AMC ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Module 2 Notes

Electrical Properties of Solids

I/II SEMESTER Physics for EEE Stream

Subject code: BPHYE102/202
This page was intentionally left blank.
Contents

1 Metals 5
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Quantum Free Electron Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Fermi Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Fermi-Dirac Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Dependence of Fermi Factor on Temperature and Energy . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 Worked Examples/Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Dielectrics 11
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Electric Dipole and Dipole Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Polar and Non-polar Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Types of Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.1 Electronic Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.2 Ionic Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.3 Orientation Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.4 Space Charge Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Internal Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Polarization and Dielectric Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.1 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Clausius-Mossotti Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6.1 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Solid, liquid, and gaseous dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.9 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.10 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Superconductors 21
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Mattheissen’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.1 Temperature dependence of resistivity in superconductors . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.1 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.2 Critical Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 Meissner’s Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3
 CONTENTS

3.4.1 Origin of Meissner’s effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.5 Critical Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5.1 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.6 Types of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6.1 Type I superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6.2 Type II superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7 Concept of Phonon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.8 BCS Theory of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.9 High-temperature Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.10 SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.10.1 DC SQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.10.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.11 Maglev Train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.12 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.13 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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Chapter 1

Metals

Syllabus
Metals
Quantum Free Electron Theory of Metals: Assumptions, Fermi-energy, Fermi factor,
Variation of Fermi Factor with Temperature and Energy, Mention of expression for elec-
trical conductivity, Numerical Problems.

1.1 Introduction
Metallic solids have atoms bound together by metallic bonds. In such solids, the valence
electrons are free to move about in the whole body of the solid and hence contribute to
conduction in it. Such electrons do not belong to a particular atom but belong to the
material as a whole. Normally, one or two electrons per atom are free electrons and they
move about randomly in the absence of electric field. This motion is identical with the motion
of molecules in a gas, and hence it is called electron gas. This electron gas is responsible for
high electrical and thermal conductivity in metals.

Classical Free Electron Theory of Metals (Only for reference)

Drude and Lorentz developed the classical free electron theory based on the following as-
sumptions:
ˆ Metal atoms have some of the valence electrons freely moving about in the body of
the metal. These electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons as they
contribute to conduction in the metal.
ˆ The electrostatic force of attraction between the free electron and the ion cores is negli-
gible. Also, the electrostatic force of repulsion amongst the free electrons is negligible.
ˆ Due to the above assumption, we can say that the free electrons are equivalent to
molecules in a gas and thus are assumed to obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases.
In the absence of external electric field, they are at random motion and their average
1 2 3
kinetic energy is given by mvth = kB T , where vth is the average thermal velocity of
2 2
the electrons, m is the mass of the electron, kB is the Boltzmann’s constant, and T is
the temperature.
ˆ Inside the metal, the electric potential due to the ionic cores is constant and the elec-
trons cannot escape from the metal due to the potential barrier at the surface.

5
 1.2. QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

Terminologies
Thermal Velocity (vth ): The average velocity of random motion of free electrons within
the body of the metal in the absence of external field is called thermal velocity.
Mean Free Path (λ): It is the average distance travelled by the free electrons between
successive collisions with the lattice ions.
Mean collision time (τ ): The average time interval between successive collisions of the
free electrons with the lattice ions is called mean collision time. If v is the average velocity
of electrons and λ is the mean free path, then τ = λ/v.
Drift velocity (vd ): When an electric field is applied across the metal, some of the free
electrons acquire a constant, terminal velocity in a direction opposite to that of the field.
This steady and very small velocity is called drift velocity.
Current Density (J): It is the electric current (I) passing normally through unit area of
cross-section (A) of the conductor, i.e., J = I/A. But we know that I = nAevd . Therefore,
J = nevd , where n is number density of electrons, e is charge of electrons, vd is drift velocity
of electrons. Unit of current density is Am−2 .
Electric Field (E): It is the potential difference (V ) across unit length (L) of a conductor,
i.e., E = V /L. Unit of electric filed is Vm−1 .
Conductivity (σ): It is the quantity that characterizes the ability of a material to conduct
electricity. It has units of W−1 m−1 . It is the reciprocal of resistivity (ρ), i.e., σ = 1/ρ.
(Resistivity is the property of the material by virtue of which the flow of current through
it is opposed. It has units of Wm.) As per the classical free electron theory, we have

ne2 τ
σ=
m
where n is the free electron concentration, e is charge of electron, m is mass of electron and
τ is the mean collision time.
Mobility (µ): It is the magnitude of drift velocity (vd ) acquired per unit electric field (E),
i.e.,
vd
µ=
E
It has units of m2 V−1 s−1 . But vd = eEτ
m . So we have
eτ
µ=
m

1.2 Quantum Free Electron Theory

Although the classical free electron theory was able to explain the mechanism of conductivity
in metals, it failed to account for certain experimental results. This led Somerfield to propose
the quantum free electron theory. He retained some of the assumptions of classical theory
and introduced a few new ones.

1.2.1 Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory

ˆ The valence electrons are free to move about inside the metal. But they cannot escape
from the metal due to the potential barrier at the surface.

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 1.3. FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

ˆ The force of attraction between the free electrons and the ionic core and the force of
repulsion between electrons is negligible.

ˆ The potential inside the metal is constant.

ˆ The energies of electrons are quantized.

ˆ The allowed discrete energy levels obey Pauli’s exclusion principle, accord-
ing to which no two electrons in an energy level can have the same set of
quantum numbers.

What is meant by ’energy is quantized’ ?

Before the advent of quantum mechanics, the prevailing belief was that the energy of any
given system could span an entire continuum from 0 to ∞ (which means any possible real
number). However, subsequent observations revealed that discrete (non-continuous or
specific) values of energy were characteristic of certain microscopic systems. For instance,
the energy states of a hydrogen atom, the conduction and valence bands in solids, and
the energy levels of a particle confined to a one-dimensional box (refer module 1) all
exemplify this phenomenon. This concept of non-continuous, distinct energy values led to
the term ”quantum” (derived from the Latin word for quantity) mechanics. Importantly,
it’s worth noting that quantization doesn’t solely apply to energy; it extends to other
physical attributes such as angular momentum and particle ”spin” (spin is a property
of electrons just like mass and charge, but don’t think of it as physical spinning).
So in the context of quantum free electron theory, we make the assumption that electrons
within a metal do not possess an arbitrary range of energy values; instead, they are
restricted to specific, discrete energy values. This gives rise to the idea of a energy level
diagram, where along a vertical y-axis, we depict horizontal lines (levels) stacked one
above the other to represent distinct energy values accessible to electrons within the
metal. As you ascend on this diagram, the energy values increase. On these levels,
we place dots to symbolize electrons (and we say the level is occupied by electron(s)).
Importantly, there is a limit to the number of dots on each level, as dictated by Pauli’s
exclusion principle: a maximum of two electrons, each with opposite spin, can occupy
a single energy level. Consequently, as you progress from the bottom, you can place a
maximum of two dots on each energy level until all electrons are have been accounted
for. At temperatures above 0 K, some energy levels may lack electrons or may contain
only a single electron.

1.2.2 Fermi Energy

The highest energy that an electron can possess at 0 K in a metal is called Fermi energy and
is denoted by EF . The corresponding energy level is called the Fermi level (or Fermi energy
level). At 0 K, all the energy levels above Fermi level are empty and all those below the Fermi
level are completely filled, which will be shown later.

1.3 Fermi-Dirac Statistics

At temperatures above 0 K, one cannot tell with certainty whether a particular energy level
will be occupied by an electron or not. Consequently, we need to assign probabilities to each
energy level indicating the likelihood of it being occupied. For example, under thermal equi-
librium, the free electrons occupy various energy levels in accordance with a statistical rule

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 1.3. FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

known as Fermi-Dirac statistics. Fermi-Dirac statistics enables the evaluation of probability

of finding electron in energy levels over a certain range of energy values. The evaluation is
done with the help of a quantity called Fermi factor f (E) given by
1
f (E) = E−EF (1.1)
1+e kB T

Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material at
thermal equilibrium.

1.3.1 Dependence of Fermi Factor on Temperature and Energy

Since most measurements are made at room temperature, we must consider the effect of
temperature on the electron gas. So it is important to know the variation of Fermi-Dirac
distribution function with respect to temperature.

Case 1: f (E) for E < EF at T = 0 K

E − EF
When E < EF and T = 0 K, becomes −∞. Therefore (1.1) becomes
kB T
1
f (E < EF ) = =1
T =0 K 1 + e−∞
because e−∞ = 0.
This means that at T = 0 K, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are fully occupied
by electrons, i.e., there is 100% probability of finding an electron below the Fermi energy
level at absolute zero temperature.

Case 2: f (E) for E > EF at T = 0 K

E − EF
When E > EF and T = 0 K, becomes ∞. Therefore (1.1) becomes
kB T
1
f (E > EF ) = =0
T =0 K 1 + e∞
because e∞ = ∞.
This means that at T = 0 K, none of the energy levels above the Fermi level are occupied
by electrons, i.e., there is 0% probability of finding an electron above the Fermi energy level
at absolute zero temperature.

Case 3: f (E) for E = EF at T > 0 K

E − EF
When E = EF and T > 0 K, becomes 0. Therefore (1.1) becomes
kB T
1 1
f (E = EF ) = =
T >0 K 1 + e0 2
because e0 = 1.
This means that at T > 0 K, there is 50% probability of finding an electron at the Fermi
energy level.
Figure 1.1 shows the variation of the Fermi factor with energy for different temperatures.

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 1.3. FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

Figure 1.1: Variation of Fermi factor with energy for different temperatures

1.3.2 Worked Examples/Numericals

Q 1. Calculate the probability of occupation of an energy level 0.2 eV above fermi level at
temperature 27 ◦ C.
Given:

E = EF + 0.2 eV
E − EF = 0.2eV = 0.2 × 1.6 × 10−19
E − EF = 3.2 × 10−20 J

T = 27 ◦ C = 27 + 300 = 300 K
To find: f (E) =?
We know that,

1 1
f (E) = E−EF = 3.2×10−20
= 4.395 × 10−4
1+e kB T
1+e 1.38×10−23 ×300

f (E) = 4.395 × 10−4

Q 2. Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with an energy
0.5 eV above Fermi energy is occupied.
Given:
f (E) = 1% = 0.01

E = EF + 0.5 eV
E − EF = 0.5eV = 0.5 × 1.6 × 10−19
E − EF = 8 × 10−20 J

To find: T =?
We know that,
1
f (E) = E−EF
1+e kB T

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 1.4. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

Rearranging the terms, we get,

E − EF 8 × 10−20
T =  = 1

= 1262 K
1
kB ln f (E) −1 1.38 × 10−23 × ln 0.01 −1

T = 1262 K

Q 3. The Fermi level in potassium is 2.1 eV. What is the energy of the energy level for which
the probability of occupation at 300 K is 0.98?
Given:
EF = 2.1eV = 2.1 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 3.36 × 10−19 J

T = 300 K
f (E) = 0.98
To find: E =?
We know that,
1
f (E) = E−EF
1+e kB T

Rearranging the terms, we get,

 
1
E = EF + kB T ln −1
f (E)
 
−19 −23 1
= 3.36 × 10 + 1.38 × 10 × 300 × ln −1
0.98
E = 3.199 × 10−19 J

In eV,
E = 1.999 eV

1.4 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Discuss the assumptions of quantum free electron theory of metals.

Q 2. Define Fermi energy level. Discuss various energy states by the electrons at T = 0 K
and T > 0 K on the basis of fermi factor.
Q 3. Define Fermi factor. Discuss the variation of Fermi factor with temperature and energy.
Q 4. Show that the probability of occupancy at an energy level ∆E above the Fermi level
is equal to the probability of non-occupancy at the energy level ∆E below the Fermi level
under thermal equilibrium.
Q 5. Show that the sum of the probability of occupancy at an energy state at ∆E below
the Fermi level and that at ∆E above the Fermi level is unity.

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Chapter 2

Dielectrics

Syllabus
Dielectrics
Polar and non-polar dielectrics, Electrical Polarization Mechanisms, Internal fields in
solid, Clausius-Mossotti equation (Derivation), Solid, Liquid and Gaseous dielectrics.
Application of dielectrics in transformers, Capacitors, Electrical Insulation. Numerical
Problems.

2.1 Introduction
Dielectrics are insulating materials having electric dipole moment permanently or temporarily
by application of electric field. These are mainly used to store electrical energy and used as
electrical insulators.
Note that all dielectrics are electrical insulators, but all electrical Insulators need not to
be dielectrics.

2.2 Basic Definitions

2.2.1 Electric Dipole and Dipole Moment

Figure 2.1: Electric Dipole

An electric dipole is the arrangement of two equal but opposite charges seperated by some
distance.
From figure 2.1, we see two charges −q and +q seperated by a distance d. This is an
electric dipole.
To differentiate two electric dipoles with different charges and/or different distances, we
introduce a quantity called the dipole moment. The dipole moment of an electric dipole is
the product of the magnitude of one charge and the distance between the two charges. It is
generally a vector quantity and is denoted by µ ⃗ . So considering the figure 2.1, we can write

µ
⃗ = qdn̂

11
 2.2. BASIC DEFINITIONS

where n̂ is a unit vector with direction, by defintion, taken from the negative charge to the
positive charge. So the dipole moment always points from the negative charge towards the
positive charge. The SI unit of dipole moment is Cm (coulomb-meter).
There are mainly two types of electric dipoles: permanent electric dipoles and induced
electric dipoles. Permanent electric dipoles have a non-zero dipole moment naturally, i.e.,
without any external influence. Induced electric dipoles have a non-zero dipole moment only
in the presence of an external electric field; in the absence of electric field, they are not electric
dipoles.

(a) Zero Electric Field (b) Non-zero Electric Field

Figure 2.2: Induced Electric Dipole

How are induced electric dipoles formed? Consider any neutral atom as shown in figure
2.2a. When an electric field is applied in a given direction as shown in figure 2.2b, the
nucleus and the electron cloud interact with the field and move in the directions as shown.
(Remember that positive charges move in the direction of electric field, whereas negative
charges move opposite to the direction of the electric field.) If the applied electric field is
very high, the atom may get ionized. On the other hand, if the electric field is not too high,
the atom may reach an equilibrium state where the stretching force of the external electric
field is balanced by the electrostatic attraction between the seperated positive and negative
charges leading to a structure which looks like an electric dipole, with equal and opposite
charges seperated by some distance. This atom is now an (induced) electric dipole with dipole
moment µ ⃗ directed from the electron cloud towards the nucleus. Notice that the direction of
the dipole moment is the same as that of the external electric field.
Typically, this induced dipole moment is approximately proportional to the external elec-
tric field (as long as the latter is not too high):

µ ⃗
⃗ = αE

where α is the constant of proportionality called atomic polarizability. Its value depends on
the detailed structure of the atom in question and has SI unit of Fm2 .

2.2.2 Polar and Non-polar Molecules

So far, we’ve learnt about the interaction of a single atom in the presence of an external field.
What about molecules? Their interaction with an external electric field depends on the type
of molecule: polar or non-polar.
Polar molecules are molecules which naturally have a net non-zero dipole moment. An
example is water molecule.

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 2.3. TYPES OF POLARIZATION

Non-polar molecules are molecules which naturally have a net zero dipole moment. An
example is nitrogen molecule.
We will consider the case of polar molecules. If the applied external electric field is
uniform, the force on the positive end exactly cancels the force on the negative end. However,
there will be a torque which tries to turn the molecule in such a way that the direction of
the dipole moment lines up with that of the electric field. So a polar molecule that is free to
rotate will swing around until it points in the direction of the applied field.

2.2.3 Polarization
In the previous two sections, we have considered the effect of an external electric field on an
individual atom or molecule. But what happens to a piece of dielectric material when it is
placed in an electric field? If the substance consists of neutral atoms (or nonpolar molecules),
the field will induce in each a tiny dipole moment, pointing in the same direction as the field.
And if the material is made up of polar molecules, each permanent dipole will experience a
torque, tending to line it up along the field direction.
Notice that these two mechanisms produce the same basic result: a lot of little dipoles
pointing along the direction of the field; the material becomes polarized. So we can define
polarization as follows: The displacement of charges in a dielectric under the action of an
applied electric field leading to the formation of dipole moment.
A convenient measure of this effect is given by the polarization vector P (or simply called
polarization)

P⃗ = total dipole moment per unit volume of the material = N µ

⃗

where N is the number of dipoles per unit volume of the material and µ ⃗ is the dipole moment
of a single atom/molecule in the material. The SI unit of polarization is C/m2 (coulomb-per-
squared-meter).

2.3 Types of Polarization

There are four types of polarization mechanisms in dielectrics, viz.

ˆ Electronic Polarization

ˆ Ionic Polarization

ˆ Orientation Polarization

ˆ Space charge Polarization

In the following cases, let’s consider a parallel plate capacitor which is connected to a
battery. The left plate is connected to the positive side whereas the right plate is connected
to the negative side. Due to this, an electric field is produced between the plates directed
from the positive plate to the negative plate.. So when we place a dielectric material between
these plates, this electric field will act as the external electric field.

2.3.1 Electronic Polarization

Electronic Polarization occurs due to the displacement of positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electron in opposite directions in an atom by an external electric field. It
creates a dipole moment in each atom and hence a net dipole moment pointing in the same

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 2.3. TYPES OF POLARIZATION

Figure 2.3: Electronic Polarization

direction in the dielectric. This is called electronic polarization (see figure 2.3). This is the
same as the induced dipole mechanism we discussed earlier with the only difference being
that this is for all the atoms in the dilelectric.

2.3.2 Ionic Polarization

Figure 2.4: Ionic Polarization

Ionic Polarization occurs due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite di-
rections in an ionic solid in the presence of an external electric field. Note however that
the ions cannot diffuse through each other in the medium. They get paired up with their
respective neighbour ions as shown in figure 2.4, which is how this differs from the space
charge polarization case.

2.3.3 Orientation Polarization

Figure 2.5: Orientation Polarization

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 2.4. INTERNAL FIELD

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric medium with polar molecules, the electric
field tries to align these dipoles along its field direction as shown in figure 2.5 (in the figure
each molecule is represented by its corresponding dipole moment vector). As a result, there is
a resultant dipole moment in that material. This process is called Orientation Polarization.

2.3.4 Space Charge Polarization

Figure 2.6: Space Charge Polarization

Space charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions along the field direction
giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectric as shown in figure 2.6. Normally
this type of polarization occurs in ferrites and semiconductors, and it is very small when
compared to other types of polarization.

2.4 Internal Field

Figure 2.7: Internal Field

Consider the case of electronic polarization as shown in 2.7. We see that in the bulk of
the dielectric, the negative and positive charges are close to each other and the charge in
these regions (marked by dashed circles) tends to zero. But some charges remain (which
don’t cancel out) at either ends of the material. Now due to these so called bound charges,
an electric field is set up in the direction opposite to that of the external field as shown in
the figure. This electric field is called the internal field. The internal field has the effect
of reducing the strength of the external electral field in the dielectric material (one might
think that the internal field can cancel the external field as they are opposite in direction;
but remember the magnitudes can be different).

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 2.5. POLARIZATION AND DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

In case of a one dimensional array of atoms placed at equal distances from each other
and parallel to the direction of external electric field, the expression for the internal field Ei
in solids is
E
Ei = 1.2α
1 − πϵ 0d
3

where E is the external electric field, α is the atomic/electronic polarizability, d is the inter-
atomic distance.
In three-dimensions, the general equation for internal field E ⃗ i is
 
E⃗i = E⃗ + γ P⃗
ϵ0

where E ⃗ is the external electric field, P⃗ is the polarization vector, and γ is called the internal
field constant.

Lorentz field
In the three-dimensional case, if the material has a cubic lattice structure, then the internal
field constant takes the value of 13 . In such a case, we call the internal field as the Lorentz
⃗ Lorentz , which can be written as
field E
⃗
E ⃗+ P
⃗ Lorentz = E (2.1)
3ϵ0
This equation is also called as the Lorentz relation.

2.5 Polarization and Dielectric Constant

We know that the polarization of a dielectric ordinarily results from an electric field, which
lines up the atomic or molecular dipoles. Notice that for the initial exposure of the external
electric field, there would be polarization in the dielectric, which in turn produces its own
electric field (internal field) which has the effect of decreasing the influence of the external
electric field in the medium which further changes the polarization and the cycle repeats
until a stable state is reached. In this stable state, the polarization P⃗ will be due to the
⃗ and stays like that. For many substances, in fact, the polarization is
total electric field E
proportional to the field, provided E ⃗ is not too strong, i.e.,

P⃗ = ϵ0 (ϵr − 1)E
⃗ (2.2)

where ϵr is called the dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) of the medium (a factor of
ϵ0 has been extracted to make ϵr dimensionless). The value of ϵr depends on the microscopic
structure of the substance in question (and also on external conditions such as temperature).
ϵ0 is called the permittivity in free space and has a value of 8.852 × 10−12 F/m.
We call materials that obey (2.2) as linear dielectrics.

2.5.1 Worked Examples

Q 1. What is the polarization produced in a crystal by an electric field of strength 500 V/m,
if it has a dielectric constant of 6?
Given:
E = 500 V/m

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 2.6. CLAUSIUS-MOSSOTTI EQUATION

ϵr = 6
To find: P =?
We know that,

P = ϵ0 (ϵr − 1) E = 8.852 × 10−12 × (6 − 1) × 500 = 2.213 × 10−8 C/m2

P = 2.213 × 10−8 C/m2

Q 2. If a NaCl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000 V/m, the resulting polarization
is 4.3 × 10−8 C/m2 . Calculate the dielectric constant of NaCl.
Given:
E = 1000 V/m
P = 4.3 × 10−8 C/m2
To find: ϵr =?
We know that
P = ϵ0 (ϵr − 1)E
P 4.3 × 10−8
ϵr = 1 + =1+ = 5.858
ϵ0 E 8.852 × 10−12 × 1000
ϵr = 5.858

2.6 Clausius-Mossotti Equation

The atomic polarizability α tells us the extent to which an atom can get polarized to form
a dipole (⃗ ⃗ whereas the dielectric constant ϵr tells us the overall polarization of the
µ = αE),
dielectric medium in response to the total electric field in the medium (P⃗ = ϵ0 (ϵr − 1)E). ⃗
What would be the relation between α and ϵr ?
One’s first guess would be to say that since P⃗ = N µ ⃗ and µ ⃗ we can write P⃗ = N αE,
⃗ = αE, ⃗
which when compared with P⃗ = ϵ0 (ϵr − 1)E, ⃗ gives ϵr − 1 = N α/ϵ0 . But we need to be careful
here. The electric field in µ⃗ = αE is not the same as that in P⃗ = ϵ0 χe E.
⃗ ⃗ The former is the
electric field due to everything except the atom that is getting polarized and the latter is the
total electric field in the medium (due to all the atoms). Let’s denote the former as E ⃗ Lorentz
and the latter as is. Or in other words we say µ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ = αELorentz and P = ϵ0 (ϵr − 1)E. So we
need a relationship between E ⃗ and E⃗ Lorentz first. But we already know that from (2.1)

⃗
E ⃗+ P
⃗ Lorentz = E (2.3)
3ϵ0
Next, we will write both electric fields in terms of the polarization vector.
First, the total polarization of the material, by defintion, is

P⃗ = N µ
⃗

But, µ ⃗ Lorentz . So we have

⃗ = αE

P⃗ = N µ ⃗ Lorentz
⃗ = N αE
⃗
⃗ Lorentz = P
=⇒ E (2.4)
Nα

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 2.6. CLAUSIUS-MOSSOTTI EQUATION

Second, consider (2.2)

P⃗ = ϵ0 (ϵr − 1)E⃗

⃗ = P⃗
=⇒ E (2.5)
ϵ0 (ϵr − 1)

Now, substitute equations (2.4) and (2.5) in (2.3)

P⃗ P⃗ P⃗
= +
Nα ϵ0 (ϵr − 1) 3ϵ0
ϵ0 1 1
= +
Nα (ϵr − 1) 3
ϵ0 3 + ϵr − 1
=
Nα 3(ϵr − 1)
ϵ0 ϵr + 2
=
Nα 3(ϵr − 1)
Nα (ϵr − 1)
=⇒ = (2.6)
3ϵ0 (ϵr + 2)

(2.6) is called the Clausius-Mossotti equation and it relates the atomic polarizability of the
atom (microscopic quantity) in the material to the dielectric constant (macroscopic quantity)
of the material.

2.6.1 Worked Examples

Q 1. The dielectric constant of helium gas at NTP is 1.0000684. Calculate the electronic
polarizability of the atoms if helium gas contains 2.7 × 1025 atoms/m3 .
Given:
ϵr = 1.0000684
N = 2.7 × 1025 atoms/m3
To find: α =?
We know that
3ϵ0 (ϵr − 1) 3 × 8.852 × 10−12 (1.0000684 − 1)
α= = × = 2.242 × 10−41 Fm2
N (ϵr + 2) 2.7 × 1025 (1.0000684 + 2)

α = 2.242 × 10−41 Fm2

Q 2. The electronic polarizabilty of Krypton gas is 3.54 × 10−40 Fm2 . If the gas contains
2.7 × 1025 atoms/m3 , calculate its dielectric constant.
Given:
α = 3.54 × 10−40 Fm2
N = 2.7 × 1025 atoms/m3
To find: ϵr =?
We know that
Nα (ϵr − 1)
=
3ϵ0 (ϵr + 2)

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 2.7. SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS DIELECTRICS

We can rearrange this to get an expression for ϵr :

−2N α − 3ϵ0 (−2) × 2.7 × 1025 × 3.54 × 10−40 − 3 × 8.852 × 10−12

ϵr = = = 1.001 08
N α − 3ϵ0 2.7 × 1025 × 3.54 × 10−40 − 3 × 8.852 × 10−12

ϵr = 1.001 08

Q 3. Calculate the induced dipole moment in each atom of argon when it is subjected to an
electric field of 3 × 104 V/m. Given dielectric constant is 1.0024 at NTP and the density of
atoms is 2.7 × 1025 atoms/m3 .
Given:
E = 3 × 104 V/m

ϵr = 1.0024

N = 2.7 × 1025 atoms/m3

To find: µ =?
We know that µ = αE. So to find µ, we need to first find the polarizability α. So

3ϵ0 (ϵr − 1) 3 × 8.852 × 10−12 (1.0024 − 1)

α= = × = 7.862 154 7 × 10−40 Fm2
N (ϵr + 2) 2.7 × 1025 (1.0024 + 2)

Finally, we get

µ = αE = 7.8621547 × 10−40 × 30000 = 2.358 × 10−35 Cm

µ = 2.358 × 10−35 Cm

2.7 Solid, liquid, and gaseous dielectrics

ˆ Solid Dielectrics: Solid dielectrics are materials in a solid state that are used to
separate the plates of a capacitor. They possess high resistivity and are capable of
storing electrical energy. An example of a solid dielectric is polyethylene, often used in
the construction of capacitors.

ˆ Liquid Dielectrics: Liquid dielectrics are dielectric materials in a liquid state that are
used in various electrical applications, such as in transformers and capacitors. They
have good insulating properties and can dissipate heat effectively. An example of a
liquid dielectric is transformer oil, which is used to insulate and cool the windings of
transformers.

ˆ Gaseous Dielectrics: Gaseous dielectrics are dielectric materials in a gaseous state

that are used in high-voltage applications, such as in gas-insulated switchgear (GIS).
They have low dielectric constants but can withstand high electric fields. An example
of a gaseous dielectric is sulfur hexafluoride (SF6 ), which is used in GIS due to its
excellent insulating properties.

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 2.8. APPLICATIONS

2.8 Applications
1. Transformers: Dielectrics are used in transformers to insulate the windings and pro-
vide a medium for transferring energy between the primary and secondary coils. The
dielectric material helps to prevent electrical breakdown between the coils and ensures
efficient energy transfer by reducing losses due to leakage currents. Transformer oil is
commonly used as a dielectric in transformers because of its high dielectric strength
and ability to dissipate heat.

2. Capacitors: Dielectrics are a crucial component of capacitors, where they serve to

increase the capacitance of the device. The dielectric material separates the capacitor
plates and prevents them from coming into direct contact, allowing the capacitor to
store electrical energy. Different dielectric materials have varying dielectric constants,
which determine the capacitance value of the capacitor. Common dielectric materials
used in capacitors include ceramics, plastics, and paper.

3. Electrical Insulation: Dielectrics are used for electrical insulation to prevent the
flow of electric current between conductive materials. They are employed in various
electrical components and systems, such as cables, wires, and electrical equipment.
Dielectric materials used for insulation have high resistivity and dielectric strength to
withstand high voltages without breaking down. Examples of dielectric materials used
for insulation include rubber, plastics, and ceramics.

2.9 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Derive Clausius Mossotti equation.

Q 2. Define Internal field and derive Clausius Mossotti relation.
Q 3. Mention the expression for Intertal field for one dimensional array of atoms in case of
solid dielectrics. Derive Clausius Mossotti equation.
Q 4. What is polarisation? Describe the different polarisation mechanism.
Q 5. Discuss the solid, liquid and gaseous dielectrics with one example each. Explain the
role of dielectrics as a electrical insulator.
Q 6. Explain electronic, ionic, and orientation polarizations of dielectrics. Outline briefly
the solid and liquid dielectrics with one example each.

2.10 Numericals

Q 1. Find the polarization produced in a dielectric material of relative permittivity 15 in

presence of an electric field of strength 500 V/m.
Q 2. An elemental solid dielectric material has polarizability 7 × 10−40 Fm2 . Assuming the
internal field to be Lorentz field, calculate the dielectric constant for the material, if the
material has 3 × 1028 atoms/m3 .
Q 3. The dielectric constant of sulphur is 3.4. Assuming a cubic lattice for its structure,
calculate the electronic polarizability of sulphur. Given density of sulphur is 2.07 g/cm3 and
atomic weight is 32.7. (Hint: first convert the mass density to atomic density).

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Chapter 3

Superconductors

Syllabus
Superconductivity
Introduction to Superconductors, Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner’s Ef-
fect, Critical Field, Temperature dependence of Critical field, Types of Super Conductors,
BCS theory (Qualitative), High Temperature superconductivity, SQUID, MAGLEV, Nu-
merical problems.

3.1 Introduction
The story of superconductivity begins with Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, a Dutch physicist, who
was conducting experiments at the University of Leiden during 1911. He was particularly
interested in the behavior of materials at extremely low temperatures, using a specialized
cryogenic apparatus to achieve temperatures very close to absolute zero (−273.15 ◦ C or 0 K).
Kamerlingh Onnes focused his attention on mercury, a common element, which he cooled
to near-absolute-zero temperatures. His goal was to study how the electrical resistance of
materials changes as they approach these incredibly low temperatures. To his amazement,
he observed something extraordinary: as the temperature of the mercury dropped below a
critical point, its electrical resistance suddenly and inexplicably vanished. This meant that
electricity could flow through the material without any loss of energy due to resistance.
This phenomenon was so surprising that Kamerlingh Onnes initially doubted the accuracy
of his own measurements. He meticulously repeated his experiments and found the same
result every time. This marked the first documented observation of superconductivity, a
term that would later be coined to describe materials that exhibit this remarkable property.
Onnes’ original graph depicting R vs. T for mercury (Hg) can be seen in figure 3.1.
He published his findings in 1911, describing the sudden drop in electrical resistance as a
”zero resistance” state. This groundbreaking discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1913. Kamerlingh Onnes and his colleagues continued to investigate superconductivity,
exploring other materials that exhibited this behavior and laying the foundation for future
research into the underlying mechanisms.
Kamerlingh Onnes’ discovery of superconductivity not only expanded our understanding
of the behavior of matter at low temperatures but also sparked intense interest and research
into the unique properties of superconducting materials. It set the stage for subsequent
discoveries, the development of theoretical explanations like the BCS theory, and eventually,
the practical applications of superconductors in a wide range of technologies.

21
 3.2. MATTHEISSEN’S RULE

Figure 3.1: Onnes’ original graph with

resistance on y-axis and temperature on x-axis

3.2 Mattheissen’s rule

Matthiessen’s rule is a principle that describes the total electrical resistivity of a crystalline
material as the sum of its individual resistivities due to various scattering mechanisms.
In a crystalline material, the flow of electrical current is impeded by various scattering
mechanisms that electrons encounter as they move through the lattice. These mechanisms can
include impurities, defects, lattice vibrations (phonons), and electron-electron interactions.
Matthiessen’s rule states that the total electrical resistivity of the material is the sum of the
resistivities associated with each of these scattering processes.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

ρtotal = ρimpurities + ρdefects + ρphonons + ρelectron-electron interactions + . . .

Each term on the right side represents the contri-

bution to the resistivity due to a specific scattering
mechanism. By considering these individual contribu-
tions, Matthiessen’s rule provides a way to estimate
the total resistivity of a material.
But for our discussion, to make things simpler,
we will say there are two kinds of contributions to-
wards the total resistivity: a temperature-independent
resistivity (ρ0 ) due to impurities and a temperature-
dependent resistivity (ρ(T )) which is the sum of all
other resistivities. So we can write Mattheissen’s rule
simply as:
ρtotal = ρ0 + ρ(T )
The variation of resistivity with temperature for
pure and impure metals is as shown in figure 3.2. Figure 3.2: Mattheissen’s rule

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 3.3. DEFINITIONS

3.2.1 Temperature dependence of resistivity in superconductors

The variation of resistivity of superconductors with temperature is as shown in figure 3.3.
This figure also shows the variation of pure and impure metals, which was seen in figure 3.2,
for comparison.

Figure 3.3: Variation of resistivity with temperature

3.3 Definitions
3.3.1 Superconductivity
Superconductivity is the phenomenon in which the resistance of certain materials abruptly
drops to zero below a certain temperature.
And superconductors are materials which exhibit the phenomenon of superconductivity.

3.3.2 Critical Temperature

The temperature below which materials exhibit superconducting property is called critical
temperature and is denoted by Tc . Critical temperature is different for different materials.
Above the critical temperature, the material is said to be in normal state where it offers
resistance for the flow of electric current. Below the critical temperature, the material is said
to be in superconducting state where it exhibits superconducting behavior. Thus Tc is also
called as transition temperature.

3.4 Meissner’s Effect

Walther Meissner, a German physicist, and Robert Ochsenfeld were conducting experiments
with superconductors at the University of Tübingen. They were particularly interested in
the behavior of superconducting materials in the presence of magnetic fields. Up to that
point, researchers had already discovered the remarkable property of superconductivity -
zero electrical resistance - but its interaction with magnetic fields remained unexplored.
During their experiments, Meissner and Ochsenfeld observed something extraordinary:
when a superconducting material was cooled to its superconducting transition temperature
and placed in a magnetic field, it exhibited an unexpected behavior. The magnetic field lines
were not simply repelled; instead, they were expelled from the interior of the superconductor.
This expulsion of magnetic flux created a unique effect in which the superconductor became
a perfect diamagnet, meaning it experienced no magnetic field within its bulk.

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 3.4. MEISSNER’S EFFECT

The Meissner effect not only demonstrated that superconductors could expel magnetic
fields but also highlighted that this phenomenon was a bulk property of superconducting
materials, rather than a surface effect. It also laid the groundwork for the development
of superconducting materials for powerful magnets used in technologies such as magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and particle accelerators.

Figure 3.4: Meissner’s Effect

Figure 3.4 shows an illustration of the Meissner’s effect, with B representing the magnetic
flux density and the sphere representing a solid superconductor. At temperatures exceeding
the critical temperature (T > Tc ), the material remains in its normal state, allowing mag-
netic field lines to permeate it. Conversely, when the temperature falls below the critical
temperature (T < Tc ), the material transitions into a superconducting state, leading to the
expulsion of magnetic field lines from the sphere’s interior.
Now to prove that Meissner’s effect leads to perfect diamagnetism, we will consider the
following relation taken from the theory of electromagnetism:

B = µ0 (M + H)

where B is the magnetic flux density, M is the magnetization, and H is the magnetic field
strength.
Note:
Magnetic field strength (H) represents the intensity of magnetic field generated by an
external current or a magnetizing force. Its unit is A/m (ampere per meter).
Magnetization (M ) quantifies the extent to which a material becomes magnetized when
subjected to an external magnetic field. Its unit is also A/m.
Magnetic flux density (B) represents the intensity of a magnetic field within a material
or space. Its unit is T (tesla) or Wb/m2 (weber per meter-square).
Basically, when a material is exposed to an external magnetic field, the strength of that
applied field is denoted as H. Due to the applied field, the material gets magnetized and
produces its own magnetic field whose strength is denoted as M . The overall magnetic
flux that is present in the material due to the external field and the material’s own field
is denoted as B.
Since the magnetic field lines are completely expelled from the bulk of the superconductor,
we can say that the magnetic flux density is zero inside the superconductor, i.e., B = 0. So

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 3.5. CRITICAL FIELD

we have

0 = µ0 (M + H)
M +H =0
M
= −1
H
=⇒ χm = −1

where χm = M H is called the magnetic susceptibility of the material (magnetic susceptibility is

a dimensionless quantity that indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response
to an applied magnetic field).
A material which has χm = −1 is said to be perfectly diamagnetic. So our superconduct-
ing material exhibits perfect diamagnetism when it is below its critical temperature.

3.4.1 Origin of Meissner’s effect

In the presence of an external magnetic field, superconducting materials adhere to Lenz’s
law. This law dictates that a changing magnetic field induces eddy currents within the su-
perconductor. These eddy currents generate magnetic fields of their own, which counteract
and repel the external magnetic field. Consequently, the superconductor effectively resists
the intrusion of the magnetic field, preventing it from permeating the material. These unique
currents are not your typical electric currents; they are referred to as ”supercurrents.” They
are persistent flows of electrons that encounter no resistance. These supercurrents are excep-
tionally efficient, expelling any magnetic flux attempting to penetrate the material, resulting
in the expulsion of all magnetic flux from within the material’s bulk.

3.5 Critical Field

Can the superconductor keep expelling the magnetic field lines if we keep increasing the
external field indefinitely? No. It is found that there is a limit to how much external field
a superconductor can expel before turning into its normal state. This limit is called the
critical field. Formally, the critical field represents the maximum magnetic field strength that
a superconducting material can tolerate before it transitions from a superconducting state to
a normal (non-superconducting) state. It is denoted as Hc .
However, it’s important to note that it’s feasible to recover the superconducting state
even when the applied magnetic field surpasses the critical field. It has been observed that by
further reducing the temperature, the superconducting state can be reinstated. Consequently,
this implies an increase in the critical field value, necessitating a much higher magnetic field
to disrupt superconductivity.
Then, according to the above discussion, we can say that the critical field is dependent
on temperature, i.e., Hc (T ). This relation is mathematically written as follows:

T2
 
Hc (T ) = H0 1 − 2
Tc

where Hc (T ) is the critical field at some temperature T , H0 is the critical field at 0 K temper-
ature, Tc is the critical temperature of the material. Tc and H0 are characteristic values for a
specific material and are fixed. The above relation tells us that if we decrease the temperature
of the material, the critical field (the amount of field required to break superconductivity)
increases.

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 3.5. CRITICAL FIELD

Figure 3.5: Critical field vs temperature

Figure 3.5 shows the variation of critical with temperature. Superconductivity is man-
ifested in a material when its temperature and critical field value combination falls within
the shaded area. Conversely, if the temperature and critical field value pair falls outside this
region, the material will remain in its normal state.
The above expression for critical field can also be written in terms of the magnetic flux
density as follows:
T2
 
Bc (T ) = B0 1 − 2
Tc
where Bc (T ) and B0 represent the critical field at temperature T and 0 K respectively,
with units of tesla.

Origin of critical field

If superconductors were devoid of any critical field limitation, it would imply an ability to
expel an infinite amount of magnetic fields. However, this would necessitate the presence of
infinite supercurrents, which in turn would require infinite energy - a physical impossibility.
Alternatively, envision that as supercurrents increase indefinitely, electrons would eventually
attain speeds surpassing the speed of light, violating fundamental physical constraints. Thus,
superconductors possess a characteristic limit to the magnetic field they can sustain before
forfeiting their superconducting property.

3.5.1 Worked Examples

Q 1. Lead has superconducting transition temperature of 7.26 K. If the initial field at 0 K is

50 × 103 A/m, calculate the critical field at 6 K.
Given:
Tc = 7.26 K
H0 = 50 × 103 A/m = 5 × 104 A/m
T = 6K
To find: Hc =?
We know that,
" #
T2 (6)2
 
4 4
Hc = H0 1 − 2 = 5 × 10 × 1 − 2 = 1.585 × 10 A/m
Tc (7.26)

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 3.6. TYPES OF SUPERCONDUCTORS

Hc = 1.585 × 104 A/m

Q 2. Superconducting tin has a critical magnetic field of 0.0217 T at 2 K. If the critical

temperature for superconducting transition for tin is 3.7 K, find the critical magnetic field at
3 K.
Given:
Note that the critical field at 0 K is not given.
Tc = 3.7 K
T1 = 2 K
Bc1 = 0.0217 T
T2 = 3 K
To find: Bc2 =?
We know that,
T2
 
Bc (T ) = B0 1− 2
Tc
We need to write this for two different temperatures, i.e.,
T12 T22
   
Bc1 (T1 ) = B0 1 − 2 and Bc2 (T2 ) = B0 1 − 2
Tc Tc
Taking the ratio of the second expression with the first, we get
(3)2
h 2
i h i
1 − TT2 2 1 − (3.7) 2
c
Bc2 = Bc1 h i = 0.0217 × i = 0.0105 T
(2)2
h
T1 2
1− T 2 1 − (3.7) 2
c

Bc2 = 0.0105 T

3.6 Types of Superconductors

Superconductors are classified into two types:
1. Type I superconductors
2. Type II superconductors
(Very creative names, I know.)

3.6.1 Type I superconductors

Type I superconductors demonstrate complete Meissner’s effect and are characterized by a
single critical field value. The graph depicting negative magnetization versus magnetic field
strength for these superconductors is illustrated in figure 3.6. With increasing field strength,
the material exhibits an increasingly diamagnetic response until the field strength equals
Hc . Beyond this threshold, the material permits flux lines to penetrate, leading to normal
conductivity.
These superconductors possess an exceptionally low critical field value, rendering them
vulnerable to high magnetic fields. Because magnetization abruptly vanishes upon reach-
ing the critical field, they are often termed ”soft superconductors” and hence have limited
practical applications. Examples of Type I superconductors include Hg, Pb, and Zn.

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 3.7. CONCEPT OF PHONON

Figure 3.6: Type I Superconductor Figure 3.7: Type II Superconductor

3.6.2 Type II superconductors

Type II superconductors exhibit both complete and partial Meissner’s effects, depending on
the magnetic field, and are characterized by two distinct critical field values, denoted as
Hc1 and Hc2 , with Hc1 < Hc2 . The graph illustrating the relationship between negative
magnetization and magnetic field strength for these superconductors is provided in figure
3.7.
As the field strength increases, the material increasingly displays a perfect diamagnetic
response (superconducting state), progressing until the field strength equals Hc1 . Beyond
this first critical field, the magnetization starts to gradually decrease as the magnetic field
continues to rise (as opposed to the abrupt drop seen in Type I superconductors) until it
reaches Hc2 . In this phase between Hc1 and Hc2 , also called the Vortex state, the material
exhibits partial Meissner’s effect, allowing limited magnetic flux penetration. Beyond the
second critical field, the material permits the passage of all magnetic flux lines, returning to
a state of normal conductivity.
Type II superconductors possess a notably higher second critical field value Hc2 compared
to Hc of type I superconductors, enabling them to withstand substantial magnetic fields. Be-
cause magnetization diminishes gradually upon approaching the critical field rather than
disappearing abruptly, they are often referred to as ”hard superconductors” and find numer-
ous practical applications such as in superconducting magnets used in MRIs and high-speed
trains. Examples of Type II superconductors include NbTi, Nb3 Sn.
More on vortex state: When a Type II superconductor is subjected to an applied
magnetic field that exceeds its first critical field (Hc1 ), magnetic flux begins to penetrate the
material in quantized units known as flux vortices. These vortices carry discrete amounts
of magnetic flux and create a lattice-like arrangement within the superconducting material.
Each vortex has a normal (non-superconducting) core where the superconductivity is locally
suppressed (where flux is allowed to pass) and is surrounded by circulating superconducting
currents; hence the name ”vortex”.

3.7 Concept of Phonon

In the free electron theory, electrons in a crystal are treated as if they move independently,
almost as if they were free particles in a metal. However, in reality, the crystal lattice, which
consists of atoms or ions held in a regular repeating pattern, is not completely still. The atoms
or ions in the lattice are in constant motion, vibrating about their equilibrium positions due

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 3.8. BCS THEORY OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

to thermal energy. These vibrations give rise to what we call as phonons. Phonons represent
the vibrational modes of atoms or ions in a crystal lattice.
Phonons are quantized units of lattice vibrations, similar to how photons are quantized
units of light. They carry both energy and momentum. When an electron moves through the
crystal lattice, it can interact with phonons. These interactions can scatter electrons, leading
to phenomena like electrical resistance and heat conduction.

3.8 BCS Theory of Superconductivity

The Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory is a microscopic theory of superconductivity,
which explains how certain materials can conduct electric current without any resistance
when cooled below a certain temperature.

Figure 3.8: BCS Theory - Formation of Cooper Pair

The theory goes as follows: In a superconducting material, the atomic nuclei form a lattice
structure. When an electron moves through this lattice, it causes a slight displacement of
the nearby positive nuclei due to its negative charge. This displacement propagates through
the lattice as a quantized vibration, known as a phonon. Refer to figure 3.8.
Now, consider another electron moving through the lattice. This electron can interact
with the phonon, effectively being attracted to the region of positive charge created by the
displacement of the nuclei. This results in an effective attractive interaction between the two
electrons, which is counterintuitive because electrons, being negatively charged, should repel
each other due to their like charges. This kind of interaction between two electrons mediated
by a phonon is also called a electron-phonon-electron interaction.
This attractive interaction leads to the formation of special pairs of electrons known as
Cooper pairs, named after Leon Cooper. These pairs are formed from electrons with op-
posite spins and momenta. So the pair as a whole has a total spin of zero. These pairs are
unusual because they act like a single entity, moving through the lattice together without
scattering off impurities or lattice vibrations (phonons), which is what normally causes elec-
trical resistance. As a result, they can flow without any loss of energy or dissipation, leading
to superconductivity.

Origin of critical temperature

It’s important to note that this pairing mechanism and the resulting superconductivity only
occur at temperatures below the critical temperature. Above this temperature, thermal
vibrations of the lattice are too strong and disrupt the Cooper pairs, causing the material to
lose its superconducting properties and behave as a normal conductor.

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 3.9. HIGH-TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS

The following is additional information provided for reference only.

The fact that Cooper pairs have a total spin of zero is significant because particles with
integer spins (like 0) are classified as bosons, while particles with half-integer spins (like
1/2) are fermions.
Electrons, being fermions, obey the Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, which states that no two
fermions can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. However, when electrons
pair up to form Cooper pairs, they effectively behave as bosons and do not obey the
Pauli Exclusion Principle. This means that many Cooper pairs can exist in the same
quantum state.
When a large number of Cooper pairs form in a superconductor below its critical tem-
perature, they create something called a Bose-Einstein condensate. In this state, the
Cooper pairs move coherently as if they were one “superparticle”, rather than as indi-
vidual pairs. This coherence allows them to move through the lattice without scattering
off impurities or lattice vibrations (phonons), which is what normally causes electrical
resistance. The formation of this Bose-Einstein condensate of Cooper pairs and their
coherent motion is what enables superconductivity.

3.9 High-temperature Superconductors

High-temperature superconductors are materials that exhibit superconducting properties at
temperatures much higher than traditional superconductors. While ”high temperature” in
this context still refers to temperatures that are quite cold by everyday standards, these ma-
terials are exciting because they operate above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (−196 ◦ C
or 77 K), making them more practical for real-world applications. (The critical tempera-
tures of traditional superconductors are far below the boiling point of liquid nitrogen and
require cooling with liquid helium, which is more expensive and harder to handle than liquid
nitrogen.)
The first high-temperature superconductor was discovered in 1986 by IBM researchers
Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller, who found that a lanthanum-based cuprate perovskite
material exhibited superconductivity at a temperature of 35 K. They were awarded the
Nobel Prize in Physics the following year for their discovery. Since then, many other high-
temperature superconductors have been discovered. Most of these are cuprates, which are
compounds made up of copper and oxygen, along with other elements. Some popular exam-
ples include:

ˆ Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO): This is one of the most well-known high-
temperature superconductors. It was the first material discovered to have a critical
temperature above 77K, which is significant because it means it can be cooled with liq-
uid nitrogen, which is cheaper and more easily available than other coolants like liquid
helium. The highest critical temperature for YBCO is around 93K. YBCO’s chemical
formula is written as YBa2 Cu3 O7 and hence it is also called the 1-2-3 compound.
ˆ Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO): Also known as BISCO, this mate-
rial has a critical temperature of up to 108K.
ˆ Mercury barium calcium copper oxide (HBCCO): With a critical temperature as high
as 138K under pressure, this is one of the highest high-temperature superconductors
known.
ˆ Iron-based superconductors: Discovered in 2008, these are a new family of high tem-
perature superconductors. They have a different structure from the cuprates, and their

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 3.10. SQUID

highest critical temperature is around 56K.

It’s important to note that while these materials can conduct electricity without resistance
at higher temperatures than traditional superconductors, we still don’t fully understand how
they work. The BCS theory that explains low-temperature superconductivity does not ade-
quately describe high-temperature superconductivity, and developing a comprehensive theory
of high-temperature superconductivity is one of the major unsolved problems in theoretical
physics.

3.10 SQUID
A Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID) is a highly sensitive magnetome-
ter used to measure extremely weak magnetic fields. It consists of a superconducting loop
interrupted by one or two Josephson junctions. A Josephson junction is made up of two
superconducting materials separated by a very thin barrier which can be an insulator, a non-
superconducting metal, or a physical constriction that weakens the superconductivity at the
point of contact.

3.10.1 DC SQUID

Figure 3.9: DC SQUID

The DC SQUID consists of a superconducting ring with two parallel Josephson junctions,
preferably with similar properties. Refer to figure 3.9.
In the absence of an external magnetic field, a constant biasing current I evenly divides
into two branches, I1 and I2 , each equal to I/2. When a small external magnetic field B is
applied to the superconducting loop, a screening current J circulates the loop, generating a
magnetic field that opposes the external flux, following Lenz’s law. The induced current aligns
with I in one branch and opposes I in the other branch. Consequently, the total current
increases in one branch (I1 + J) and decreases in the other (I2 − J). When the current
in either branch surpasses the critical current IC of the Josephson junction, the junction
becomes non-superconducting and a voltage emerges across the junction.
As the applied field increases, the current flowing in the loop alternates directions period-
ically with each junction alternating between superconducting non-superconducting states.

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 3.11. MAGLEV TRAIN

As a result, the voltage across the junctions also oscillates with the applied field. This
oscillation can be detected and used to measure the magnetic field with high precision.

3.10.2 Applications
1. Magnetic field measurement: SQUIDs are used in various fields, including geo-
physics, biomagnetism, and materials science, to measure magnetic fields with high
sensitivity.

2. Medical imaging: SQUIDs are used in magnetoencephalography (MEG) and mag-

netocardiography (MCG) for non-invasive imaging of the brain’s and heart’s magnetic
fields, respectively.

3. Material characterization: SQUIDs are used to study the magnetic properties of

materials, such as superconductors, by measuring their magnetic susceptibility and
other properties.

4. Non-destructive testing: SQUIDs are used in non-destructive testing of materials

and structures to detect flaws and defects based on their magnetic properties.

3.11 Maglev Train

Superconductivity plays a crucial role in the construction and operation of maglev (magnetic
levitation) trains, offering a highly efficient and frictionless mode of transportation.

Figure 3.10: Propulsion of Maglev train

Construction
Maglev trains use powerful electromagnets to lift and propel the train along the track. The
track contains a series of coils in guideways for this purpose. The train itself contains super-
conducting magnets, typically made of a compound like YBCO.

Working
1. Levitation: As the train approaches the track, the superconducting magnets on the
train induce a current in the coils on the track, creating a magnetic field. This field
repels the magnets, causing the train to levitate above the track.

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 3.12. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

2. Propulsion: To propel the train forward, the electric current supplied to the coils in
guideway walls are constantly alternating to change the polarity of the magnetized coil.
This change in polarity is used to pull the train forward and push from backside (see
figure 3.10).
3. Stability: Superconductors exhibit perfect diamagnetism. This property helps stabi-
lize the train, keeping it centered on the track even at high speeds.
4. Frictionless Movement: Since there is no physical contact between the train and the
track, maglev trains experience virtually no friction, allowing for smooth and efficient
movement.

Advantages
1. Speed: Maglev trains can travel at very high speeds, potentially exceeding 500 km/h,
due to the lack of friction.
2. Efficiency: The absence of friction means that maglev trains require less energy to
operate compared to traditional trains.
3. Environmental Impact: Maglev trains are considered environmentally friendly as
they produce no direct emissions.
4. Comfort: The smooth, frictionless movement of maglev trains provides a comfortable
ride for passengers.

3.12 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Discuss the effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity of conductors

and hence explain for superconductors.
Q 2. Explain Meissner’s effect and the variation of critical field with temperature.
Q 3. Define critical temperature and critical magnetic field. Explain briefly BCS theory of
suerconductivity.
Q 4. Distinguish between Type - I and Type - II superconductors.
Q 5. Explain BCS theory of superconductivity.

3.13 Numericals

Q 1. The critical teniperature of Nb is 9.15 K. At zero kelvin, the critical field is 0.196 T.
Calculate the critical field at 8 K.
Q 2. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic field and a
critical field of 0.0306 T at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
Q 3. The superconducting transition temperature of Lead is 7.26 K. Calculate the initial
field at 0 K given the critical field at 5 K as 33.644 × 103 A/m.
Q 4. Calculate the ratio of critical fields for a superconductor at 7 K and 5 K given the
critical temperature 8 K.
Q 5. The critical field for niobium is 1 × 105 A/m at 8 K and 2 × 105 A/m at 0 K. Calculate
the transition temperature of the element.

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Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju