Paper 4: Alternative to coursework

Except for Papers 1 (theory) and 2 (map skills), you may also be required to sit for
Paper 4. This page summarises the main skills that you will need to learn to
triumph in the exam hall.

Answer all questions

Many students lose points because they overlook some of the questions (has
happened to me as well). Therefore, be sure to check that you have not missed
tasks by checking for the square brackets to the right of the paper (which indicate
the number of points you get). This is particularly important on pages with many
tables, diagrams, graphs or maps.

Know your theory

The most common topics covered in the alternative to practical exams

are: coasts, rivers, settlement and weather (so make sure you’ve revised the theory
on these sections.
Measuring at coast lines

n Beach profile
Beach profile is measured to survey the morphology (structure/elevation) of a
beach and compare that to other beaches or coastlines, as well as examining
correlation between beach processes and sediments.

1. Appropriate sampling points are selected across the width of a beach at

breaks of slope (changes in gradient)

2. For each section between two sampling points, a clinometer and ranging
rod are used to measure the slope angle (NB: points must be at identical
height along the ranging rod, and ranging rods must be placed vertically
into the ground.

3. The distance between each section is measured using a tape measure, and
the gradient is calculated.
This is best done at low tide and during stable weather conditions to ensure the
safety of the surveyors.

Sediments size and structure may be recorded along different coast lines to
investigate transport and erosion processes and the relationship between sediments
and other factors such as beach profile. (the same method for sediment analysis
applies to rivers)

1. Sediments are selected using one of the sampling techniques, possibly by

placing a quadrat on the beach along a transect.

2. Calipers may be used to measure the length (long axis) of pebbles.

3. An angularity chart or a pebbleometer may be used to investigate the

roundness of the particles. (NB: an angularity chart is often subjective -
different surveyors may come to different conclusions)

4. The weight off a rock may be measured using electronic scales.

Alternatively, the weight of a rock may be recorded uing a spring
balance and a plastic bag. First, the weight of the empty plastic bag is
recorded. Then the rock is put in the plastic bag, which is attached to the
 spring balance. The weight is read off from the scale and the total weight
is subtracted from that of the plastic bag to find the weight of the rock.
Longshore drift may be measured to examine the transport of coastal material and
predict the supply of sediments in future.
The “float” method may be used to measure longshore drift.

1. A tape measure is laid out close to the water to mark start and finish
points of the investigation (an appropriate distance should be selected
beforehand)

2. A float is placed in the water and the start mark.

3. Direction and time of movement of the float is observed and recorded

along the preset distance.
More detail on these fieldwork techniques can be found at the Royal Geographical
Society.
MEASURING WAVE FREQUENCY
Pick a rock / pole on beach / stand in sea / put pole in sea / put float in sea / mark
line on beach; Count number of waves breaking / hitting pole / passing person /
crossing line OR count float going up & down; Use watch / stopwatch to time 1-5
minutes / fixed period of time; Repeat count / count for more time & calculate
/work out average

Measuring river variables

Width and depth: Channel width can be measured by holding a tape measure
across the channel from bank to bank. The wetted width is the channel width at
water level, while bankful width refers to the distance from bank to bank. Channel
depth is measured by using a ranging rod and measuring the depth of the river from
water surface to bed on multiple locations across the channel and calculating the
average.
The wetted perimeter is the length of the banks and bed that is in contact with the
water. It is measured by recording the average depth and the wetted width.

Velocity: River velocity (rate of water movement varies across a stream):

measured using a flow meter. A single measurement at 60% of the depth of the
stream should be taken to supply a reliable average. The fastest part in the river
channel is known as the Thalweg.

Flow meter, by
Wtshymanski, CC BY-SA 3.0
Discharge (m³/s): cross-sectional area (m²) x velocity (m/s) Discharge normally
increases downstream, as do width, depth and velocity.
A hydrograph can be used to map the discharge of a river against time at a specific
point along the river. In a hydrograph. The highest point on a hydrograph gives us
the peak discharge, or the highest rate of discharge. The time interval from the start
of rainfall to peak discharge is known as time to peak.

When discharge of a river increases substantially over a long time, for example due
to prolonged rainfall, this is shown as an upward curve on the hydrograph. This
curve is known as concentration curve or rising limb.
Channel efficiency (measured by hydraulic radius): cross-sectional area/ wetted
perimeter. The higher the hydraulic radius, the more efficiently the river transports
its load
Gradient (slope): using ranging rods positioned equidistantly upstream and
downstream of the cross- section sites and clinometer to measure slope angle.
Settlement surveys

Traffic
Traffic count: Traffic counts can be performed to gain information on use of roads
and means of travel, aiding urban planning.

1. Find a suitable location or suitable transect.

2. Use a tally chart to record different modes of transport

Identifying land use and function: Land use may be surveyed to establish
boundaries of the CBD and identify management strategies to develop certain
areas.

1. Use a map of the city to select an appropriate transect for data collection.

2. Classify different types of land use eg. industrial, residential, commercial

3. Decide on a suitable sampling technique and record the data on the map.
Weather
From what I’ve seen looking at the past papers, most questions ask how weather
instruments work or where they need to be sited.Also, you may be asked to
interpret data (which is a major component of this paper).
Please refer to the notes on Weather, Climate and Ecosystems for how to use the
weather instruments and Paper 2 for data representation.
Environmental surveys
Environmental surveys may be used to track pollution at a variety of
sites. A scoring system would be devised to rate the intensity and
impact of litter, noise and traffic on the surrounding area. For example,
a decibel meter may be used to measure the noise level. Also,
secondary data may be used, including researching the results of traffic
counts.

Geographical equipment

A stopwatch is used to record time, eg. in traffic counts or in measuring velocity,

in which it is used in conjunction with other equipment.

Stopwatch
A compass is used to measure direction eg. of a course of a river or to see where
the wind is coming from.

A tape measure is used to measure medium distances (between several metres to

30/50 metres). [the yellow thing used for measuring the distance in long jump]

A metre rule is used for measuring short distances eg. the depth of a river.
 Callipers, by Joaquim Alves
Gaspar, CC BY 2.5
Calipers are used to measure the width, length or height of small objects.

A pebbleometer is used to measure the angularity (roundness) of river materials.

Ranging rods are used to measure the depth of a river, or the angle of a slope with
a clinometer. A clinometer is used to measure the angle of elevation (slope) by
placing at eye level at a ranging rod (that stands vertically in the ground).The
clinometer is directed to the other ranging rod at eyelevel, and the angle is read off.

Vegetation sampling using a

quadrat, By Sagt (Flickr), CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0
Flowmeters are used for measuring the velocity of water eg. in rivers. Flow meters
have a small propeller that is placed under the surface of the water. Movement of
the propeller created a digital reading that notes the speed of the water.

A quadrat is a square divided into many smaller squares. A quadrat is used for
measuring vegetation cover or selecting samples along a river or beach.

Data collection
Often you will be asked to describe what methods have been used to collect certain
data. In that case specify the equipment used, how measurements have been taken
and how they have been recorded.

Primary vs. secondary data

When collecting data, we can distinguish between primary and secondary data.

Primary data is data that has been collected personally (by you or your team)
using surveying or sampling methods. Examples include pedestrian counts,
environmental indexes and questionnaires.
Primary data contains only the information you wanted to obtain and in the format
you need. It should be up to date. On the other hand, primary data collection may
time-consuming and information may be biased.

Secondary data is data that has been collected by another person or research team
ie. information from books or the internet.
Secondary allows you to collect information from a larger sample or samples that
would not usually be accessible to you, however it may be in the wrong format and
contain too much materials. You may not know the source of the data and the
collection method.
Types of sampling

There are three main types of sampling: random, systematic and stratified

In random sampling, a number generator or number chart is used to determine

which samples to survey. Each sample has equal chances of being selected.
Random sampling avoids bias, as opposed to systematic sampling and is
comparatively quick and simple. However, results may not be representative of the
overall trend.

In systematic sampling, the samples are selected from a list of elements in a regular
pattern (eg. every 4th sample). Systematic sampling gives better coverage of the
sample group, however it may be biased (subjectivity of which pattern to follow)
and the result may not be representative of the overall trend.

In stratified sampling the samples are divided into strata (categories) by some
characteristics (eg. gender, location) Then a sample is taken either by random or
systematic sampling. Systematic sampling is used to give a more representative
result.
Questionnaires

Questionnaire: closed and

open-ended questions
Questionnaires may be conducted verbally or in written form. When constructing a
questionnaire, it is very important to use the right structure and layout, as well as
asking the right questions. Also, you need to choose on a sampling method before
conducting a questionnaire survey.

A good questionnaire starts off with an introduction eg. We are from Bayport
High School and for our geography classes we need to conduct a survey on … .
Would you mind, if we ask you a few questions?
Questions should be organised in a logical manner. There are two types of
questions: closed ended and open-ended. A good questionnaire will contain both
closed and open-ended questions, so as to ask for the opinions of the participants,
while also making the questions relevant and precise.

Closed-ended questions give a set possibility of answers, and participants usually

tick their responses. Good closed-ended questions usually have one option saying
“other”, should the participants not fit into any of the suggested categories. Closed
ended questions are usually more subjective.

Open-ended questions allow the participants to formulate their own response.

While this allows for more variety, data can be harder to display graphically and
participants are more likely to give irrelevant responses.
Evaluating hypotheses
Evaluating hypotheses is one of the most scoring (and most common) questions on
the paper. For each hypotheses:

1. State whether it is true, partially true or false.

2. Give a reason for your answer

3. Use statistics to support your answer

4. State any anomalies

5. Support anomalies using figures (data)

How surveys can be improved

Each paper that I have seen so far, asks how survey (collection) methods can be
improved. These are the most common answers, of which at least two should
always be applicable.

 Do counts more regularly e.g. every one or two hours

 Do counts, surveys or indexes in more locations

 Do counts, surveys and indexes on different days of the week (including

weekends)

 Get two groups doing the same survey, index or count so that an average
may be taken

Aims, Sampling, Equipment & Risk Assessment

Coastal Fieldwork Enquiry

 To undertake a coastal fieldwork enquiry there are a range of practical skills

and methods that will be used
 These can be applied to any coastal fieldwork
  The fieldwork enquiry should be linked to geographical theory and/or
example:
o In the coastal fieldwork enquiry the theories of how coastlines vary in
terms of their processes, landforms and/or the effectiveness of
management strategies

Aims and Hypothesis

 The aims and hypothesis come from general questions asked about the
coast such as:
o Does geology affect the shape of a stretch of coastline and its
landforms?
o How and why is hard engineering more effective along a particular
stretch of coastline?
o How and why is soft engineering used along a stretch of coastline?
o Does beach morphology change because of wave energy?
o Does coastal protection along a stretch of beach consider stakeholder
views?
 Aims are focused on a particular place as you cannot measure everywhere
 Examples of an aim would be:
o To explore the impact of coastal processes on Y beach
o To investigate how wave energy along X beach changes beach
morphology
o To explore how geology affects the shape and landforms of W beach
 Hypotheses are statements that are tested through fieldwork
 Examples of a hypothesis would be:
o Coastal management strategies used at Y beach have taken conflicting
views into account
 A null hypothesis is a statement that is opposite to a hypothesis
 This ensures there is no bias when collecting the evidence
o You are not ignoring evidence because it doesn't prove the statement
 If you cannot prove the statement then the opposite must be true
 Examples of a null hypothesis would be:
o Coastal management strategies used at Y beach have not taken
conflicting views into account
 After the aims and hypothesis of the fieldwork have been established the next
steps include:
o Select the sites - this will involve sampling
o Decide on equipment to be used
o Consider health and safety issues - complete a risk assessment
o Data collection methods to be used

Worked example

(i) Suggest one possible aim of a coastal environment investigation (2)

 Answer:
 This needs to be an aim, not a hypothesis, so you should outline what the
enquiry/investigation is attempting to achieve:
 o To investigate the influence of geology (1) on the shape of a
coastline (1)
o To investigate the changes in beach profile (1) with increasing distance
from the shoreline (1)
o An investigation into how erosion and deposition (1) have changed
over time (1)

(ii) Identify three reasons why a coastal environment investigation may not
achieve the aim given in (i) (3)

 Answers could include:

o Data inaccurate (1)
o Insufficient data collected (1)
o Inaccurate data analysis (1)
o Human errors in data recording (1)
o Aim not practical (1)
o Unsuitable sites selected (1)

Site Selection and Sampling

 It is not practical or feasible to collect data along all parts of the coast as there
would be too much data
 To select coastal sites, getting a true sample reduces bias
 There may be situations where access to a stretch of the coast is limited due
to a rock fall or unstable cliffs etc.
 Therefore, an opportunistic approach to sampling needs to be taken
 This needs to be as close as possible to the site selected using sampling
 The most commonly used sampling strategies for a coastal enquiry are:
o Systematic - sampling of sites at regular intervals means that all parts
of the stretch of coast are covered
o Random - the use of random sampling means that all sites have an
equal chance of being selected which eliminates bias
o Stratified - by dividing each sampling site into groups e.g. three sites
from each sample section
 Site location can be recorded using GPS to give an accurate location using
latitude and longitude
 Or through grid reference from an Ordnance Survey map

Worked example

Suggest which sampling method would be appropriate to use in a coastal

environment investigation (3)

 Answer:
o Systematic because measuring in an ordered and regular interval
(every 5 metres etc.) (1) ensures no area of the coastline is
missed (1) and it reduces bias (1)
 o Random because using a random number generator (1) means all
sites have an equal chance of being selected (1) which means that
there is no bias (1)

Equipment

 To complete the coast measurements a range of equipment is needed

 The equipment includes the following:
o Surveyor’s 25+ meter tape - measuring distances on a beach
or between ranging poles when completing beach transects
o Compass to measure direction
o Ranging poles for beach transects
o Clinometer - calculate the angle of a beach
o Callipers - measuring pebble size
o Quadrat - used to select sediment for sampling
o Clipboard for holding recording sheets
o Recording sheets
o Roundness or angularity charts
o Pencil for writing in data, particularly useful if the paper becomes damp
o Camera to take photographs of sites and coastal features

Worked example

Identify a suitable piece of equipment to measure a beach gradient (1)

A Anemometer
B Quadrat
C Clinometer
D Stopwatch

 Answer:
o C (1) a clinometer measures the slope angle of a beach

Risk Assessment

 Any fieldwork will involve consideration of health and safety using a risk
assessment
 Risks associated specifically with coastal fieldwork may include:
o Tide times
o Weather conditions
o Slippery rocks
o Polluted water
o Working in an unfamiliar place
o Misuse of equipment

Worked example

A group of students has investigated the changes in beach morphology.

State one risk that the students might identify in their risk assessment (1)

 Answer: Any one of the following would be acceptable

o Slip or fall (1)
o Infection from dirty water (1)
o Rock fall (1)
o Unstable cliffs (1)
o Weather conditions (heavy rain/sun) (1)
o Times of high tide (1)

Suggest one way the risk stated could be managed (1)

 Answer: This should follow from the answer above

o Sturdy/suitable footwear e.g. walking boots (1)
o Wash hands/use antibacterial hand wash/cover cuts and wounds (1)
o Do not work near rock falls (1)
o Do not work under cliffs after heavy rainfall (1)
o Check the weather forecast before going out to collect fieldwork
data (1)
o Check tide times (1)

Using Equipment in the Field

Data collection methods

 The data collection methods will depend on the aims/hypothesis of the

fieldwork
 The starting point with most coastal fieldwork is a question on 'what is needed
to answer the enquiry question?'
 Data collection should include both quantitative and qualitative methods
 The collection of quantitative data can be completed in several ways in a
coastal study:

Beach Profile

 Beach profiles use distance and angle measurements to identify the shape of
the beach
 Follow a transect line from the edge of the sea to the end of the beach
 Split the line into segments where the slope angle changes
 Each reading is taken from one break in a slope to the next break of the slope
o Student A stands, at a safe distance from the edge of the sea, holding
a ranging pole
o Student B stands holding a second ranging pole, further up the beach
where there is a break of slope
o Measure the distance between the two ranging poles using a tape
measure
o Measure the angle between the matching markers on the ranging pole
using a clinometer
 o Repeat the process at each slope break until you reach the top of the
beach

Sediment Analysis

 Sediment analysis is used to examine how beach material is sorted across

the width of a beach which links to longshore drift processes
 Depending on the size of the sediment being measured, random, systematic
and/or stratified sampling is used to take a sample of beach sediments (such
as sand, gravel and pebbles)
 The sediment is measured at the beach using callipers to measure the axes
of each pebble

Pebble Axes Points for Calliper Measurement

 The a-axis is the shortest axis

 The b-axis is the widest axis at right angles to the c-axis.
 The c-axis is the longest axis

Measuring Pebble Shape

  The easiest way to measure pebble shape is to classify the stone as either
very angular, angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded or very rounded
using a Power’s Scale of Roundness
 This is judged by eye
 Using a card with a concentric circle or a protractor, measure the minimum
radius of curvature
 This is the sharpest corner on the c-axis

Measuring Longshore Drift

 Choose 25 to 40 pebbles of various shapes and sizes from the beach

 Using waterproof paint, mark each pebble so you can identify them
 Spread the pebbles out in the swash zone, and place a marker to show the
start point for the pebbles
 Using a stopwatch, wait for 20 minutes then search for as many pebbles as
you can
 Measure how far each has travelled from the start point
 It is possible that some of the pebbles will have disappeared from the beach
or gone off in a different direction , but it doesn't mean that your results are
‘wrong’.
 Record what happened to each pebble (including ‘disappeared’)
 Repeat the process 3 times, or until you judge that the 'mean' for the distance
travelled by a pebble indicates that you have taken an adequate sample

Measuring Groynes

 Use a tape measure and find the height of beach material on either side of a
groyne
 Measure a minimum of three heights along the beach profile of each groyne
 Compare a series of groynes along the length of the beach

Measuring Rip-rap

 Rip-rap or rock armour data can be used to measure the effectiveness of

coastal defence
 Use a measuring tape to measure the length, height and width of each
boulder
 Measure the angle of the boulder and note if the widest face is facing straight
into oncoming waves or at an angle

Photographs and Field Sketches

 Photographs and field sketches are qualitative data

 Just as with any data collection and presentation they have strengths and
weaknesses
 In a coastal environment enquiry, photographs and field sketches can be used
to show landforms and particular features such as beach load
 Photographs are also ideal for illustrating the data collection methods used
Worked example

Study the following figure that shows coastal data collected by a group of students:

Mean shingle
Site
size (mm)
1 21.1
2 16.0
3 14.1
4 10.0
5 30.1

 Calculate the mean shingle size for the five sites

 Give your answer to one decimal place
 You must show all your workings in the space below (2)

Answer:

 Correct method of working, showing addition, and then division by 5 (1) and
one mark for the correct mean, written to one decimal place, 18.3 (1)
 The correct unit must also be shown which is in mm

Photographs and Field Sketches

 Photographs and field sketches are qualitative data

 Just as with any data collection and presentation they have strengths and
weaknesses
 In a coastal environment enquiry, photographs and field sketches can be used
to show landforms and particular features such as beach slope
 Photographs are also ideal for illustrating the data collection methods used

Worked example

During a geographical enquiry exploring changes along a stretch of coast,

students completed annotated field sketches as part of their data collection.

Suggest two advantages of this technique (4)

 Answer:
o Students can get a quick view of the areas they are working recording
key features (1) to support recall later (1)
o Students can highlight features (1) that they want to focus on as part of
their study (1)

Exam Tip

Annotations and labels are not the same. A label is a simple descriptive point. For
example, a spit'. Whereas an annotation is a label with a more detailed description or
an explanatory point. For example, 'spit - an extended stretch of beach material
projecting out to sea and joined to the mainland at one end

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