
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CENTRAL INVERTER
Use one inverter for the whole PV array
Generally used for a large system (>10kWp)
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

STRING INVERTER
Connected across on string of PV modules.
Generally used for in small systems ranging
from 1kWp to 11kWp.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MULTI-STRING INVERTER
 Using only one inverter but has a number of MPPT(max
power point tracker) inputs
 The advantage of this inverter: it still can produce higher
power output although the strings are facing at different
direction
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MODULAR INVERTER
• Modular inverters
(micro-inverters) are
small transformer-less
inverter
• Normally it is designed
to be mounted on the
back of the PV module
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PV STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS
• PV stand-alone systems (off-grid system) are typically used when there
is no electric grid or the costs for connecting to a grid are too high.

• Various stand-alone PV schemes are possible, depending on the

application:
– Without battery storage or inverter(direct)
– With battery storage, without inverter.
– With inverter, without battery storage.
– With inverter and battery storage.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PV STAND-ALONE SYSTEMS

Structure of a simple PV stand-alone system

RENEWABLE ENERGY
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 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 4
PV SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Expected Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• Understand about the main PV system components

References
• Grid-connected Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert Handbook by Geoff Stapleton
and Susan Neill, 2010.
• Stand-alone Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert Handbook for Planning, Design
and Installation by Mark Hankins, Earthscan, 2010.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
The combination of all components and subsystems for converting the solar
energy from the sun into electrical energy and supply the energy to the load
utilization

energy load
inversion &
source utilization
conditionin
g

PV Array Inverter
load energy
Charger
center distributio
Controller
n
energy
conversion

electric
energy utility
storage battery
network
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PV SYSTEM COMPONENTS
• PV Array/modules Set of PV modules to convert from sunlight to electricity.
• Energy Storage Used to store energy produced by PV arrays
• Inverter A device which used to convert from DC power from batteries or PV
arrays into AC power.
• Charge Controller A device used to protect batteries from overcharge, over
discharge and to provide load control functions.
• Electrical Load The electrical appliances that are served by the system.
• Balance of System (BOS) Components Other equipment required to control,
protect, conduct, distribute power and structurally support the system.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ENERGY STORAGE
• Battery – commonly used for storing electrical energy
• Common type of rechargeable battery
 Lithium-ion, Lead Acid, Nickel Cadmium, Nickel Metal Hydride, Lithium-
polymer, etc.
• Lead acid batteries are used almost exclusively in PV system due to
more cost effective and readily available.
• Battery Capacity – amount of energy that a battery can store (unit:
amp-hours (Ah))
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHARGE CONTROLLER
• Function – to regulate the voltage and current coming
from solar array to the battery
• Preventing from overcharging which causes plate
corrosion, gassing and loss of liquid
• Preventing from deep discharging. Deep discharging
below the cut-off voltage can cause permanent damage
to the battery as well as loss of battery capacity
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TYPE OF CHARGE CONTROLLER

1. Series-type controllers:
o rely on relays or electronic switches in series between the PV module
and the battery.
o Disconnect the PV module when the battery reaches a set voltage
2. Shunt-type controllers: parallel between the array and battery
o Gradually reduce power from the PV module to the battery as the
battery reaches full charge (short-circuiting back through the module)
o Low cost, simple, well suited for small off-grid PV systems
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

TYPE OF CHARGE CONTROLLER

3. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) controllers:
o Send pulse of charges of charge to the battery that vary depending
on its state of charge (SOC).
o Battery with low SOC gets a wide pulse (high charge) and send
increasingly narrow pulse as the battery gets fully charged.
4. Maximum power point tracker (MPPT) controller
o Track for the maximum power point of the solar array and convert
the extra power available (in the extra voltage) to provide extra
current at the battery charge voltage.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INVERTER
• Convert lower voltage DC
electricity into higher voltage AC.
• PV array and inverter interface:
–Stand-alone system
–Grid-connected system
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INVERTER FOR STAND-ALONE SYSTEM

• Two ways that the inverter can be used in stand-
alone systems:
– Small inverter to power a single appliance
– Larger inverter to power entire circuits
• Typically about 90% efficiency
• Available in sizes ranging from 50W to thousands
of watts
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INVERTER FOR GRID-CONNECTED SYSTEM

• All grid-connected inverters perform these basic functions:
– Convert DC from array to AC power and fed to the grid
– Ensure power being fed into the grid is at the appropriate frequency
and voltage. Otherwise it will not release the electricity to the grid.
– Use MPPT to ensure that the inverter is finding the maximum power
available from the PV array to convert to AC
– In built active and passive safety protections to ensure that the
inverter itself down when the grid is not operating within acceptable
voltage and frequency tolerances
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INVERTER FOR GRID-CONNECTED SYSTEM

Type of grid inverters may be different in a number of ways:
• With transformer or without transformer
• Switching frequency of the transformer used
• How the array and inverter interface with each other
• The inverter’s rated capacity
• Whether the input has a single or multiple string inputs
• Whether it is designed for single phase or multiple phase power
supplies
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHOOSING INVERTER
• Type of inverter – grid-tied or stand-alone system
• Inverter Size (power rating)
• Input Voltage
– Stand-alone : depend on system voltage (12V, 24V, 48V….)
– Grid-connected: allowable input voltage ranges of the inverter
• Efficiency
• Safety and protection
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 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 5
PV STAND-ALONE SYSTEM
Expected Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• Able to design simple PV stand-alone system

References
• Stand-alone Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert Handbook for Planning, Design
and Installation by Mark Hankins, Earthscan, 2010.
DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUB-TOPIC
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION
Stand-alone System: A stand-alone system does not have
a connection to the electricity main grid.

Standalone systems vary in size from watches or

calculators to remote buildings or spacecraft.

If the load is to be supplied independently of insolation,

the generated power needs to be buffered with a battery.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PV SYSTEM
DC
load

Charge Distribution
controller panel

Stand-alone
inverter

AC load
Battery
bank
PV array Balance Of System Loads
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

STEP TO DESIGN A PV STAND-ALONE SYSTEM

1 2 3 4
Calculation Survey of Sizing and Sizing and
of the load solar selection of selection of
energy resource and battery inverter,
demand and the selection charge
determine of PV controller
the system modules and other
voltage BOS
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN EXAMPLE - FLOWCHART

Equivalent Days of
sun hours autonomy

Charge
Load PV array Battery Inverter FINAL
controller
demand design design design DESIGN
design

Accounting
Losses
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CALCULATION OF THE LOAD ENERGY AND

DETERMINE THE SYSTEM VOLTAGE
 There have two type of load assessment:
• AC load
• DC load Ereq_daily is daily energy requirement (Wh per day)
Pappliance is power of appliance
 Daily requirement for electricity
Huse is expected daily use of appliance (hours per day)
– Unit of consumption for electricity
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN EXAMPLE – LOAD

Item Quantity Power per item Total power Time of use Total energy
(WDC) (WDC) (h/day) (Wh)
DC Light 4 25 100 3 300
TOTAL 100 300

Item Quantity Power per item Total power Time of use Total energy
(WAC) (WAC) (h/day) (Wh)
TV 1 100 100 2 200
AC Desktop 1 100 100 1 100
TOTAL 200 300

Days of Autonomy: 2
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CALCULATION OF THE LOAD ENERGY AND

DETERMINE THE SYSTEM VOLTAGE
• General System Efficiency: the efficiency of cables,
the battery and the charge controller. This can be taken
to be 80 per cent (meaning 20 per cent of the energy is
lost).
• Inverter Efficiency: a good inverter, one designed for
use in stand-alone PV systems for example, will be
about 85 per cent efficient under average loads.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CALCULATION OF THE LOAD ENERGY AND

DETERMINE THE SYSTEM VOLTAGE

where
_ _ is revised energy required daily
_ is the DC load energy
is the general system efficiency
_ is AC loads energy
is inverter efficiency
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN EXAMPLE - LOSSES

300
300 Wh DC
(300 Wh + Wh loa
300Wh/0.9)/0.85 d
Charge AC
controlle loa
r d
300 300
Wh/0.9
Stand- Wh
745 alone
Wh/day inverter

Batter
y
PV bank
cablesCC batt
 85% inverter  90% Load
array s
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SYSTEM VOLTAGE
• 'System Voltage' is the nominal voltage at which
the batteries, charge regulator and solar array
operate.
• Also, system appliances often operate at the
system voltage.
• PV-SA system voltage (SV) is : 12V, 24V or 48V DC.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN EXAMPLE - LOSSES

1 2 3 4
Most small stand- Sometimes, 24 Many charge One of the general
alone PV systems and 48 VDC Voltage regulators and limitations is that,
(especially solar is used. In such inverters can the maximum
home use 12V DC cases, battery and operate at either continuous
as their system solar modules are 12 or 24 VDC. They current being
voltage. This wired in series or sense the system drawn from
means batteries series-parallel so voltage and adjust battery should be
are configured at that they are 24 or to it automatically. no greater than
12 VDC and the 48V, and 24 or 48V 120 A.
charge regulator charge regulators
and modules are and inverters must
rated at 12 VDC. be selected.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DAILY SYSTEM CHARGE REQUIREMENT

• Divide the revised daily total system energy requirement,
by the system voltage, SV to get the daily
system charge requirement in amp-hours ( ).
• This is the charge in amp-hours that the module(s) will have
to provide each day to meet the load requirements.
_ _
_
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SURVEY OR SOLAR RESOURCE AND THE SELECTION OF PV

• Next, check which month has the lowest MODULES
mean daily insolation.
• This is called the design month and it is used to size the array for stand-alone systems.
• Most off-grid PV system are designed for the month of the year with the lowest insolation so that
when the sun is least available, the system will work.
Design Month: 4.5h
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SIZING AND SELECTION OF BATTERY & PV MODULE

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DESIGN EXAMPLE – PV ARRAY SIZING

Panel specifications(example)
Power output (Wp) 100
VMPP (V) 16
IMPP (A) 6.25
VOC (V) 20
ISC (A) 7
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DESIGN EXAMPLE – PV ARRAY SIZING

Total energy demand

MPPT

Minimum Wp  745Wh/ day  165.6W

4.5h/ day

Equivalent sun hours

165.6W
Number of panels   1.7  2 panels
100Wp
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DESIGN EXAMPLE – PV ARRAY SIZING

Short circuit current
• Parallel
Maximum current, Imax  7 A 2  14A

• Series
Maximum voltage, Vmax  20V  2  40V

Open circuit voltage

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CALCULATION
Equivalent Days of
sun hours autonomy

Charge
Load PV array Battery Inverter FINAL
controller
demand design design design DESIGN
design

Accounting
Losses
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BATTERY SIZING AND SELECTION

Choosing the battery
• Choice of battery will be limited by what is on the
market and how much you have to spend.
• Identify the available batteries, list important
characteristics that can fit within your budget
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BATTERY SIZING AND SELECTION

Calculate the required capacity of your battery. The capacity of the
battery required depends on three primary factors;
– The daily system charge requirement, _ (Ah) that must be supplied to the loads each
day.
– The maximum allowable depth of discharge factor (DODmax). This is the deepest depth of
discharge that is ordinarily allowed with the battery.
– Shallow cycle batteries, for example, should not he cycled below 20 per cent depth of
discharge, while deep discharge batteries can regularly handle 50 per cent discharges.
– The reserve storage factor, or the number of days of storage needed (system autonomy). This
varies with site and is higher for site with cloudy weather.
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BATTERY SIZING AND SELECTION

Minimum number of Battery,
_
_ _

_
_ _

𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 is the nominal battery voltage

Cbatt is the capacity for one battery
𝐶 _ is the required capacity
𝐶 _ is the daily system charge requirement
𝑇 _ is the reserve storage factor (system autonomy)
𝐷𝑂𝐷 is the maximum depth of discharge
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DESIGN EXAMPLE – BATTERY SIZING

Battery specifications (example)

Depth of discharge 60%
Battery voltage (V) 12
Battery capacity (Ah) 21

Batteries : Hoppeke
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DESIGN EXAMPLE – BATTERY SIZING

Total energy demand
Days of autonomy

745Wh
Minimum Cbatt   2  103.5Ah
0.6 24V
DOD
24𝑉
Number of batteries in series  12𝑉 = 2 𝑜𝑓 12𝑉 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

Number of batteries in parallel

Number of batteries  25  10batteries

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CALCULATION

If 2V DC or 6V DC
Batteries Small off-grid batteries are used,
should be PV systems they are configured in
configured at usually use 12 series so that their
the system VDC as their total equals the system
voltage. Make system voltage (i.e. at a system
a drawing of voltage and voltage of 12 VDC, two
your battery 12V batteries. 6V batteries would be
configuration configured in parallel).
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SIZING AND SELECTION OF INVERTER AND CHARGE CONTROLLER

Before choosing a charge controller:

Decide the controller Decide controller

size (current rating) features

Controller need to be sized according to the

system voltage (either 12V, 24V or 48V)
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SIZING AND SELECTION OF CHARGE CONTROLLER

Equivalent Days of
sun hours autonomy

Charge
Load PV array Battery Inverter FINAL
controller
demand design design design DESIGN
design

Accounting
Losses
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SIZING AND SELECTION OF CHARGE CONTROLLER

The controller must be sized
to handle both the
maximum short-circuit Charge controller sizes range
current from the array and from 5 to 50 amps or larger.
the maximum demand of
the load.

To determine the array

Many charge controllers current size, calculate the
have the same `charge' and maximum short-circuit
'load output' rating current of the array and
multiply it by 1.25.
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DESIGN EXAMPLE – CHARGE CONTROLLER

> VMax
Charge controller specifications(example)
< IMax
Maximum voltage (V) 60
Maximum current (A) 10
Operational voltage 12V/24V
MPPT Yes

Operational Voltage Panels in Series

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SIZING AND SELECTION OF CHARGE INVERTER

Equivalent Days of
sun hours autonomy

Charge Inverter
Load PV array Battery Inverter FINAL
controller design
demand design design design DESIGN
design

Accounting
Losses
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SIZING AND SELECTION OF INVERTER

Decide the desired
features of the
inverter you need.
Select desired
inverter features
Make sure the wave-
The inverter must shape of the inverter
deliver the maximum matches the needs of
AC load that you your appliances.
expect from AC
Is an inverter
devices.
needed?
Total up the power of
the AC devices and
multiply this by 1.25.
This is the
recommended
inverter rating. 95
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DESIGN EXAMPLE – INVERTER SIZING

Inverter specifications(example)
Efficiency 90%
Operational voltage 24V
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DESIGN EXAMPLE – INVERTER SIZING

Inverter specifications (example)
Efficiency 90%
Operational voltage 24V

Total power demand

200W
Minimum Nominal Power Rating   222.2W
0.90
Inverter efficiency
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SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

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CALCULATION
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CHAPTER 6
PV GRID-CONNECTED
SYSTEM DESIGN
Expected Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• Design a grid-connected PV system
• To apply the system sizing based on design criteria

References
• Grid-connected Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert Handbook by Geoff Stapleton
and Susan Neill, 2010.
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SITE SURVEY
A site survey is required before designing the system. So, it important to determine :

1. The solar access for the site.

 Whether any shading will occur and estimate its effect on the system.
 Estimate the solar resource at the site.

2. The available area to install the solar array.

 Whether the roof/structure is suitable for mounting the array.
 How to mount the PV modules on the roof.

3. Components location to be installed

 Where the inverter will interconnect to the grid.
 Where to locate the array junction box, inverter and kWh meter
 Cabling route and therefore estimate the length of the cable
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SELECTING INVERTER
 There are several types of inverter:
1. Central
2. Multi-string
3. String
4. Modular

 Things to consider when selecting an inverter are:

i. The peak rating of the PV array
ii. Whether all the solar modules are in the same plane (the same tilt angle and
direction)
iii. The type of shading that occurs on the array
iv. The capital costs of the different inverters
v. The average annual energy yield
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SYSTEM SIZING
In general, a PV Grid-Connected system can be designed based
on the following limiting design criteria:
i. to fit on available roof area - determine the total number of
modules that can be mounted on the roof.
ii. to meet yearly energy requirements - determine the PV array
capacity to meet the energy requirement.
iii. to meet a specific budget - determine the PV array capacity that
fits within the budget constraint.
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DESIGNED TO FIT ON AVAILABLE ROOF AREA

 The possible number of PV modules that can fit on an area
or roof is limited by the actual width and length of the
module compared with the width and length of the
available space.
Length-wise up
 A PV module has two fixed dimensions which are the width
and length, in general modules are in a rectangular shape.

 The PV modules could then be installed either mounted in

length wise up or in length wise across Length-wise across
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DESIGNED TO MEET YEARLY ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

Consider the Sub-System Losses due to the following:
 Inverter efficiency
 Cable losses (transmission efficiency)
 Average yearly irradiation for the tilt angle and the
orientation of the PV modules
 Manufacturing and mismatch tolerance of the PV modules
 Temperature effects
 The effects of dust or dirt on the PV modules
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SYSTEM SIZING
• It is important to ensure that the array is matched to the inverter’s input specifications so
that all system components are appropriately sized to suit the site-specific conditions.

• Inverter should be chosen so that the maximum power output from the designed PV array
(given in Wp) matches the inverter’s maximum array power input (given in Wp).

• Avoided over—sizing of the inverter as it will reduce the inverter’s operating efficiency and
hence reduce overall power output.

• The designer needs to ensure that the inverter and PV array match in terms of voltage,
current and power to ensure a safe and efficient PV system.
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MATCHING VOLTAGE SPECIFICATIONS

There are two voltage specifications
that need to be met.
• The maximum system voltage of
the module. A PV array voltage
must not exceed this voltage.
• The operating voltage of the
inverter must not be exceeded.
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MATCHING VOLTAGE SPECIFICATIONS

• The maximum input voltage is the maximum DC voltage that the inverter is
designed to handle safely.

• If the array’s open circuit voltage exceeds the maximum input voltage, it may
damage the inverter’s electronic components.

• The vast majority of grid interactive inverters also have a maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) range with specified minimum and maximum voltages.

• Within this range, the inverter tracks the maximum power point to ensure the array‘
performs as well as possible; outside this range the array is likely to underperform.
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INVERTER SPECIFICATIONS
Inverter window operating voltage
PV array MPPT input
voltage range
Maximum PV array voltage
(must not exceed this value)

Maximum PV array current

Inverter Efficiency
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MATCHING VOLTAGE SPECIFICATIONS

• The first step to acquire maximum and minimum temperatures at the installation
site. From these, the PV module cell temperatures can be calculated.

• The PV cells will operate at a much higher than the air temperature quoted in
weather report.

• National codes should be consulted first as they may specify the ambient or cell
temperatures that should be used in sizing calculations.

• In Malaysia, the minimum and maximum cell temperatures are and ,

respectively.
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MATCHING VOLTAGE SPECIFICATIONS

• Calculate the expected voltage output of the array that
is affected by the change of cell temperatures.

• Datasheet generally provide at least one temperature

coefficient for Voltage (a specific rating that describes
the effect of temperature on the cell voltage).

• Usually expressed as a percentage or in volts per

degree celcius, whereas some manufacturers only
provide а Рmax (maximum power) temperature
coefficient that can be used as an approximation for
the Voltage temperature coefficient.
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MATCHING CURRENT SPECIFICATIONS

• An array normally has several strings connected in parallel and the input DC current will be the sum of the
currents of all the strings connected to the İnverter.

• The short-circuit current is used in these calculations because it is the largest current the module will
produce.

• To calculate the Maximum number of parallel string of the array :

_ _
_ _
_

𝐼 _ _ - maximum inverter DC input current

𝑓 - safety factor (range betwen 1.1 to 1.25)
𝐼 _ - short circuit current of string at STC
RENEWABLE ENERGY
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Any question?
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CHAPTER 7
WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS
Expected Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
• Understand about the purpose of wind energy systems.

References
• Wind Energy Systems: Solutions for Power Quality and Stabilization by Mohd Hasan Ali, CRC
Press, 2012.
• Wind Energy Systems: Control Engineering Design by Mario Garcia-Sanz, Constantine H.
Houpis, CRC Press, 2012.
 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO WIND ENERGY

SYSTEMS
Historical Development of WT
Current Status and Future Prospects of Wind Energy
Types of Wind Turbine Generators (WT)
Orientation of WT
Sizes and Applications of WT
Components of WT
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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
• The Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious irrigation project
during seventeenth century B.C.
• The wind wheel of the Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is the earliest known
instance of using a wind driven wheel to power a machine
• Wind-driven wheel was the prayer wheel, which was used in ancient Tibet and China since the 4th
century
• Wind has been used by people for over 3000 years for grinding grain, sailboats, and pumping water
Windmills were an important part of life for many communities beginning around 1200 BC.
• Wind was first used for electricity generation in the late 19th century.
• By the 13th century, grain grinding mills were popular in most of Europe
• French adopted this technology by 1105 A.D. and the English by 1191 A.D
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 DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

• The era of wind electric generators began close to 1900’s.

• The first modern wind turbine, specifically designed for electricity generation, was constructed in Denmark in 1890.
• The first utility-scale system was installed in Russia in 1931.
• A significant development in large-scale systems was the 1250 kW turbine fabricated by Palmer C. Putman.
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The installed capacity from the wind worldwide.

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Installed capacity in different regions in the world, 2010

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Wind Turbine components
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• A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power.

• Individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually 34.5 kV) power collection
system and communications network.

• At a substation, this medium-voltage electrical current is increased in voltage with a transformer for
connection to the high voltage transmission system

• A large wind farm may consist of a few dozen to several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover
an extended area of hundreds of square miles (square kilometers), but the land between the turbines
may be used for agricultural or other purposes.

• A wind farm may be located off-shore to take advantage of strong winds blowing over the surface of
an ocean or lake.
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• Location

• Wind speed

• Altitude

• Wind park effect

• Environmental and aesthetic impacts

• Effect on power grid

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RENEWABLE ENERGY
DIPLOMA PROFESSIONAL IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING