Unit 9

Statistics and Probability

Statistical Data
Collection and Tabulation of Statistical Data
Introduction:-
Every day through the public and private media we are being informed variety of information. However, every now and then
we are hear about information of:-
- Business and commerce
- Growth, birth and death rate
- Economic crises
- Communicable disease etc. This dispatch information incorporate with personal opinion, observation, organized
data and interpretation.
Definition
Statistics is a science that studies about:-
- Collected data by:-
- Observation Oral
- Questioner
- Experiments. Written
- Organized data mean edit, summarize and classify general information.
- Presenting data mean interpret the data by table or diagram.
- Analyzing data: - to give highest information useful for decision making.
- Interpretation data based on analyzed data, conclusion have to be drawn. This step usually involves making about a large collection
of objects(the population) based on information gathered from a small collection of similar objects ( the sample). In statistics,
however, population refers to the complete collection of individual objects and measurements that have a common characteristics.
Sample refers a small part of the group that are examined by a research. Population function is a rule which assigns a corresponding
value to each member of the Population. Data can be classified as either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative data:- if the data is
based on some characteristics whose values are not numbers such as eye color, sex, religion,
nationality etc. Quantitative data:- if the data is numerical, such as height, weight, age, scores in test are some of them. Statistics
can be classified in to two such as descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics: - is a branch of statistics
concerned with summarizing and describing a large amount of data without drawing and conclusion about a particular bit of data. It
describes information collected through numerical measurement, charts, graphs and tables. The main purpose of it’s to provide an
over view of the information collected. Inferential statistics: - is a branch of statistics concerned with interpreting data and drawing
data. Data can be classified as primary data and secondary data. Primary data is original or first data obtained by observation,
interview or direct measurement. Secondary data is data which is not originated by researcher himself or herself but which he or
she obtains from some ones else’s records. Some of the records are official’s publications, journals, newspapers, different studies,
national statistical abstracts etc. Statistic deals mainly with quantitative data.
Uses of statistics
1. Design the economic policy of a country.
2. Judge the effectiveness of a program or strategy.
3. Advance knowledge concerning economic and business behavior of an industry.
4. Formulate plans and policies well in advance of the time of their implementation.
Exercise:- 1
1. What are the steps used in doing a statistical study?
2. Mention four uses of statistics.
3. Explain each of the following statistical terms by giving examples.
a. Qualitative data b. population c. sample d. Quantitative data e. population function
4. Determine whether the following data is qualitative or quantitative
a. Gender d. Temperature g. Zip code
b. Number of days e. Religious h. occupations
c. Age f. colors i. Nationality
 Graphical Presentations of Statistical Data
Methods to represent a frequency distribution:
Distributions and histograms
- Information (data) is obtained from a census, existing data source, surveys or designed experiments. After data us collected it
must be organized in to a manageable form. Data that is not organized is referred to as row data.
Definition:-
- A quantity that we measure from observation is called a variable (variate) denoted by V.
- A frequency distribution is a tabular representation of a data showing the frequency associated with each data value.
Example:-
1. Organize the data below into a frequency distribution
table. 3,5,4,5,4,3,5,6,4,5,4,7,5,6,5,7,6,5,5
- The frequency of 5 is 8.
- The frequency of 4 is 4.
- The frequency of 3 is 2
- The frequency of 7 is 2
- The frequency of 6 is 3. Thus we have the following frequency distribution of the given data.
V 3 4 5 6 7
F 2 4 8 3 2

2. There is an age data of 20 customers who visited a shopping center. 2,4,11,12,18,22,25,28,30,30,31,34,38,39,45,48,49,50,60,64.

Complete the frequency table.
Solution:-
Let 𝑥 be the age of the customers. Divide the data into groups of 10 years. Each interval in the frequency distribution table is called
class. This type of frequency table is called grouped frequency distribution table in grade 11 Unit 7.
Class interval frequency.

Class interval Frequency

0 ≤ x < 10 2
10 ≤ x < 20 3
20 ≤ x < 30 3
30 ≤ x < 40 6
40 ≤ x < 50 3
50 ≤ x < 60 1
60 ≤ x < 70 2

Definition:-
- A histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution in which a variable (V) is plotted on the x-axis and the
frequency (f) is plotted on the y-axis.
3. From the above frequency distribution construct a histogram.
Y - Axis
Frequency

X – Axis
Variable
1. What is the highest variable (variant) = 72 and 88.s
2. What is the highest frequency = 4.
3. How many variant occur 3 times = 2
4. What present of student score less than 80 1 +1+2+2+4+4 % = 14%
72
=
Exercise:- 2
1. What is the difference between a frequency distribution table and a histogram?
2. The ages (to the nearest year) of 40 children in a certain village are as follows
10 7 4 5 1 9 3 6 5 4
2 7 5 3 2 5 6 2 8 9
5 8 9 9 5 2 1 3 9 4
3 5 7 9 6 3 6 8 1 2

- Prepare a frequency distribution table and histogram for the given data.
3. A sample of 50 couples married for 10 years were asked how many children they had. The result of the survey is as follows:-
0 4 2 2 1 0 3 3 2 4
3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 2
1 3 3 2 4 1 3 5 2 2
2 0 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2
3 3 3 4 3 3 1 0 3 2

a. Construct a frequency distribution.

b. Construct a histogram.
c. What percentage of couples have two children
d. What percentage of couples have at least two children.
Pie-charts
Data can be displayed on a pie chart-a circle divided into sectors. The size of the sector is in direct proportion to the
frequency of the data. The sector size does not show the actual frequency. The actual frequency can be calculated easily from
the size of the sector.
Example:-
In a survey of 120 children, they were asked to choose their favorite color. The total 120 is represented by 100%. It follows that
if 120 represent 100%, then

a. 50% represents 120 ( 50 50%

) = 60 children whose favorite is white.
b. 30% represents 120 100
30 ) = 36 children whose favorite is purple.
(
100 20% 30%
c. 20% represents 120 20
) = 24 children whose favorite is blue.
( 100

Measure of Location (Mean. Median and Mode)

- Quantitative variables contained in row data or in frequency tables can also be summarized by means of a few numerical
values. A key element of this summery is called the measure of average or measure of location. The three commonly measure
of location are arithmetic mean or (mean) , median and mode.
1. Mean of n Number of Observation
- Is the sum of all the data values divided by the total frequency or (number of observations).
That is:-
- If x1, x2 ,x3,---------, xn are the n observations of a variable, then the mean 𝑥̅, is given by:-
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔
𝒙̅ =
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + −−− + 𝒙𝒏 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝒏 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 = 𝑛
𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒔
Where i = 1,2,3,--------, n
Example:-
1. The final mathematics test result of 10 students were 70, 75,48,60,38,85,90,55,47 and 58. Find the mean.
Solution
𝟕𝟎+𝟕𝟓+𝟒𝟖+𝟔𝟎+𝟑𝟖+𝟖𝟓+𝟗𝟎+𝟓𝟓+𝟒𝟕+𝟓𝟖
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + −−− + 𝒙𝒏 =
𝒙̅ = 𝒏 𝟏𝟎
= 62. 6
2. Mean of Frequency Distribution
- If x1, x2, x3, --------xn are n observation of a variable and f1, f2, f3,-----, fn are the frequency of the variable, then he mean of
the frequency distribution of the data can be calculated by:-
̅𝒙 𝒙𝟏𝒇𝟏+ 𝒙𝟐𝒇𝟐+ 𝒙𝟑𝒇𝟑+ −−− + 𝒙𝒏𝒇𝒏 ∑ 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑖
= =
Where i = 1,2,3,--------, n 𝒇𝟏+ 𝒇𝟐+ 𝒇𝟑+ −−− + ∑ 𝑓𝑖
𝒇𝒏
1. The following table is frequency distribution of a certain population. Find the mean.
Example:-
2. Find the mean from the following frequency distribution table.
V 3 4 5 6 7
f 5 9 10 14 4
Then, the mean of the above frequency distribution of the data is:-
̅𝒙 𝒙𝟏𝒇𝟏+ 𝒙𝟐𝒇𝟐+ 𝒙𝟑𝒇𝟑+ −−− + 𝒙𝒏𝒇𝒏 𝟑 𝒙 𝟓+𝟒 𝒙 𝟗+𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎+𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟒+𝟕 𝒙 𝟒
= =
𝒇𝟏+ 𝒇𝟐+ 𝒇𝟑+ −−− + 𝟓+𝟗+𝟏𝟎+𝟏𝟒+𝟒

Properties of mean
𝒇𝒏 = 5.025
1. The sum of the deviation of individual population from mean μ is zero .
Example:-
1. Let the ages of 5 children be 2,3,6,9,10. Then find the sum of the deviations from the mean.
Solution
𝟐+𝟑+𝟔+𝟗+𝟏𝟎
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + −−− + 𝒙𝒏 = = 6
𝒙̅ = 𝒏 𝟓
So, the sum of the deviation from the mean = (2-6)+ ( 3-6)+ (6-6)+ (9-6)+ (10-6) = 0
2. The mean of the sum or difference of two population function(of equal number of
observation) is equal to the sum or difference of the means of the two population.
That is:-
̅𝒙 (x + y) = ̅𝒙 𝒙 + ̅𝒙 𝒚
Example:-
1. The mean of 2, 4, 6, 8 is 5 and the mean of 5, 7, 9, 7,is 7. Then find the mean of 7,
11, 15, 15.
Solution
The mean of 7, 11, 15, 15 = mean of 2, 2, 6, 8 + mean of 5, 7, 9, 7,is 7
=5+7
= 12
2. If a constant K is added to (or subtracted from) each data value, then the new mean is the sum (or the difference) of
the old mean and the constant K.
New 𝒙̅ = Old 𝒙̅ + K
3. The mean of the constant times a population function is equal to the constant times the mean of the population function.
𝑥̅ 1
4. If each member of a population function with mean 𝑥̅ is divided by K, then the new mean will be or ̅𝒙
𝑘 𝑘
Example
1. Consider the amount of money in the pocket of five student in birr given as
3,7,8,12,15. So, the mean became:-
𝟑+𝟕+𝟖+𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟓
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + −−− + 𝒙𝒏 = =9
𝒙̅ = 𝒏 𝟓
If we add birr 2 for each student the new mean = 9 + 2 = 11
a. If we take birr 2 for each student the new mean = 9 – 2 = 7
b. If we multiply the amount of money in the pocket of each student by 2 the new mean = 9 x 2 = 18
c. If the amount in the pocket of each students is divided by 2 the new mean = 9 ÷ 2 = 4.
1. Median
Median: is the value that lies in the middle of the data when it is arranged in ascending and descending order. So, half the
data is below the median and half the data is above the median.
 Remark :-
1. If the data is odd, then the median can
𝒕𝒉
be calculated by:-
𝒏+𝟏
M.d = ( ) value
𝟐
2. If the data is even, then the median is:-
𝒏 𝒕𝒉 𝒏 𝒕𝒉
M.d = ( ) value + ( + 𝟏) value
𝟐 𝟐
Example:-
1. Find the median of 6,7,9,7,11,13,15.
Solution
- When we rearrange the data 6,7,9,7,11,13,15 it becomes 6,7,7,9,11,13,15. Then the median of the data is
M.d = (7+1)th value = 4
2
After counting 4 data either from the right or left we get the value 9. So, the median is 9.
Note:-
a. The median can be obtained even some of the data values are not known.
b. It is not affected by extreme value.
c. It is unique for a given data set.
2. Mode:-
is the value of the variable which occurs most frequently in a data set. A set of data can have
1. No mode
3. One mode (uni- modal)
4. Two modes(bi- modal)
5. More than two modes (multi- modal)
Example:-
1. Find the mode of each of the following data sets.
a. 4,6,12,10,17. No mode
b. 12,10,11,13,10,14,12,18,17. Two mode(10 and 12).
c. 9,8,7,10,6,8. One mode that is 8.
Note:-
1. The mode is not always unique.
2. It is not affected by extreme value.
3. The mode can also be used for qualitative data.
Measure of Dispersion for Ungrouped data.
Dispersion or variation is the scatter(or spread) of data values from a measure of central tendency.
The three measure of dispersion is range, variance and standard deviation.
1. Range:-
is the difference between the highest and the lowest value for the given data.
That is :-
Range = Highest value – lowest value
Example:-
1. The age of six student are 24,20,18,13,16,15 years respectively, what is the range?
Range = Maximum Value – Minimum Value
= 24 – 13
= 11
2. Variance (s2)
is the average of the squared deviations of each value from the arithmetic mean.
3. x1, x2, x3, ------,xn are n observation values, then the variance for the simple data is given by-
If
(𝒙𝟏−̅𝒙)𝟐+ (𝒙𝟐−̅𝒙)𝟐 + −−−−−−−−− + (𝒙𝒏−̅𝒙)𝟐 ̅ )𝟐
∑(𝒙𝒊− 𝒙
S2 = 𝒏 = 𝒏
Where i = 1,2,3,--------, n.
 4. If x1, x2, x3, -------- xn are values of n observations with corresponding frequencies f1, f2, f3,-------, fn. Then the variance is given
by:-
(𝒙𝟏−̅𝒙)𝟐+ (𝒙𝟐−̅𝒙)𝟐 + −−−−−−−−− + (𝒙𝒏−̅𝒙)𝟐𝒊 ̅ )𝟐
∑(𝒙 − 𝒙
S2 = 𝒏 = 𝒏
Where i = 1,2,3,--------, n
3. Standard Deviation(S.d)
is the positive square root of the square deviations of each value from the arithmetic mean
S.d = √𝒔𝟐
Example:-
1. From the following observations find the variance and standard deviation of 2,5,6,7,10.
Solution:-
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝟐+𝟓+𝟔+𝟕+𝟏𝟎
̅𝒙 = =
𝑛 𝟓
=𝟔
X 2 5 6 7 10
x - ̅𝒙 2-6 =4 5-6 =1 6-6 =1 7-6=1 10 -6=4 ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅)2
(x - ̅𝒙 ) 2 16 1 0 1 16 34

a. ̅ )𝟐
∑(𝒙− 𝒙 𝟑𝟒
S2 = 𝒏 = 𝟓
b. S.d = √𝒔𝟐
𝟑𝟒
=√𝟓
= √6.8
Properties of variance and standard deviation
- If a constant C is added to each value of a population function, then the new variance is the same as the old variance. The new
standard deviation is also the same as the old standard deviation.
That is:-
1. New variance = old variance
2. New standard deviation = old standard deviation
. If each value of a population function is multiplied by a constant C, then the new variance is C2 times the old variance

That is:
The new variance = C2 x old variance
2. The new standard deviation is |C | times the old standard deviation
That is:-
New standard deviation = |C | old standard deviation

Exercise:-
1. Find the mean, mode and median of the following
data. 11, 9, 14, 3, 11, 4, 10, 21, 8, 15, 35.
2. Find the range, variance, and standard deviation of the following
data. 4, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1, 4, 3, 2, 6.
3. For the frequency distribution of the population function V. Find
V 1 2 3 4 5
F 6 5 4 3 2
a. Population mode
b. Population mean
c. Population variance
d. Population standard deviation.
 4. Given below is a frequency distribution of a population function V. Find
V −16 −14 0 1
2
1
3
F 12 16 21 8 27
a. The mean
b. The mode
c. The median
d. Percent of the population is non-negative value.
e. Percent of the population is negative value.
5. If the mean of 4, 6, 7, 10, 9, x, is 7, then find the value of x and the mode.
6. What is the mean deviation of the numbers 1, 3, 5, 4, 2.
7. What is the value of y, if the standard deviation of 8, 8, 8, 8, y, 8 is 0?
8. If the variance of a, b ,c, d is k, then what is
a. The variance of a + c, b + c, 2c, d + c?
b. The standard deviation of a + c, b + c, 2c, d + c?
Probability
Introduction
In this unit of the first section we were try to introduce the basic concept of statistics and its subdivision such that descriptive
and inferential statistics. The basic tools of inferential statistic is probability. In the second of this section we study the basic
concept of probability and introduce them by using some examples.
Definition:-
Probability is the study of chance of occurrence of events.
Basic Concepts in Probability
Consider a single coin that has two sides(face). If we toss flip the coin, then the experiment shows that the possible outcomes
are the head(H) and tail (T). In these case we have two possible outcomes such as H and T. Hence, the chance getting exactly
one of the two is ½.that is the probability getting H is ½ and that of tail is ½.
Consider a single die whose sides are labeled as 1,2,3,4,5,or 6. If we roll the die, then the experiment exactly one of the sides
shows up. In these case there are six possible outcomes such as 1,2,3,4,5,or 6. Hence the probability getting exactly one of the
sides is 1/6. For more understanding, we shall be familiar with the following terms.
1. Experiment is the process in which measurement is made and there by data are collected.
2. Possibility set of an experiment (sample space) which contains all the possible outcomes.
3. Event is any subset of the possibility set.
To illustrate the above explanation, consider the following summary of probability experiments.
Experiment Event Sample space(U)
Toss a coin Head or tail (H or T) { H,T}
Toss two coin The first head or tail or the second head { HH, HT,TH,TT}
or tail or HH or HT or TH or TT
Roll a die Odd numbers or even numbers, 1or 2 or {1,2,3,4,5,6}
3 or 4 or 5 or 6
Answer a true or T or F {T,F}
falls question
Definition:-
If an experiment has n equally likely outcomes and if m of these represent a particular event, then the probability of this event
occurring is m/n.
Example:-
1. In an experiment of selecting students at a random a researcher found the following result after 50 trials.
Student Boy Girl Total
Number 20 30 50
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected student is a girl?
Solution
n(G) = 30 = m
n(S) = 50= n
𝑚 30
p(G) = =
𝑛 50
3
=
5
2. In an experiment of tossing two coins,
a. What are the possible outcomes?
b. How many different possible outcomes are there?
c. What is the probability of the coins landing with
1. Two heads
2. One head
3. Two tails
Solution:-
HH
H
HT
Coin
TH
T
TT
a. Possible outcomes = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
b. 4
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
c. 1. 2. 3.
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
Theoretical Probability Of An Event
Let U be the sample space of an experiment and E is an event, then the theoretical probability is defined by:-

That is:-

Since probability is on the formation of failure and success. That is an event is between failure and success.
𝟎 𝒏(𝑬) 𝒏( 𝑼 )
Hence, ≤ ≤
𝒏( 𝑼 ) 𝒏( 𝑼 ) 𝒏( 𝑼 )
𝒏(𝑬)
0 ≤ ≤ 1
𝒏( 𝑼 )
Failure Certain
Example:-
2. If you toss a die and observe the number appearing on the upper face of the die, then what is the probability to see an
odd number.
Solution :- U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,}------n(U) = 6
E = {1,3,5}---------------n(E)= 3
P(E) = n(E) = 3 = 1
n(U) 6 2
3. A jar contains three white balls, one red ball, and one yellow ball. If two balls are taken at random from the jar, then what
is the probability that neither ball is white?
Solution :
Neither ball is white it mean the ball is either red or yellow.

W2
W3
W1
R
Y
W3
Ball W2 R
Y
R
W3
Y
R Y

Y
- Possible out comes = {W1W2, W1W3, W1R, W1Y, W2W3,W2R, W2Y, W3R, W3Y, RY}.
- Events = {RY}
- Number of Possible out Comes = 10
- Number of events = 1
Thus:-
𝒏(𝑬)
P(E) =
𝒏𝟏(𝑼)
= 𝟏𝟎
Exercise:-
1. Two dice are simultaneously thrown once. List the ways in which the following events can occur.
a. A = the same number is shown on each die.
b. B = the sum of the numbers is thirteen.
c. C = the product of the two numbers is 1s
d. D = the quotient of the two numbers is 7
2. Three coin are tossed at the same time. Sketch a tree diagram for the outcomes
of this experiment. What is the possibility set?
3. The bag contains four red balls and three black balls. What is the possibility set for color, if two balls are chosen at random?
4. A fair die is rolled once. Calculate the probability of getting:-
a. An odd number c. A prime number
b. A score of 5 d. A score of 0
5. A number is selected randomly from the set of whole numbers 1 – 20 both inclusive. Find the probability that the number
selected is:-
a. Even d. Even or Odd
b. A multiple of 2 and 3 e. The square of 2
c. A multiple of 3 f. The square of 6
6. A Bag contains 5 red balls, 3black balls and 4white balls. A ball is drown out of the bag at random. What is the probability
that the ball drawn is:-
a. White? b. Red? C. Black?
7. A bag contains 100 identical cards on which the numbers 1 to 100 are marked. A card is drown out of the bag randomly.
Find the probability that the number on the card is:-
a. Greater than 32 b. A factor of 24 C. Less than 76