Lesson 1.

1 Sets and Basic Notation

Set

A set is a well-defined collection of objects. Any object which belongs to a given

set is said to be an element of or a member of the given set.Capital letters are
usually used to name sets.

Notation
1. a is an element of set A : a ∈ A
2. a is not an element of set A : a ∈ /A
3. set without any elements (null set or empty set) : ∅ or {}
4. set consisting of all the elements under consideration (universal set ): U
5. cardinality of a set A refers to the number of elements of A: n(A)
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Lesson 1.1 Sets and Basic Notation
Example: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} then we say that a ∈ A. Also, 2 ∈
/ A.The
cardinality of A is n(A) = 5 since A has 5 elements.

Definition

A set which has only one element is called a unit set.

Example: B = {0} is a unit set.

Finite or Infinite

A set is said to be finite if it has a definite number of elements, that is, all the
elements can be listed and counted. Otherwise, it is said to be infinite.

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Lesson 1.1 Sets and Basic Notation

Describing Sets

1. Listing method describes the set by listing all the elements in the set.
2. Rule method uses a descriptive phrase in describing the elements that are
in the set.

Example:
Consider the set D containing all the integers between 1 and 10, exclusive of 1 and
10. This set can be described by
Listing Method: D = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
Rule Method: D = {x|x is an integer greater than 1 but less than 10}

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Lesson 1.2 Relationships between Sets

Relation on Sets

Let A and B be sets.

1. A is a subset of B, written as A ⊆ B, if and only if every element of A is
an element of B. If set A is not contained in set B, we write this as
A * B.
2. A is a proper subset of B if and only if A is a subset of B and there
exists an element of B which is not in A.
3. A and B are equal, written A = B, if and only if they have precisely the
same elements. If sets A and B are not equal, we write A 6= B.
4. A is equivalent to B, written as A ∼ B, if and only if n(A) = n(B).

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Lesson 1.2 Relationships between Sets
Example:
Consider the universal set U = {x|x is a counting number less than 21}.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {x|x is an even positive integer less than 20}
C = {x|xis a counting integer less than10}
D = {m, a, t, h}.
We have the following relations:

I A, B, C ⊆ U I A∼D
I A⊆C I A⊆C
I A*B I A⊂C
I B *C I A, B, C ⊂ U

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Lesson 1.2 Relationships between Sets

Remarks:
1. All equal sets are equivalent but not all equivalent sets are equal.
2.A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
3. Equality of sets satisfies the following properties:
If A, B, C are sets in a given universal set,
(Reflexivity) : A = A
(Symmetry) : If A = B then B = A
(Transitivity): If A = B and B = C , then A = C

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Lesson 1.2 Relationships between Sets

Definition

Power set is the set containing all the subsets of a set, denoted by P(A) read
as power set of A. The cardinality of the power set of a set A is given by 2n(A) .

Example: Given A = {a, b, c}. Find the power set of A.

n(A) = 3 and n(P(A)) = 23 = 8
P(A) = {{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}, {}}

Definition

A Venn Diagram is used to visualize sets and their relations.

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Union

Let A and B be sets in a universal

set U. The union of A and B, de-
noted A ∪ B, is the set of elements
that belong to either A or B or both.

Example: Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {a, b, c}. Then A ∪ B = {2, 3, 5, a, b, c}.

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Intersection

The intersection of A and B, de-

noted A ∩ B, is the set of elements
that belong to both A and B. If
two sets have no common elements,
they are called disjoint sets.

Example:
1. Let A = {2, 3, 5, c} and B = {a, b, c, 2}. Then A ∩ B = {2, c}.
2. Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {a, b, c}. Then A ∩ B = {}.
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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Complement

The complement of a set A, denoted

0
A or Ac , is the set of elements in U
which are not in A.

Example: Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Then

AC = {2, 4, 8, 10, 11}.

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Set Difference

The set difference A − B or A is the

set of elements of A which are not
in B. That is, A − B = A = {x ∈
U|x ∈ A and x ∈ / B}. Similarly,
B − A = B \ A = {x ∈ U|x ∈
B and x ∈ / A}.

Example: Let A = {2, 3, 5, c} and B = {a, b, c, 2}. Then

1. A − B = {3, 5}
2. B − A = {b, c}
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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets
Properties of Operations on Sets

The following are some of the more important properties of operations on sets:
Let A, B, C be subsets of a universal sets U.

1. A∪A=A 8. If A ⊆ B, then A ∩ B = A
2. A∩A=A
3. A∪U =U 9. A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C )
A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C )
4. A∩U =A
5. A∪B =B ∪A 10. De Morgan’s Law:
6. A∩B =B ∩A (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∪ B c
7. If A ⊆ B, then A ∪ B = B (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets
Ordered Pair

An ordered pair (a, b) is a set with two elements in which we distinguish a first
and second element. For equality of ordered pairs, (a, b) = (x, y ) if and only if
a = x and b = y .

Cartesian Product

The Cartesian product (or cross product) of sets A and B, denoted AB, is the
set of ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. In symbols,

A × B = {(a, b)|a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Note: If a 6= b, (a, b) 6= (b, a). However, a, b = b, a. And in general, AB 6= BA.

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Example: Let U = {x|x is a counting number less than 15}

A = {1, 3, 4, 5}
B = {x|x is an even positive integer less than 15}
C = {x|xis a natural number less than 7}
Determine the following (by listing) :
1. A ∪ B
0
2. (A ∩ B) ∪ C
3. B − C
4. A0 ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0
5. A × C

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Solution:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Solution:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
A = {1, 3, 4, 5}

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Solution:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
A = {1, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Solution:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
A = {1, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Solution:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
A = {1, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
1. A ∪ B =

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Solution:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
A = {1, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
1. A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
2. A ∩ B =

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

Solution:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
A = {1, 3, 4, 5}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
1. A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
0
2. A ∩ B = {4} (A ∩ B) = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
0
(A ∩ B) ∪ C = U
3. B − C = {8, 10, 12, 14}

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Lesson 1.3 Operations on Sets

0 0
4. A = {2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14} B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13}
0 0 0 0
C = {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14} (A ∩ B ∩ C ) = {7, 8, 11, 13}
5. A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (1, 8), (1, 10), (1, 12), (1, 14), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 6),
(3,8), (3,10),(3,12),(3,14),(4,2),(4,4),(4,6),(4,8),(4,10),(4,12),(4,14), (5,2),(5,4),
(5,6),(5,8),(5,10),(5,12),(5,14)}

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

A first-year class with 45 students was asked for a survey by the Literary Club if
which of the following greatly affect the realm of literature: Greek, Egyptian or
Japanese mythology. They were allowed to choose more than one answer or none at
all. The Literary Club obtained the following results: 23 chose Egyptian mythology,
20 chose Greek mythology, 20 chose Japanese mythology, 9 chose both Greek and
Egyptian, 7 chose both Greek and Japanese, 8 chose both Egyptian and Japanese
and 3 chose all.

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

Questions: How many students chose:

1. Egyptian mythology only? 6. Both Egyptian and Japanese, but

2. Greek mythology only? not Greek?
3. Japanese mythology only? 7. none at all?
4. Both Egyptian and Greek,
8. at least 1? at least 2? at least 3?
but not Japanese?
5. Both Greek and Japanese, 9. at most 1? at most 2? at most 3?
but not Egyptian? 10. exactly 1? exactly 2? exactly 3?

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

Let J be the set of students who chose Japanese mythology

E be the set of students who chose Egyptian mythology
G be the set of students who chose Greek mythology

n(E ) = 23 n(G ∩ E ) = 9
n(G ∩ J ∩ E ) = 3
n(G ) = 20 n(G ∩ J) = 7

n(J) = 20 n(E ∩ J) = 8

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

1. 9 students chose Egyptian 2. 7 students chose Greek mythology

mythology only. only.

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

3. 8 students chose Japanese 4. 6 students chose Both Egyptian and

mythology only. Greek but not Japanese.

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

5. 4 students chose Both Greek and 6. 5 students chose Both Egyptian and
Japanese, but not Egyptian. Japanese, but not Greek.

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

7. 3 students did not choose any of the 8. 42 students chose at least one of
literature the literature,

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

8. 18 students chose at least two of and 3 students chose at least three

the literature of the literature

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

9. 27 students chose at most one of 42 students chose at most two of

the literature the literature

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

9. and 45 students chose at most three 10. 24 students chose exactly one
of the literature literature

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Lesson 1.4 Solving Problems using Venn Diagrams

10. 15 students chose exactly two and 3 students chose exactly

literature literature

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References

1. Math 17 Module, Institute of Mathematics ,University of the Philippines

2. Algebra and Trigonometry, Louis Leithold
3. Trigonometry; Reyes, Fe N., et. al, Second Edition
4. Hagos, L.C., Ymas, S.E. & Yanson, E.A,Plane and Spherical Trigonometry,Sta.
Monica Printing Corporation 2002

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The End
Thanks for your attention! =)

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