GEED 10053

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN

WORLD

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

College of Science

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 Chapter 3

PROBLEM SOLVING

A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

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Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning

Reasoning

Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusion or inferences through

the use of proper justification.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning is the process of reasoning that arrives at a general

conclusion based on the observation of specific examples.

An object defined by a premise is called a specimen. The generalization

is called a conjecture. A specimen that negates the conjecture is called
a counterexample.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example

In the past 30 days, we observed that the sun has risen in the east. Using
inductive reasoning, we may conjecture that the sun will rise in the east
tomorrow.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Example

We know that
1+1=2 1 + 9 = 10 3 + 9 = 12
1+3=4 3+3=6 5 + 5 = 10 7 + 7 = 14
1+5=6 3+5=8 5 + 7 = 12 7 + 9 = 16
1+7=8 3 + 7 = 10 5 + 9 = 14 9 + 9 = 18.

One can form a conjecture that

The sum of any two odd integers is even.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Example

Consider the following:

A parrot can fly and it is a bird. An eagle can fly
and it is a bird. An owl can fly and it is a bird.

One might say

Any animal that can fly is a bird.

Counterexample: A bat can fly but it is not a bird.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example

Note
that
12 = 1 (−3)2 = 9

One can say that

The square of any number is positive.

Counterexample: 0 is a number. 02 = 0 is not positive.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Strong and Weak Induction

An inductive argument is said to be strong if it makes a compelling case

for its conclusion. It is weak if its conclusion is not well supported by the
premises.

Note that the strength of an argument is not necessarily related with the
truth of the conclusion.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example

Karl Kulit told his parents that he already passed 3 out of his 4 major
subjects and 3 out of his 4 minor subjects. He confidently concludes
that he will finishes this semester without a failing subject.

1.Is this inductive?

Yes.
2.Is this strong?
No.
3.Is the conclusion true? We have no idea yet.
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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example

The sky is blue because I said so.

1.Is this inductive? Yes.

2.Is this strong? No.
3.Is the conclusion true? Yes.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example

Mt. Khber erupts once every 10 years, as historic records say. There are
no current record of its eruption in this decade. Therefore, we should
expect that Mt. Khber will erupt sooner before the decade ends.

1.Is this inductive?

Yes.
2.Is this strong?
Yes.
3.Is the conclusion true? It is most likely that it will be true.
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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning that arrives at a

conclusion based on previously accepted general statements.

Conclusion is based on general statements whose truth value is known or

assumed. The process in deductive reasoning is it first lay down definition of
terms, and assume basic true statements called axioms and derive true
statements from these axioms called as theorems.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example

All politicians are married. Senator Manny Pacquiao is a politician.

Thus, Senator Manny Pacquiao is married.

Example

Every rectangle is a parallelogram. A square is a rectangle. Hence, a

square is parallelogram.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Validity and Soundness

A deductive argument is said to be valid if its conclusion follows from its

premises, regardless of the truth of the premises or conclusion.

A deductive argument is said to be sound if it is valid and its premises

are all true.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example
Consider this argument.

All parallelograms are polygons. A square is a

parallelogram.
Hence, a square is a polygon.

Is this valid?
Is this sound?

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example
Determine if this argument is valid.

Every fish lives in the water.

Whales are not fish.
Thus, whales do not live in the water.

Is this valid?
Is this sound?

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Conditional Deductive Arguments

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example
Consider this argument.

Any offspring of Zeus is an Olympian. Hercules is a son of Zeus.

Therefore, Hercules is an Olympian.

Is this valid?
Is this sound?

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example
Consider this argument.

No students are passive. Gretel is passive.

Therefore, Gretel is not a student.

Is this valid?
Is this sound?

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example
Consider this argument.

All 15-year old boys play basketball. No 15-year old boys are loyal
lovers.
Some basketball players are loyal lovers.
Artistic boys are both loyal lovers and basketball players. Lito is artistic.
Therefore, Lito is not 15 years old.

Is this valid?
Is this sound?

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

To summarize, inductive reasoning cannot in general

prove general statements as this relies on examples
only. However, only one CounterExample can prove that
our conjecture is false. In contrast, we can use deductive
reasoning to prove a certain conjecture.

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A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Example
Choose any number. Multiply by 3. Add 6 to the result. Divide the result by 3.
Finally, subtract the original number from the result of the previous step. Use
inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the final result and use
deductive reasoning to prove the conjecture.
test number 3 7 11 Now let’s prove it using deductive
reasoning.
multiply by 3: 9 21 33 x
add 6: 15 27 39 3x
divide by 3 5 9 13 3x + 6
3x + 6
3 = x+2
subtract the original number : 2 2 2
x+2−x=2
Therefore, we have proved that we
One can say that we will always end up with will always end up with 2.
2.
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 George Pólya’s
Guidelines for Problem Solving

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B. George Pólya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

George Pólya

In 1945, Hungarian mathematician

George Pólya’s devised a model for
problem solving and published it in his
book How to Solve It. The book contains
a collection of mathematical and
non-mathematical problems with selected
strategies on dealing these.

Source: https://www.citatepedia.ro/autori/foto/george polya.jpg

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
His problem solving model, which he called heuristic (or serving to
discover), is as follows.

1. Understand the Problem. 2. Devise a Plan.

• Ask questions, experiment, • Find the connection between the
otherwise rephrase the
or
data and the unknown.
question in your own words.
• Look for patterns, relate to a
• Determine what is asked. previously solved problem or a
• Determine the given facts. known formula, or simplify the
• Determine the given conditions. given information to give you an
• Have initial illustrations to easier problem.
visualize the setting.
• Choose a suitable operation,
• Separate various parts of the
procedure or formula.
condition
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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

3. Carry out the Plan.

• Check the steps as you go. 4. Look Back.
• Observe the accuracy of every • Examine the solution obtained.
step • Check the sense of the solution if
.
• Beware of possible errors that it is reasonable.
might arise. • Check against the conditions.
• obtain a feasible solution.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
Along with his guidelines, the following are some of his recommended
strategies:

1.Draw a diagram. 5.Guess and check.

2.Solve a simpler problem. 6.Find a pattern.
3.Make a table. 7.Use a formula or an equation.
4.Work backwards. 8.Using logical reasoning.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Example

In a seminar, 30 attendees were present. During their meet-and-greet

activity, they were asked to have a handshake with everyone in the
room. If each one did handshake with everyone exactly once, how
many handshakes took place?

Understand the Problem

There were 30 attendees present. A simple handshake means letting a
distinct pair be recognized. Moreover, if A shakes hands with B, then B
shakes hands with A as well.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
Devise a Plan
We start with solving simpler cases, say 3, 4 and 5 persons. We can draw
a diagram where a person is represented by nodes while handshakes by
arcs connecting the nodes. From here, we try to find a pattern.

Carry out the Plan

The following figures represent the handshakes that took place among 3, 4 and
5 persons.

3 persons 4 persons 5 persons

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Therefore, there were a total of

k(k − 1) 30(30 − 1)
= = 435 handshakes.
2 2

Look Back
Every person will be shaking hands with 29 other. Thus, 870 handshakes
are noted for individual perspective. Half of which is 435.

∴ 435 handshakes occur in the seminar of 30 attendees.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Example

In a certain farm, there are cows and roosters. If there are 35 heads and
104 legs belonging to these animals, how many cows and roosters are
there?

Understand the Problem

A farm with cows and roosters are accounted to have 35 heads and 104 legs
in total. The term ’35 heads’ refers to the fact that there are 35 animals in
total, since one head corresponds to one body. A cow has 4 legs and a
rooster has 2 legs.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Devise a Plan
We have to look for correct multipliers for 4 and 2 so that the sum is 104,
and, at the same time the sum of the multipliers is 35. In general, we can
have guess and check for every pair of positive addends of 35. We let this
be multiplied correspondingly with 4 and 2, and look for the sum 104. We will
make a table to organize all of these.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
Carry out the Plan
The table below is only a part of a big picture. We start from 10 cows
and 25 roosters and end to 20 cows and 15 rooster.
Number of Number of Total Number of Total Number of Sum of Legs of
Cows Roosters Legs of all Cows Legs of all Roosters Cows and Roosters
10 25 40 50 90
11 24 44 48 92
12 23 48 46 94
13 22 52 44 96
14 21 56 42 98
15 20 60 40 100
16 19 64 38 102
17 18 68 36 104
18 17 72 34 106
19 16 76 32 108
20 15 80 30 110

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

From the table, the sum 104 occurs if there are 17 cows and 18 roosters.

Look Back
17 cows have 68 legs in total. 18 rooster have 36 legs in total. The sum of all
legs is 104.

∴ There are 17 cows and 18 roosters in the farm.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
Example

Andrew has some magic cards to trade. Ian has 2 more than 2 times the
number of magic cards Andrew has. Patrick has 2 less than Ian. Ken
has 4 less than 2 times the number of magic cards Patrick has. Patrick
has 8 magic cards. How many magic cards does Andrew have to trade?

Understand the Problem

The number of magic cards Ian has depends on the number of magic cards
Andrew has. The number of magic cards Patrick has depends on the number
of magic cards Ian has. The number of magic cards Ken has depends on the
number of magic cards Patrick has. It is clear that 8 cards are in Patrick’s
possession.
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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Devise a Plan

We can settle this by working backwards starting from the number of

magic cards Patrick has.
Making a table may aid organization.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
Carry out the Plan

Statements of Hints Arithmetic Sense Remarks

Patrick has 8 magic cards. 8 This is the last event.
Ken has 4 less than 2 times Operation is not
the number of magic cards (2 × 8) − 4 = 12 yet reversed.
Patrick has. Ken has 12 cards.
Patrick has 2 less Operation is reversed.
less than Ian. 8 + 2 = 10 Ian has 10 cards.
Ian has 2 more than Operation is reversed.
2 times the number of (10 − 2)/2 = 4 Andrew has 4 cards.
magic cards Andrew has.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Look Back
If Andrew has 4 magic cards, then Ian has 2 more than twice of 4 or 10 magic
cards. If Ian has 10 magic cards, then Patrick has 10 - 2 = 8 magic cards.
Lastly, if Ken has 4 less than twice of 8 of 12 magic cards.

∴ Andrew has 4 magic cards.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Example

The sum of three consecutive whole numbers is 1110. What are the
numbers?

Understand the Problem

Three consecutive whole numbers form 1110 as a sum. A whole number next
to another whole number is produced by adding 1 on the preceding whole
number. If n is a whole number, then n, n + 1 and n + 2 are consecutive
whole numbers.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
Devise a Plan
We can use an equation to represent the relation of the three
numbers. The equation to be solved is

n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 1110.

Carry out the Plan

Solving this we have

n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 1110
3n + 3 = 1110
3n = 1110 − 3 n = 369.
3n = 1107
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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem
Solving

If n = 369, then n + 1 = 369 + 1 = 370 and n + 2 = 369 + 2 = 371.

Look Back
Indeed, 369, 370 and 371 are consecutive whole numbers.
Moreover, 369 + 370 + 371 = 1110.

∴ 369, 370 and 371 are the required whole numbers.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving
Example

In a different language, liro cas means ”red tomato.” The meaning of

dum cas dan is ”big red barn” and xer dan means ”big horse.” What is
the most probable translation for ”big tomato” in this language?

Understand the Problem

From this language, liro cas, dum cas dan and xer dan have translations
”red tomato,” ”big red barn” and ”big horse.”
Also, the noun phrases of the form ”adjective + noun” becomes ”noun + adjective”
when translated.
In the case of more than one adjectives describing a noun, the translated terms
are then presented in reverse order.
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 B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Devise a Plan
A little of logical reasoning can help us in our deduction to determine the correct
equivalent of each word. Doing case by case comparison in each translation pair,
we can determine the equivalent word pairs.

Carry out the Plan

From liro cas means ”red tomato”
dum cas dan means ”big red barn”,
the words cas and ”red” appear twice. Hence, cas and ”red” are equivalent
words.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Also, in dum cas dan means ”big red barn”,

xer dan means ”big horse.”
the words dan and ”big” appear twice. Hence, dan and ”big” are equivalent
words.

From

liro cas means ”red tomato”,

since, cas and ”red” are equivalent words, then liro and ”tomato” are
equivalent words.

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B. George Polya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

Hence, the translation of ”big tomato” in that language is liro dan.

Look Back
The deduction directly points the translation of the individual words. The last
thing to do is to apply the observation that adjectives and nouns interchange
positions upon translation.

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Thank You

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