CE3301 Fluid Mechanics Lecture Notes 1

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1.1 FLUID - DEFINITION
Introduction: In general matter can be distinguished by the physical forms known as
solid, liquid, and gas. The liquid and gaseous phases are usually combined and given
a common name of fluid. Solids differ from fluids on account of their molecular
structure (spacing of molecules and ease with which they can move). The
intermolecular forces are large in a solid, smaller in a liquid and extremely small in
gas.
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids at rest or in motion. It has traditionally
been applied in such area as the design of pumps, compressor, design of dam and
canal, design of piping and ducting in chemical plants, the aerodynamics of airplanes
and automobiles. In recent years fluid mechanics is truly a ‘high-tech’ discipline and
many exciting areas have been developed like the aerodynamics of multistory
buildings, fluid mechanics of atmosphere, sports, and micro fluids.
Definition of Fluid: A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the
action of shearing forces, however small they may be. Conversely, it follows that: If a
fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all forces in the
fluid must be perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.
Figure 1.1.1 Deformation of a Solid and a Fluid Exposed to an applied Force

[Source: “https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Fluid_Mechanics_for_Mechanical_Engineers/Introduction”]
Fluid deforms continuously under the action of a shear force
Shear stress in a moving fluid:

Although there can be no shear stress in a fluid at rest, shear stresses are developed
when the fluid is in motion, if the particles of the fluid move relative to each other so
that they have different velocities, causing the original shape of the fluid to become
distorted. If, on the other hand, the velocity of the fluid is same at every point, no
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shear stresses will be produced, since the fluid particles are at rest relative to each
other.
Differences between solids and fluids: The differences between the behaviour of
solids and fluids under an applied force are as follows:
i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress, providing that the elastic
limit is not exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied
stress.
ii. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which the force is applied
and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the force
is removed. A fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and will not
recover its original form when the force is removed.
Differences between liquids and gases:
Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of fluids, they have
many distinctive characteristics of their own. A liquid is difficult to compress and, for
many purposes, may be regarded as incompressible. A given mass of liquid occupies
a fixed volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its container, and a free surface is
formed if the volume of the container is greater than that of the liquid.
A gas is comparatively easy to compress (Fig.1). Changes of volume with pressure
are large, cannot normally be neglected and are related to changes of temperature. A
given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand continuously unless
restrained by a containing vessel. It will completely fill any vessel in which it is
placed and, therefore, does not form a free surface.
Figure 1.1.2 Comparison of Solid, Liquid and Gas

[Source: “https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Fluid_Mechanics_for_Mechanical_Engineers/Introduction”]

1.2 Systems of Units
The official International System of Units (System International Units). Strong

efforts are underway for its universal adoption as the exclusive system for all
engineering and science, but older systems, particularly the CGS and FPS
engineering gravitational systems are still in use and probably will be around for
some time. The chemical engineer finds many physiochemical data given in CGS
units; that many calculations are most conveniently made in fps units; and that SI
units are increasingly encountered in science and engineering. Thus it becomes
necessary to be expert in the use of all three systems.
SI system:
Primary quantities: Derived quantities:
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
Mass in Kilogram kg Force in Newton (1 N = 1 kg.m/s2) N
Length in Meter m Pressure in Pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2) N/m2
Time in Second s or as sec Work, energy in Joule ( 1 J =1 N.m)
J
Temperature in Kelvin K
Power in Watt (1 W = 1 J/s) W
Mole mol
CGS Units:
The older centimeter-gram-second (CGS) system has the following units for
derived quantities:
Quantity Unit
Force in dyne (1 dyn = 1 g.cm/s2) dyn
Work, energy in erg ( 1 erg = 1 dyn.cm = 1 x erg
10-7 J )
Heat Energy in calorie ( 1 cal = 4.184 J) cal

Dimensions: Dimensions of the primary quantities:
Fundamental Symbol
dimension
Length L
Mass M
Time t
Temperature T
Dimensions of derived quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental

dimensions.
Quantity Representative Dimensions

symbol

Angular velocity t-1
Area A L2
Density  M/L3
Force F ML/t2
Kinematic  L2/t
viscosity
Linear velocity v L/t

1.3 FLUID PROPERTIES:
1.Density or Mass density() : Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the
ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is
called density.
The unit of density in S.I. unit is kg/m3. The value of density for water is 1000kg/m.
With the increase in temperature volume of fluid increases and hence mass density
decreases in case of fluids as the pressure increases volume decreases and hence mass
density increases.
2.Specific weight or weight density (): Specific weight or weight density of a fluid
isthe ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. The weight per unit volume of
a fluid is called weight density.
The unit of specific weight in S.I. units is N/m3. The value of specific weight or
weightdensity of water is 9810N/m3.

With increase in temperature volume increases and hence specific weight
decreases.
With increases in pressure volume decreases and hence specific weight increases.
Note: Relationship between mass density and weight density:

3.Specific Volume (  ): Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a
fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid.
As the temperature increases volume increases and hence specific volume increases.
As the pressure increases volume decreases and hence specific volume decreases.
4.Specific Gravity(S): Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density
of afluid to the weight density of a standard fluid.
Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity and has no unit.

In case of liquids water at 4oC is considered as standard liquid. water = 1000 kg/m3
Problem1: Calculate specific weight, mass density, specific volume and specific
gravity of a liquid having a volume of 4m3 and weighing 29.43 kN. Assume missing
data suitably.

Problem2: Calculate specific weight, density, specific volume and specific gravity
and if one liter of Petrol weighs 6.867N.

Problem 3: Specific gravity of a liquid is 0.7 Find i) Mass density ii) specific weight.
Also find the mass and weight of 10 Liters of liquid.

5.Viscosity: Viscosity is the property by virtue of which fluid offers resistance
against the flow or shear deformation. In other words, it is the reluctance of the fluid
to flow. Viscous force is that force of resistance offered by a layer of fluid for the
motion of another layer over it.
In case of liquids, viscosity is due to cohesive force between the molecules of
adjacent layers of liquid. In case of gases, molecular activity between adjacent layers
is the cause of viscosity.
Newton’s law of viscosity:
Let us consider a liquid between the fixed plate and the movable plate at a distance
‘Y’ apart, ‘A’ is the contact area (Wetted area) of the movable plate, ‘F’ is the force
required to move the plate with a velocity ‘U’ According to Newton’s law shear
stress is proportional to shear strain.
Figure 1.3.1 Definition diagram of Liquid viscosity

[Source: “https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Fluid_Mechanics_for_Mechanical_Engineers/fluid Properties”]

‘’ is the constant of proportionality called Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity
or Coefficient of Viscosity or Viscosity of the fluid.
‘’ is the force required; Per Unit area called ‘Shear Stress’. The above equation is
called Newton’s law of viscosity.

Velocity gradient or rate of shear strain:
It is the difference in velocity per unit distance between any two layers.
If the velocity profile is linear then velocity gradient is given by 𝑈/𝑌 . If the velocity
profile is non – linear then it is given by 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦
Unit of force (F): N
 Unit of distance between the twp plates (Y): m
 Unit of velocity (U): m/s
U m/s
 Unit of velocity gradient : = = / s = s-1
Y m
u
 Unit of dynamic viscosity ():  =
y
 Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids:

Pressure has very little or no effect on the viscosity of fluids.
 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of fluids:
❖ Effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids: Viscosity of liquids is due to
cohesive force between the molecules of adjacent layers. As the temperature
increases cohesive force decreases and hence viscosity decreases.
❖ Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases: Viscosity of gases is due to molecular
activity between adjacent layers. As the temperature increases molecular activity
increases and hence viscosity increases.
Kinematics Viscosity: It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mass
density.
Unit of Kinematics Viscosity
 Kinematic Viscosity = m2 / s
NOTE: Unit of kinematics Viscosity in CGS system is cm2/s and is called stoke (S)
If the value of KV is given in stoke, multiply it by 10-4 to convert it into m2/s.

Problem 4: Viscosity of water is 0.01poise. Find its kinematics viscosity if specific
gravity is 0.998.
Problem 5: A Plate at a distance 0.0254mm from a fixed plate moves at 0.61m/s and
requires a force of 1.962N/m2 area of plate. Determine dynamic viscosity of liquid
between the plates.

Problem 6 : A plate having an area of 1m2 is dragged down an inclined plane at 450
to horizontal with a velocity of 0.5m/s due to its own weight. Three is a cushion of
liquid 1mm thick between the inclined plane and the plate. If viscosity of oil is 0.1
PaS find the weight of the plate.

Problem 7: A flat plate is sliding at a constant velocity of 5 m/s on a large horizontal
table. A thin layer of oil (of absolute viscosity = 0.40 N-s/m2) separates the plate from
the table. Calculate the thickness of the oil film (mm) to limit the shear stress in the
oil layer to 1 kPa.
Problem 8: A shaft of  20mm and mass 15kg slides vertically in a sleeve with a
velocity of 5 m/s. The gap between the shaft and the sleeve is 0.1mm and is filled
with oil. Calculate the viscosity of oil if the length of the shaft is 500mm.

Problem 9 : If the equation of velocity profile over 2 plate is V= 2y 2/3 in which ‘V’ is
the velocity in m/s and ‘y’ is the distance in ‘m’ . Determine shear stress at (i) y = 0
(ii) y = 75mm. Take  = 8.35P.
a. at y = 0
b. at y = 75mm
= 75 x 10-3m
Problem 10 : A circular disc of 0.3m dia and weight 50 N is kept on an inclined

surface with a slope of 450. The space between the disc and the surface is 2 mm and
is filled with oil of dynamics viscosity 1N/Sm2.What force will be required to pull
the disk up the inclined plane with a velocity of 0.5m/s.

Problem 10 : Two large surfaces are 2.5 cm apart. This space is filled with glycerin
of absolute viscosity 0.82 NS/m2. Find what force is required to drag a plate of area
0.5m2 between the two surfaces at a speed of 0.6m/s. (i) When the plate is equidistant
from the surfaces, (ii) when the plate is at 1cm from one of the surfaces.

Let F1 be the force required to overcome viscosity resistance of liquid above

the plate and F2 be the force required to overcome viscous resistance of liquid below
the plate. In this case F1 = F2. Since the liquid is same on either side or the plate is
equidistant from the surfaces.

Total force required to drag the plate =F1 +F2 = 19.68+19.68

F= 39.36N
Case (ii) when the plate is at 1cm from one of the surfaces
Here F1 ≠F2
F/A=49.2
F1=49.2x0.5
F1=24.6N
F2 /A=32.8
F2=32.8x0.5
F2=16.4N
Total Force F = F1 + F2 = 24.6 + 16.4
F = 41N
6.Capillarity :
Capillarity is the phenomena by which liquids will rise or fall in a tube of small
diameter dipped in them. Capillarity is due to cohesion adhesion and surface tension
of liquids. If adhesion is more than cohesion then there will be capillary rise. If
cohesion is greater than adhesion then will be capillary fall or depression. The surface
tensile force supports capillary rise or depression.

Figure 1.3.2 Capillarity

Problem 11 : Capillary tube having an inside diameter 5mm is dipped in water at 20 0.

Determine the heat of water which will rise in tube. Take  =0.0736N/m at 200 C.
Problem 12 : Calculate capillary rise in a glass tube when immersed in Hg at 200C.

Assume  for Hg at 200C as 0.51N/m. The diameter of the tube is 5mm.  = 1300c.

Problem 13: Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters a glass tube of 4mm
diameter, when immersed in (a) water (b) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is
200 C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20 0 C in contact
with air are 0.073575 and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of contact for water is
zero that for mercury 1300. Take specific weight of water as 9790 N / m3..
Capillary effect for water
Capillary effect for mercury:
7.Surface Tension:
Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface between two two immiscible liquids such that the
contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension
Excess Pressure inside a Water Droplet:
Pressure inside a Liquid droplet: Liquid droplets tend to assume a spherical shape
since a sphere has the smallest surface area per unit volume.
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using a free-body diagram of a
spherical shape of radius R cut in half, as shown in Figure below and the force
developed around the edge of the cut sphere is 2R. This force must be balance with
the difference between the internal pressure pi and the external pressure p acting on
the circular area of the cut. Thus,
Figure 1.3.3 Surface Tension inside a Water Droplet

The excess pressure within a Soap bubble:

The fact that air has to be blown into a drop of soap solution to make a bubble should
suggest that the pressure within the bubble is greater than that outside. This is in fact
the case: this excess pressure creates a force that is just balanced by the inward pull of
the soap film of the bubble due to its surface tension.
Figure 1.3.4 Surface Tension within a Soap bubble

Consider a soap bubble of radius r as shown in Figure 1. Let the external pressure be
Po and the internal pressure P1. The excess pressure P within the bubble is therefore
given by: Excess pressure P = (P1 – P0)
Consider the left-hand half of the bubble. The force acting from right to left due to
the internal excess pressure can be shown to be PA, where A is the area of a section
through the centre of the bubble. If the bubble is in equilibrium this force is balanced
by a force due to surface tension acting from left to right. This force is 2x2πr (the
factor of 2 is necessary because the soap film has two sides) where ‘ ’ is the
coefficient of surface tension of the soap film. Therefore
2x2πr = pA = pπr2 giving:
Excess pressure in a soap bubble (P) = 4/r
8.Compressibility:
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K which is defined
as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
Bulk Modulus (K):

When a solid or fluid (liquid or gas) is subjected to a uniform pressure all over
the surface, such that the shape remains the same, then there is a change in volume.
Then the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain within the elastic limits is
called as Bulk modulus. This is denoted by K.
where p = increase in pressure; V = original volume; V = change in volume

The negative sign shows that with increase in pressure p, the volume decreases by V
i.e. if p is positive, V is negative. The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called
compressibility.
S.I. unit of compressibility is N–1m2 and C.G.S. unit is dyne–1 cm2.

Problem 13: The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 N/m.
The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2 greater than the outside
pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water.
Problem 14: Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40mm diameter when
inside pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above the atmosphere.
9.Vapour Pressure
Vapour pressure is a measure of the tendency of a material to change into the gaseous
or vapour state, and it increases with temperature. The temperature at which the
vapour pressure at the surface of a liquid becomes equal to the pressure exerted by
the surroundings is called the boiling point of the liquid.
Vapor pressure is important to fluid flows because, in general, pressure in a flow
decreases as velocity increases. This can lead to cavitation, which is generally
destructive and undesirable. In particular, at high speeds the local pressure of a liquid
sometimes drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid. In such a case, cavitation
occurs. In other words, a "cavity" or bubble of vapor appears because the liquid
vaporizes or boils at the location where the pressure dips below the local vapor
pressure.

Cavitation is not desirable for several reasons. First, it causes noise (as the
cavitation bubbles collapse when they migrate into regions of higher pressure).
Second, it can lead to inefficiencies and reduction of heat transfer in pumps and
turbines (turbo machines). Finally, the collapse of these cavitation bubbles causes
pitting and corrosion of blades and other surfaces nearby. The left figure below
shows a cavitating propeller in a water tunnel, and the right figure shows cavitation
damage on a blade.
Figure 1.3.5 Vapour Pressure

[Source: “https://www.hkdivedi.com/2017/12/vapour-pressure-and-cavitation.html”]

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1.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS BY MANOMETERS
MANOMETER
A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure,

although the term is currently often used to mean any pressure instrument.
Two types of manometer, such as
1. Simple manometer
2. Differential manometer
The U type manometer, which is considered as a primary pressure standard, derives

pressure utilizing the following equation:
Where:
P = Differential pressure
P1 = Pressure applied to the low pressure connection
P2 = Pressure applied to the high pressure connection
= is the height differential of the liquid columns between the two legs of the
manometer
ρ = mass density of the fluid within the columns

g = acceleration of gravity
SIMPLE MANOMETER
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point
where pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common
types of simple manometers are:
1.Piezometer
2.U tube manometer
3.Single Column manometer

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PIEZOMETER
A piezometer is either a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by measuring

the height to which a column of the liquid rises against gravity, or a device which
measures the pressure (more precisely, the piezometric head) of groundwater at a specific
point. A piezometer is designed to measure static pressures, and thus differs from a pitot
tube by not being pointed into the fluid flow.
Figure 1.5.1 Piezometer

[Source: “Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Machines” by Dr.R.K.Bansal, Page: 43]
U TUBE MANOMETER
Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure the
difference in pressure between two points or between a certain point and the
atmosphere.
Manometer is needed for measuring large gauge pressures. It is basically the modified
form of the piezometric tube.

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Figure 1.5.2 U Tube Manometer

Single Column Manometer
Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which one side
is a large reservoir and the other side is a small tube, open to the atmosphere.
There are two types of single column manometer:
1. Vertical single column manometer.
2. Inclined single column manometer.

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1.Vertical single column Manometer
Figure 1.5.3 Vertical single column Manometer

A>> a
Then:

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2. Inclined single column Manometer
This manometer is more sensitive. Due to the inclination the distance moved by the
heavy liquid in the right limb will be more.
Figure 1.5.4 Inclined single column Manometer

From the eq.
By substituting the value of h2, We get:
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
Differential Manometers are devices used for measuring the difference of pressure
between two points in a pipe or in two different pipes . A differential manometer
consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the
points, which difference of pressure is to be measure.
Most commonly types of differential manometers are:
1.U-tube differential manometer.
2.Inverted U-tube differential manometer

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1.U-tube differential Manometer
Figure 1.5.5 U-tube differential Manometer


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2.Inverted U-tube differential Manometer
It consists of inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are
connected to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for
measuring differences of low pressures.
Figure 1.5.6 Inverted U-tube differential Manometer

Problem1:The right limb of a simple U – tube manometer containing mercury is

open to the atmosphere, while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of
sp.gr.0.9 is flowing. The centre of pipe is 12cm below the level of mercury in the
right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe, if the difference of mercury level in
the two limbs is 20 cm.
Given, Sp.gr. of liquid S1= 0.9
Density of fluid 𝜌1 = S1 × 1000 = 0.9 × 1000

=900 kg/ m 3
Sp.gr. of mercury S2 = 13.6
Density of mercury 𝜌2 =13.6× 1000 = 13600

kg/m3 CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS
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Difference of mercury level h2 = 20cm = 0.2m
Height of the fluid from A – A h1 = 20 – 12 = 8cm = 0.08 m
Let ‘P’ be the pressure of fluid in pipe
Equating pressure at A – A, we get p + 𝜌1gh1 = 𝜌2gh2
p + 900 × 9.81 × 0.08 = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2
p = 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.2 – 900 × 9.81 × 0.08
p = 26683 – 706
p = 25977 N/m2
p = 2.597 N/cm2
Pressure of fluid = 2.597 N/ cm2

Problem2: A simple U – tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in
which a fluid of sp.gr. 0.8 And having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the
manometer is open to atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of
mercury level in the two limbs is 40cm. and the height of the fluid in the left tube from
the centre of pipe is 15cm below.
Given,
Sp.gr of fluid S1 = 0.8
Sp.gr. of mercury S2 = 13.6
Density of the fluid = S1 × 1000 = 0.8 × 1000 = 800
Density of mercury = 13.6 × 1000

Difference of mercury level h2 = 40cm = 0.4m
Height of the liquid in the left limb = 15cm =0.15m
Let the pressure in the pipe = p
Equating pressures above datum line A—A
𝜌2gh2 + 𝜌1gh1 + P = 0
P = - [𝜌2gh2 + 𝜌1gh1] = - [13.6 ×1000 × 9.81 × 0.4 + 800 × 9.81 × 0.15]
= 53366.4 + 1177.2 = -54543.6 N/m2

P = - 5.454 N/cm2

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Problem 3: A single column manometer is connected to the pipe containing liquid of

sp.gr.0.9. Find the pressure in the pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100 times the area
of the tube of manometer. sp.gr. of mercury is 13.6. Height of the liquid from the centre
of pipe is 20cm and difference in level of mercury is 40cm.
Given,
Sp.gr. of liquid in pipe S1 = 0.9
Density 𝜌1= 900 kg/ m 3
Sp.gr. of heavy liquid S2 = 13.6
Density 𝜌2= 13600
Height of the liquid h1 = 20cm = 0.2m
Rise of mercury in the right limb h2 = 40cm = 0.4m
Pressure in pipe A= 5.21 N/ cm2
Problem 4: A pipe contains an oil of sp.gr.0.9. A differential manometer is connected at

the two points A and B shows a difference in mercury level at 15cm. find the difference
of pressure at the two points.
Given:
Sp.gr. of oil S1 = 0.9: density 𝜌1 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/ m 3
Difference of level in the mercury h = 15cm = 0.15 m
Sp.gr. of mercury = 13.6, Density = 13.6 × 1000 = 13600 kg/m3
The difference of pressure pA – pB = g × h × (𝜌𝑔 - 𝜌1)
= 9.81 x 0.15 (13600 – 900)

pA – pB = 18688 N/ m2

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Problem 5: A differential manometer is connected at two points A and B .At B air

pressure is 9.81 N/cm2 . Find absolute pressure at A.
Given:
Density of air = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Density of mercury = 13.6 × 103 kg/ m3.

Let pressure at A is pA
Taking datum as X – X
Pressure above X – X in the right limb
= 1000 × 9.81 × 0.6 + pB = 5886 + 98100 = 103986
Pressure above X – X in the left limb
= 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.1 +0900 × 9.81 × 0.2 + pA
= 13341.6 +1765.8 +pA

Equating the two pressures heads
103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + pA

= 15107.4 + pA
pA = 103986 – 15107.4
= 88878.6 N/m2
pA = 8.887 N/cm
Problem 6: Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted
differential manometer having an oil of sp.gr. 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in the
pipe A is 2m of water. Find the pressure in the pipe B for the manometer readings
shown in fig.

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Given:
Pressure below X – X in the left limb
= pA - 𝜌1gh1
= 19620 – 1000 × 9.81 × 0.3
= 16677 N/m2
Pressure below X – X in the right limb

= pB – 1000 × 9.81 × 0.1 – 800 × 9.81 × 0.12
= pB – 981 – 941.76 = pB – 1922.76
Equating the two pressures, we get,
16677 = pB - 1922.76
pB = 16677 + 1922.76
pB = 18599.76 N/m2
Problem 7: A different manometer is connected at two points A and B of two pipes.
The pipe A contains liquid of sp.gr. = 1.5 while pipe B contains liquid of sp.gr. = 0.9.
The pressures at A and B are 1 kgf/cm2 and 1.80 Kg f/cm2 respectively. Find the
difference in mercury level in the differential manometer.

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Sp.gr. of liquid at A S1 = 1.5
Sp.gr. of liquid at B S2 == 0.9
Pressure at A pA= 1 kgf/c m2 = 1 × 104 × kg/m2 = 1 × 104 × 9.81N/m2
Pressure at B pB = 1.8 kgf/cm2 = 1.8 × 104 × 9.81 N/m2 [1kgf = 9.81 N]
Density of mercury = 13.6 × 1000 kg/m3
Taking X – X as datum line
Pressure above X – X in left limb
= 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × h + 1500 × 9.81(2+3) + (9.81 x 104 )
Pressure above X – X in the right limb = 900 × 9.81(h + 2) + 1.8 × 9.81 × 104
Equating the two pressures, we get
13.6 × 1000 × 9.81h + 1500 × 9.81 × 5 + 9.81 × 104 = 900 × 9.81(h + 2) + 1.8 × 9.81 × 104
Dividing both sides by 1000 × 9.81
13.6 h + 7.5 +10 = 0.9(h+2) + 18
(13.6 – 0.9) h = 1.8 + 18 – 17.5 = 19.8 – 17.5 =2.3
h = 2.3 / 12.7 = 0.181m
h = 18.1 cm

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1.5 BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION
Buoyancy or buoyancy force

When a body is immersed in fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body.
This force will be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and this force
will be termed as force of buoyancy or buoyancy.
Let us consider we have one container filled with water as displayed here in following
figure. We have one object of weight 7 N. Let us think that we are now immersing the
object in to the liquid i.e. water.
Once object will be immersed in the water, some amount of water will be displaced by
the object and one upward force will be applied over the object by the water.
Weight of the displaced water will be equal to this upward force which will be exerted
by the water on the object. As we can see from above figure that, water of weight 3N is
displaced here and one upward force of 3N is exerted by the water over the object.
Conclusion for buoyancy force
Buoyancy force is the force which will be exerted on the object by the surrounding
fluid. When one object will be immersed in the water, object will push the water and
water will push back the object with as much force as it can.
Force of buoyancy = Weight of the displaced fluid
Force of buoyancy = Weight of the object in air – Weight of the object in given water
Positive buoyancy
Force of buoyancy will be greater than the weight of the object. Hence, object will float
and this case will be termed as positive buoyancy.

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Neutral buoyancy
Force of buoyancy will be equal to the weight of the object. Hence, object will be
suspended in the fluid and this case will be termed as neutral buoyancy.
Negative buoyancy
Force of buoyancy will be less than the weight of the object. Hence, object will be sunk
and this case will be termed as negative buoyancy.
Centre of buoyancy
As we know that when a body is immersed in fluid, an upward force is exerted by the
fluid on the body. This force will be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body and this force will be termed as force of buoyancy or buoyancy.
Buoyancy force will act through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid and that
point i.e. centre of gravity of the displaced fluid will be termed as centre of buoyancy.
Therefore we can define the term centre of buoyancy as the point through which the
force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
Centre of buoyancy = Centre of gravity of the displaced fluid = Centre of gravity of the
portion of the body immersed in the liquid
Let us explain the term centre of buoyancy

Let us consider one vessel as displayed here in following figure. Weight of vessel will
be distributed throughout the length of vessel and will act downward over the entire
structure of vessel.
But, what do we consider?
We consider that complete weight of the vessel will act downward vertically through
one point and that point will be termed as the centre of gravity of that vessel.
In similar way, buoyancy force will be supposed to act vertically in upward direction
through a single point and that point will be termed as centre of buoyancy.

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Meta-centre
Meta-centre is basically defined as the point about which a body in stable equilibrium
will start to oscillate when body will be displaced by an angular displacement.
We can also define the meta-centre as the point of intersection of the axis of body
passing through the centre of gravity and original centre of buoyancy and a vertical line
passing through the centre of buoyancy of the body in tilted position.
Let us consider a body which is floating in the liquid. Let us assume that body is in
equilibrium condition. Let us think that G is the centre of gravity of the body and B is
the centre of buoyancy of the body when body is in equilibrium condition.
Figure 1.7.1 Meta-centre

In equilibrium situation, centre of gravity G and centre of buoyancy B will lie on same
axis which is displayed here in above figure with a vertical line.
Let us assume that we have given an angular displacement to the body in clockwise
direction as displayed here in above figure.
Centre of buoyancy will be shifted now towards right side from neutral axis and let us
assume that it is now B1.
Line of action of buoyancy force passing through this new position will intersect the
normal axis passing through the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy in original

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position of the body at a point M as displayed here in above figure. Where, M is the
meta-centre.
Meta-centric height
Meta-centric height is basically defined as the distance between the meta-centre of the
floating body and the centre of gravity of the body.
Therefore, MG in above figure will be termed as meta-centric height.

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2.1 FLUID KINEMATICS
Kinematics is defined as a branch of science which deals with motion of particles

without considering the forces causing the motion. The velocity at any point in a flow
field at any time is studied in this. Once the velocity is known, then the pressure
distribution and hence the forces acting on the fluid can be determined.
Stream line: A stream line is an imaginary line drawn in a flow field such that the
tangent drawn at any point on this line represents the direction of velocity vector. From
the definition it is clear that there can be no flow across stream line. Considering a
particle moving along a stream line for a very short distance ‘ds’ having its components
dx , dy and dz, along three mutually perpendicular co-ordinate axes. Let the
components of velocity vector Vs along x, y and z directions be u, v and w respectively.
The time taken by the fluid particle to move a distance ‘ds’ along the stream line with a
velocity Vs is:
Hence the differential equation of the steam line

may be written as:
Path line: A path line is locus of a fluid particle

as it moves along. In other words a path line is a
curve traced by a single fluid particle during its
motion. A stream line at time t1 indicating the
velocity vectors for particles A and B. At times
t2and t3 the particle A occupies the successive
positions. The line containing these various
positions of A represents its Path line
Streak line: When a dye is injected in a liquid or smoke in a gas, so as to trace the
subsequent motion of fluid particles passing a fixed point, the path fallowed by dye or
smoke is called the streak line. Thus the streak line connects all particles passing
through a given point.
In steady flow, the stream line remains fixed with respect to co-ordinate axes. Stream
lines in steady flow also represent the path lines and streak lines. In unsteady flow, a
fluid particle will not, in general, remain on the same stream line (except for unsteady
uniform flow). Hence the stream lines and path lines do not coincide in unsteady non-
uniform flow.

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Instantaneous stream line: in a fluid motion which is independent of time, the position
of stream line is fixed in space and a fluid particle fallowing a stream line will continue
to do so. In case of time dependent flow, a fluid particle fallows a stream line for only a
short interval of time, before changing over to another stream line. The stream lines in
such cases are not fixed in space, but change with time. The position of a stream line at
a given instant of time is known as Instantaneous stream line. For different instants of
time, we shall have different Instantaneous stream lines in the same space. The Stream
line, Path line and the streak line are one and the same, if the flow is steady.
Stream tube: If stream lines are drawn through a closed curve, they form a boundary
surface across which fluid cannot penetrate. Such a surface bounded by stream lines is
known as Stream tube.
From the definition of stream tube, it is evident that

no fluid can cross the bounding surface of the
stream tube. This implies that the quantity of fluid
entering the stream tube at one end must be the
same as the quantity leaving at the other end. The
Stream tube is assumed to be a small cross-sectional
area, so that the velocity over it could be considered
uniform.

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2.2 CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF FLOW
The fluid flow is classified as:
i) Steady and unsteady flows.
ii) Uniform and Non-uniform flows.
iii) Laminar and Turbulent flows.
iv) Compressible and incompressible flows.
v) Rotational and Ir-rotational flows.

vi) One, Two and Three dimensional flows.
i) Steady and Un-steady flows: Steady flow is defined as the flow in which the fluid
characteristics like velocity, pressure, density etc. at a point do not change with time.
Un-Steady flow is the flow in which the velocity, pressure, density at a point changes
with respect to time. Thus for un-steady flow, we have
ii) Uniform and Non-uniform flows: Uniform flow is defined as the flow in which the
velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space. ( i.e. the length of
direction of flow )
For uniform flow
Where 𝜕𝑉 = Change of velocity
𝜕s = Length of flow in the direction of – S
Non-uniform is the flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect to
space.
For Non-uniform flow

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iii) Laminar and turbulent flow: Laminar flow is defined as the flow in which the fluid
particles move along well-defined paths or stream line and all the stream lines are
straight and parallel. Thus the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over
the adjacent layer. This type of flow is also called streamline flow or viscous flow.
Turbulent flow is the flow in which the fluid particles move in a zigzag way. Due to the
movement of fluid particles in a zigzag way, the eddies formation takes place, which
are responsible for high energy loss. For a pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by
a non- Dimensional number (VD/v) called the Reynolds number.
Where D = Diameter of pipe.
V = Mean velocity of flow in pipe.
𝑣 = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.

If the Reynolds number is lessthan2000, the flow is called Laminar flow.
If the Reynolds number is more than 4000, it is called Turbulent flow.
If the Reynolds number is between 2000 and 4000 the flow may be Laminar or
Turbulent flow.
iv) Compressible and Incompressible flows: Compressible flow is the flow in which
the density of fluid changes from point to point or in other words the density is not
constant for the fluid.
For compressible flow ρ ≠ Constant.
In compressible flow is the flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow.
Liquids are generally incompressible, while the gases are compressible.
For incompressible flow ρ = Constant.
v) Rotational and Irrotational flows: Rotational flow is a type of flow in which the
fluid particles while flowing along stream lines also rotate about their own axis. And if
the fluid particles, while flowing along stream lines, do not rotate about their own axis,
the flow is called Ir-rotational flow.
vi) One, Two and Three – dimensional flows:
One dimensional flow is a type of flow in which flow parameter such as velocity is a
function of time and one space co-ordinate only, say ‘x’. For a steady one- dimensional
flow, the velocity is a function of one space co-ordinate only. The variation of velocities
in other two mutually perpendicular directions is assumed negligible.
Hence for one dimensional flow u = f(x), v = 0 and w = 0
Where u, v and w are velocity components in x, y and z directions respectively.

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Two – dimensional flow is the type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time
and two space co-ordinates, say x and y. For a steady two-dimensional flow the velocity
is a function of two space co-ordinates only. The variation of velocity in the third
direction is negligible.
Thus for two dimensional flow u = f1 (x, y), v = f2 (x, y) and w = 0.
Three – dimensional flow is the type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time
and three mutually perpendicular directions. But for a steady three-dimensional flow,
the fluid parameters are functions of three space co-ordinates (x, y, and z) only.
Thus for three- dimensional flow u = f1 (x, y, z), v = f2 (x, y, z), z = f3 (x, y, z).

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2.3 EULER'S EQUATION ALONG A STREAMLINE - BERNOULLI'S

EQUATION – APPLICATIONS
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
In this equation of motion the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken in to
consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of the fluid element along a
streamline as:
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in s- direction. Consider a
cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length ds.
The forces acting on the cylindrical element

are:
1. Pressure force p dA in the direction of flow.
3. Weight of element 𝜌 g dA.ds
Let 𝜃 is the angle between the direction of flow

and the line of action of the weight of the
element.
The resultant force on the fluid element in the

direction of S must be equal to the mass of fluid
element× acceleration in the direction of s.
Whereas is the acceleration in the direction of s.
Substituting the value of as in equation (1) and simplifying, we get

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∴ This equation is known as Euler”s equation of motion.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FROM EULER’S EQUATION

Bernoulli‟s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler‟s equation of motion as
The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli‟s equation.
i. The fluid is ideal. i.e. Viscosity is zero.
ii. The flow is steady.

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iii. The flow is incompressible.

iv. The flow is irrotational.
PROBLEM 1. Water is flowing through a pipe of 5cm dia. Under a pressure of

29.43N/cm2 and with mean velocity of 2 m/sec. find the total head or total energy per
unit weight of water at a cross-section, which is 5m above datum line.
PROBLEM 2. A pipe through which water is flowing is having diameters 20cms and
10cms at cross- sections 1 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is 4
m/sec. Find the velocity head at section 1 and 2 and also rate of discharge?
Given: D1 = 20cms = 0.2m
i) Velocity head at section 1
ii) Velocity head at section 2

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To find V2, apply continuity equation

A1 V1 = A2 V2
Velocity head at section 2
iii) Rate of discharge

Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
= 0.0314 ×4 = 0.1256 m3/sec
Q = 125.6 Liters/sec
PROBLEM 3. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20cms and 10cms at
sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 liters/sec. The section
1 is 6m above the datum and section 2 is 4m above the datum. If the pressure at section
1 is 39.24N/cm2. Find the intensity of pressure at section 2?
Given: At section 1 D1 = 20cm =0.2m

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PROBLEM 4.Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300mm and 200mm at
the bottom and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is
24.525N/cm2 and the pressure at the upper end is 9.81N/cm2. Determine the difference
in datum head if the rate of flow through is 40lit/sec?
Applying Bernoulli‟s equation at sections 1 and 2

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PROBLEM 5.The water is flowing through a taper pipe of length 100m having
diameters 600mm at the upper end and 300mm at the lower end, at the rate of 50lts/sec.
the pipe has a slope of 1 in 30. Find the pressure at the lower end, if the pressure at the
higher level is 19.62N/cm2?
Given: Length of pipe L = 100m

Dia. At the upper end D1 = 600mm = 0.6m
Dia. at the lower end D2 = 300mm = 0.3m
Let the datum line is passing through the centre of the lower end. Then Z2 = o
Applying Bernoulli‟s equation at sections 1 and 2

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2.5 LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
It is based on the law of conservation of momentum or on the momentum principle,

which states that the net force acting on a fluid mass equal to the change in the
momentum of the flow per unit time in that direction. The force acting on a fluid mass „
m „ is given by Newton’s second law of motion.
F=m×a
Where ‘a’ is the acceleration acting in the same direction as force
F. dt = d(mv) Is known as the impulse momentum equation.

It states that the impulse of a force F acting on a fluid mass m in a short interval of time
dt is equal to the change of momentum d(mv) in the direction of force.
Force exerted by a flowing fluid on a pipe-bend:
Figure 2.7.1 Forces on Bend

The impulse momentum equation is used to determine the resultant force exerted by a
flowing fluid on a pipe bend.
Consider two sections (1) and (2) as above Let v1 = Velocity of flow at section (1)
P1= Pressure intensity at section (1)
A1 = Area of cross-section of pipe at section (1)

And V2, P2, A2 are corresponding values of Velocity, Pressure, Area at section (2)

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Let Fx and Fy be the components of the forces exerted by the flowing fluid on the bend
in x and y directions respectively. Then the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the
directions of x and y will be equal to FX and FY but in the opposite directions.
Hence the component of the force exerted by the bend on the fluid in the x – direction =
- Fx and in the direction of y = - Fy. The other external forces acting on the fluid are p1
A1 and p2 A2 on the sections (1) and (2) respectively.
Then the momentum equation in x-direction is given by
Net force acting on the fluid in the direction of x = Rate of change of momentum in x –
direction
p1 A1 – p2 A2 Cos 𝜃 - Fx = (Mass per second) (Change of velocity)
= 𝜌 Q (Final velocity in x-direction – Initial velocity in x-direction)

= 𝜌 Q (V2 Cos 𝜃 - V1)
Fx = 𝜌 Q (V1 - V2 Cos 𝜃) + p1 A1 – p2 A2 Cos 𝜃----------------- (1)
Similarly the momentum equation in y-direction gives
0 - p2 A2 Sin 𝜃 - Fy = 𝜌 Q (V2 Sin 𝜃 - 0)
Fy = 𝜌 Q (-V2 Sin 𝜃) - p2 A2 Sin 𝜃----------------------- (2)
Now the resultant force (FR) acting on the bend
FR = 𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2
And the angle made by the resultant force with the horizontal direction is given by
PROBLEM 1.A 45° reducing bend is connected to a pipe line, the diameters at inlet
and out let of the bend being 600mm and 300mm respectively. Find the force exerted
by the water on the bend, if the intensity of pressure at the inlet to the bend is
8.829N/cm2 and rate of flow of water is 600 lts/sec.

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3.1 DIMENSIONS ANALYSIS : INTRODUCTION

Dimensional analysis.
Dimensional analysis is defined as a mathematical technique used in research work
for design and conducting model tests.
It is particularly useful for:
✓ presenting and interpreting experimental data;
✓ attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution;
✓ checking equations;
✓ establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena
✓ physical modelling.
Fundamental dimensions
The fundamental units quantities such as length (L), mass (M), and time (T) are
fixed dimensions known as fundamental dimensions.
Units.
Unit is defined as a yardstick to measure physical quantities like distance, area,
volume, mass etc.
Derive the dimensions for velocity.

Velocity is the distance (L) travelled per unit time (T)
Velocity = Distance/ Time = [L/T] = LT-1.

Dimensions of Derived Quantities.
Dimensions of common derived mechanical quantities are given in the following table.
TABLE 3.1.1 Dimensions of Derived Quantities

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DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each terms in an equation on both
sides are the same.
If the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation are the same the equation is
known as dimensionally homogeneous equation.
Example:
It is a dimensionally homogeneous equation.

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3.2 Methods of Dimensions Analysis

If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the
relation among the variables can be determined by the following two methods.
• Reyleigh’s method
• Buckingham’s Pi-theorem
Reyleigh’s method
This method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon
maximum three or four variables only. If the number of independent variables is more
than five then it becomes difficult to find expression for dependent variable.
Where K is a constant and a,b,c are the arbitrary powers

Buckingham’s Pi-theorem
If there are n variables (independent and dependent) in a physical phenomenon and these
variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M,L,T) then the variables are arranged into
(n-m) dimensionless terms. Each term is called  term.
Let X1, X2,X3 − − − − − − − −Xn , , are the variables involved in a physical problem. Let
X1 be the dependent variable and X2, X3 − − − − − − − −Xn , are independent variable
upon which X1 depends.
Equation (i) is dimensionally homogeneous equation. It contains n variables. If there are

m fundamental dimensions then according to Buckingham’  − Theorem, eqn.(i) can be
written in terms of number of dimensionless groups or  − terms in which number of  −
terms is equal to (n-m). Hence eqn.(i) becomes
Each  term is dimensionless and independent of the system. Division or multiplication

by a constant does not change the character of the  − term. Each  − term contains m+1
variables, where m is number of fundamental dimensions and is also called repeating
variables. Let in the above case X2, X3 ,X4 are repeating variables if fundamental
dimension m (M, L, T) = 3 then each  − term is written as

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Each term is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and values of a1 ,b1 ,c1
etc are obtained. These values are substituted in the eqn. (iii) and values of 1  2  3 − −
− − − − − n−m , , are obtained. These values are substituted in eqn. (ii). The final equation
for the phenomenon is obtained by expressing any one of the  − terms as a function of
others as
Method of selecting repeating variable:
1. As far as possible dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
2. Repeating variables should be selected in such a way that one variable contains
geometric property (such as length l , diameter d, height H etc), other variable contains
flow properties (such as velocity, acceleration etc.) and the third variable contains fluid
properties (such as viscosity, density etc)
3. Selected repeating variable should not form dimensionless group.
4. Repeating variables together must have same number of fundamental dimensions.

5. No two repeating variables should have the same dimension. For most of the fluid
mechanics problems the choice for the repeating variable may be
(i) d, , (ii) l, , (iii) l, , (iv) d, ,
PROBLEM 1: A partially submerged body is towed in water. The resistance R to its

motion depends on the density  , viscosity  of water, length L of the body, velocity V
of the body and acceleration g due to gravity. Show that the resistance to the motion can
be expressed in the form of
Soln. The resistance R depends on ,,L,V, g

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There are 5 unknowns and 3 equations. Expressing the three unknowns in terms of two
unknowns ( and g) . Hence express a, c and d in terms of b and e. Solving we get
PROBLEM 2: The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be

considered as dependent upon the length of the aircraft L, velocity V, air viscosity μ, air
density , and bulk modulus of air k. Express the functional relationship between the
variables and the resisting force.

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PROBLEM 3:Using Buckingham’  − Theorem show that velocity through circular

orifice is given by
where H is head causing flow, D is diameter of the orifice,  is coefficient viscosity, 

is mass density and g is acceleration due to gravity

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3.3 DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS
In fluid mechanics, Dimensionless numbers or non-dimensional numbers are those which

are useful to determine the flow characteristics of a fluid. Inertia force always exists if
there is any mass in motion. Dividing this inertia force with other forces like viscous
force, gravity force, surface tension, elastic force, or pressure force, gives us the
dimensionless numbers.
Dimensionless Numbers in Fluid Mechanics
Some important dimensionless numbers used in fluid mechanics and their importance is
explained below.
1. Reynolds Number
2. Froude Number
3. Weber Number
4. Mach Number
5. Euler’s Number
1. Reynolds number
Reynolds number is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force. It describes the
predominance of inertia forces to the viscous forces occurring in the flow systems.
Where,
µ = viscosity of fluid (kg/m.s)
d = diameter of pipe (m)

v = velocity of flow (m/s)
Importance
Reynolds number is applicable for closed surface flows as well as for free surface
flows. Some applications where Reynolds number is significant for finding the flow
behavior are incompressible flow through small pipes, the motion of a submarine
completely under water, flow through low-speed turbomachines, etc.

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2. Froude number
Froude number is the ratio of inertia force to the gravitational force. Froude number is
significant in case of free surface flows where the gravitational force is predominant
compared to other forces.
Where,
L = length of flow (m)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Importance
Froude number is useful to describe the flow in open channels, flow over notches and
weirs, the motion of a ship in turbulent sea conditions (ship resistance), flow over
spillways, etc.
3. Weber number
Weber number is the ratio of inertia force to the surface tension. The formation of
droplets or water bubbles in a fluid is normally due to surface tension. If Weber number
is small, surface tension is larger and vice versa.
Applications
Weber number is less than 1 when surface tension is predominant. It happens when the
curvature of the liquid surface is small compared to its depth. This can be seen in
different situations such as the flow of blood in veins and arteries, atomization of
liquids, capillary flow of water in soils, thin layers of fluid passing over surface, etc.
4. Mach number
Mach number is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force. If the Mach number is one,
then the flow velocity is equal to the velocity of sound in the fluid. If it is less than one,
then the flow is called subsonic flow, and if it is greater than one the flow is called
supersonic flow.

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Where,
v = Velocity of flow (m/s)
c = Velocity of sound in fluid (m/s)
Applications
Mach number is useful to describe problems in high flow velocities. It is also used in
aerodynamics to describe the speed of jet plane or missile in terms of speed of sound.
5. Euler’s number
Euler number is the ratio of pressure force to the inertia force.
Where,
F = pressure force
L = Characteristic length of flow (m)
Applications
Euler’s number is significant in cases where pressure gradient exists such as flow
through pipes, water hammer pressure in penstocks, discharge through orifices and
mouthpieces, etc.

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3.4 MODEL STUDIES
Model: Model is the small scale replica of the actual structure or machine. It is not
necessary that models should be smaller than the prototypes (although in most of the
cases it is), they may be larger than the prototypes.
Prototype: The actual structure or machine

Model analysis: Model analysis is the study of models of actual machine.
Advantages:
• The performance of the machine can be easily predicted, in advance.
• With the help of dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables influencing
a flow problem in terms of dimensional parameters is obtained. This relationship helps
in conducting tests on the model.
• The merits of alternative designs can be predicted with the help of model testing. The
most economical and safe design may be, finally, adopted.
Type of forces acting in the moving fluid
Inertial force: it is equal to the mass and acceleration of the moving fluid.
Viscous force: it is equal to the shear stress due to viscosity and surface area of the
flow.It present in the flow problems where viscosity is having an important role to play.
Gravity force: product of mass and acceleration due to gravity.
Pressure force: product of pressure intensity and flow area.
Surface tension force: product of surface tension and the length of the surface of the
flowing fluid.
Elastic force: product of elastic stress and area of the flow.

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Classification of model
• Undistorted models: are those models which are geometrically similar to their
prototype. In other words the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its
prototype are the same.
• Distorted models: are those models which are geometrically not similar to its
prototype. In other words the scale ratio for the linear dimensions of the model and its
prototype are not same.
For example river: If the horizontal and vertical scale ratios for the model and the
prototype are same then it is undistorted model. In this case the depth of the water in the
model becomes very small which may not be measured accurately.
Thus for cases distorted model is useful.
The followings are the advantages of distorted models
✓ The vertical dimension of the model can be accurately measured

✓ The cost of the model can be reduced
✓ Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained
Though there are some advantage of distorted models, however the results of such
models cannot be directly transferred to prototype.
Scale Ratios for Distorted Models
LP BP
Let: ( L r ) H = = Scale ratio for horizontal direction
Lm Bm
hP
( Lr )V = =Scale ratio for vertical direction
hm
2 ghP
Scale Ratio for Velocity: Vr=VP / Vm = = ( Lr )V
2 ghm
BP hP
Scale Ratio for area of flow: Ar=A P / Am = = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )V
Bm hm
APVP
Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=QP / Qm = = ( Lr ) H ( Lr )V ( Lr )V = ( Lr )H ( Lr )
3/ 2
AmVm V

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3.5 SIMILITUDES AND MODEL LAWS
Similitude is basically defined as the similarity between model and its prototype in each
and every respect. It suggests us that model and prototype will have similar properties or
we can say that similitude explains that model and prototype will be completely similar.
Three types of similarities must exist between model and prototype and these similarities
are as mentioned here.
Geometric similarity
Kinematic similarity
Dynamic similarity
Geometric similarity
Geometric similarity is the similarity of shape. Geometric similarity is said to exist

between model and prototype, if the ratio of all respective linear dimension in model and
prototype are equal.
Ratio of dimension of model and corresponding dimension of prototype will be termed

as scale ratio i.e. Lr.
Let us assume the following linear dimension in model and prototype.
Lm = Length of model, LP = Length of prototype
Bm = Breadth of model, BP = Breadth prototype
Dm = Diameter of model, DP = Diameter of prototype

Am = Area of model, AP = Area of prototype
Vm = Volume of model, VP = Volume of prototype
Kinematic Similarity
The Kinemetic similarity is said to exist between model and prototype, if the ratios of
velocity and acceleration at a point in model and at the respective point in the prototype
are the same.

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We must note it here that the direction of velocity and acceleration in the model and
prototype must be identical.
Vm = Velocity of fluid at a point in model
VP = Velocity of fluid at respective point in prototype
am = Acceleration of fluid at a point in model
aP = Acceleration of fluid at respective point in prototype
Dynamic Similarity
The dynamic similarity is said to exist between model and prototype, if the ratios of
corresponding forces acting at the corresponding points are the same.
We must note it here that the direction of forces at the corresponding points in the model
and prototype must be same.
Fm = Force at a point in model, FP = Force at respective point in prototype
Model laws or similarity laws
For the dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, ratio of corresponding
forces acting on corresponding points in the model and the prototype should be same.
Ratios of the forces are dimensionless numbers. Therefore we can say that for the
dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, dimensionless numbers should
be equal for the model and the prototype.
However, it is quite difficult to satisfy the condition that all the dimensionless numbers
should be equal for the model and the prototype.
However for practical problems, it is observed that one force will be most significant as
compared to others and that force is considered as predominant force. Therefore for
dynamic similarity, predominant force will be considered in practical problems.

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Therefore, models are designed on the basis of ratio of force which is dominating in the
phenomenon.
Hence, we can define the model laws or similarity laws as the law on which models are
designed for the dynamic similarity.
There are following types of model laws
Reynold’s Model law

Froude Model law
Euler Model law
Weber Model law
Mach Model law
Reynold’s Model law
Reynold’s model law could be defined as a model law or similarity law where models
are designed on the basis of Reynold’s numbers.
According to the Reynold’s model law, for the dynamic similarity between the model
and the prototype, Reynold’s number should be equal for the model and the prototype.
In simple, we can say that Reynold’s number for the model must be equal to the
Reynold’s number for the prototype.
As we know that Reynold’s number is basically the ratio of inertia force and viscous
force, therefore a fluid flow situation where viscous forces are alone predominant, models
will be designed on the basis of Reynold’s model law for the dynamic similarity between
the model and the prototype.
Where,
Vm = Velocity of the fluid in the model
Lm = Length of the model
νm = Kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the model
VP = Velocity of the fluid in the prototype

LP = Length of the prototype
νP = Kinematic viscosity of the fluid in the prototype

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Models based on the Reynold’s model law
Pipe flow
Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes etc.
Froude Model law
Froude model law could be defined as a model law or similarity law where models are
designed on the basis of Froude numbers.
According to the Froude model law, for the dynamic similarity between the model and
the prototype, Froude number should be equal for the model and the prototype.
In simple, we can say that Froude number for the model must be equal to the Froude
number for the prototype.
As we know that Froude number is basically the ratio of inertia force and gravity force,
therefore a fluid flow situation where gravity forces are alone predominant, models will
be designed on the basis of Froude model law for the dynamic similarity between the
model and the prototype.
Where,
Lm = Length of the model
gm = Acceleration due to gravity at a place where model is tested

LP = Length of the prototype
gP = Acceleration due to gravity at a place where prototype is tested
Models based on the Froude model law

Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices, channels etc,
Flow of jet from an orifice or from a nozzle,
Where waves are likely to be formed on surface
Where fluids of different densities flow over one another

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Euler’s Model law
Euler’s model law could be defined as a model law or similarity law where models are
designed on the basis of Euler’s numbers.
According to the Euler’s model law, for the dynamic similarity between the model and
the prototype, Euler’s number should be equal for the model and the prototype.
In simple, we can say that Euler’s number for the model must be equal to the Euler’s
As we know that Euler’s number is basically the ratio of pressure force and inertia force,
therefore a fluid flow situation where pressure forces are alone predominant, models will
be designed on the basis of Euler’s model law for the dynamic similarity between the
model and the prototype.
Where,

Pm = Pressure of fluid in the model
ρm = Density of the fluid in the model

PP = Pressure of fluid in the prototype
ρP = Density of the fluid in the prototype
Models based on the Euler’s model law
Euler’s model law will be applicable for a fluid flow situation where flow is taking place
in a closed pipe, in which case turbulence will be fully developed so that viscous forces
will be negligible and gravity force and surface tension force will be absent.
Weber Model law
Weber model law could be defined as a model law or similarity law where models are
designed on the basis of Weber numbers.
According to the Weber model law, for the dynamic similarity between the model and
the prototype, Weber number should be equal for the model and the prototype.
In simple, we can say that Weber number for the model must be equal to the Weber

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As we know that Weber number is basically the ratio of inertia force and surface tension
force, therefore a fluid flow situation where surface tension forces are alone predominant,
models will be designed on the basis of Weber model law for the dynamic similarity
between the model and the prototype.
Where,
σm = Surface tension force in the model

Lm = Length of surface in the model

σP = Surface tension force in the prototype
LP = Length of surface in the prototype

Models based on the Weber model law
Capillary rise in narrow passage

Capillary movement of water in soil
Capillary waves in channels
Flow over weirs for small heads

Mach Model law
Mach model law could be defined as a model law or similarity law where models are
designed on the basis of Mach numbers.
According to the Mach model law, for the dynamic similarity between the model and the
prototype, Mach number should be equal for the model and the prototype.
In simple, we can say that Mach number for the model must be equal to the Mach number
for the prototype.
As we know that Mach number is basically the ratio of inertia force and Elastic force,
therefore a fluid flow situation where elastic forces are alone predominant, models will

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be designed on the basis of Mach model law for the dynamic similarity between the model
and the prototype.
Where,
Km = Elastic stress for model
KP = Elastic stress for prototype

Models based on the Mach model law
Water hammer problems
Under water testing of torpedoes
Aerodynamic testing
Flow of aeroplane and projectile through air at supersonic speed

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4.1 REYNOLD’S EXPERIMENT

As we are aware that for determining the type of flow we use to calculate
the Reynolds number and on the basis of Reynolds number we use to decide the flow
type. So let us see here the basics behind the determination of type of flow based on the
Reynolds number.
Value for Reynolds number might be calculated with the help of following formula
Re = ρ V D /μ
Where,
V = Flow velocity of the Hydraulic fluid i.e. liquid (m/s)
D = Diameter of pipe (m)
μ = viscosity (poise)
O Reynold had explained this concept with one experiment, which is explained here, in
1883. Reynold had concluded that transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow in a pipe
depends not only on the velocity but also it depends on the diameter of the pipe and
viscosity of the fluid flowing through the pipe.
Reynolds experiment apparatus
Apparatus for Reynolds experiment are as mentioned here
1. A tank containing water at constant head
2. A small tank containing some dye
3. A glass tube with bell-mouthed entrance at one end and a regulating valve at other
end
Figure 4.1.1 Apparatus for Reynolds experiment

Downloaded From EnggTree.com CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

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Now we will allow water to pass through the glass tube from the water tank. Regulating
valve is provided here to vary the velocity of water flowing through the glass tube.
We will introduce a liquid dye, of having same specific weight as of water, in to the glass
tube as displayed here in following figure.
Observations made by Reynold
Observation I
When velocity of water flow is low, dye filament will be in the form of straight line in
the glass tube. It could be seen in the glass tube that dye filament is in the form of straight
line and parallel to the wall of glass tube.
Above condition is the example of laminar fluid flow. Therefore at lower velocity of
water flow through the glass tube, the type of water flow will be laminar.
Following figure, displayed here as figure a, indicates the case of water flow through the
glass tube at low velocity of water flow.
Observation II
Now velocity of flow is increased with the help of regulating valve. Dye filament will
not be in the form of straight line in the glass tube. It could be seen in the glass tube that
dye filament is in the form of wavy one now.
Above condition is the example of transition of fluid flow. Therefore when velocity of
water flow through the glass tube is increased, the type of water flow will be transition
flow. Transition flow means the flow between laminar flow and turbulent flow.
Following figure, displayed here as figure b, indicates the case of transition flow through
the glass tube.
Observation III
Now velocity of flow is increased again with the help of regulating valve. Wavy dye
filament will be broken and finally diffused in the water as displayed here in following
figure.

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It could be seen in the glass tube that particles of dye filament liquid are moving in
random and irregular fashion at this higher velocity of water flow. Mixing of particles of
water and dye filament is intense and water flow will be random, irregular and disorderly.
Above condition is the example of turbulent fluid flow. Therefore when velocity of water
flow will be higher, the type of water flow will be turbulent flow.
Following figure, displayed here as figure c, indicates the case of turbulent flow through
the glass tube.
In case of laminar fluid flow, loss of pressure head will be proportional to the velocity of
fluid flow.
While in case of turbulent fluid flow, loss of pressure head will be approximately
proportional to the square of velocity of fluid flow.
The Reynolds number is a very useful parameter in predicting whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
Re < 2000 viscous / laminar flow
Re 2000 to 4000 Transient flow
Re > 4000 Turbulent flow

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4.2 HYDRAULIC AND ENERGY GRADIENT
Concepts of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line will be quite useful when we
analyze the problems of fluid flow through pipes.
Hydraulic gradient line and total energy line are the graphical representation for the
longitudinal variation in piezometric head and total head.
Hydraulic gradient line
Hydraulic gradient line is basically defined as the line which will give the sum of pressure
head and datum head or potential head of a fluid flowing through a pipe with respect to
some reference line.
Hydraulic gradient line = Pressure head + Potential head or datum head

H.G.L = P/ρg + Z
Where,
H.G.L = Hydraulic gradient line
P/ρg = Pressure head

Z = Potential head or datum head
Total Energy Line
Total energy line is basically defined as the line which will give the sum of pressure head,
potential head and kinetic head of a fluid flowing through a pipe with respect to some
reference line.
Total energy line = Pressure head + Potential head + Kinetic head
H.G.L = P/ρg + Z + V2/2g

Where,
T.E.L = Total energy line

P/ρg = Pressure head
Z = Potential head or datum head
V2/2g = Kinetic head or velocity head

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Relation between hydraulic gradient line and total energy line
H.G.L = E.G.L - V2/2g
Let us see the following figure, there is one reservoir filled with water and also connected
with one pipe of uniform cross-sectional diameter.
Hydraulic gradient and energy lines are displayed in figure.
At Velocity V = 0, Kinetic head will be zero and therefore hydraulic gradient line and
energy gradient line will be same.
At Velocity V = 0, EGL = HGL

4.3 FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW – DARCY WEISBACK EQUATION
When a liquid is flowing through a pipe,

the velocity of the liquid layer adjacent to
the pipe wall is zero. The velocity of liquid
goes on increasing from the wall and thus
velocity gradient and hence shear stresses
are produced in the whole liquid due to
viscosity. This viscous action causes loss
of energy, which is known as frictional
loss.
Consider a uniform horizontal pipe having steady flow. Let 1-1, 2-2 are two sections
of pipe.
Let P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1-1
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1

L = Length of pipe between section 1-1 and 2-2
d = Diameter of pipe
𝑓′ = Fractional resistance for unit wetted area per a unit velocity
hf = Loss of head due to friction
And P2, V2 = are values of pressure intensity and velocity at section 2-2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1-1 and 2-2
Total head at 1-1 = total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between 1-1 and 2-
2
But hf is head is lost due to friction and hence the intensity of pressure will be reduced
in the direction flow by frictional resistance.
Now, Frictional Resistance = Frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit
velocity unit velocity × Wetted Area × (velocity)2
The forces acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and 2-2 are
Pressure force at section 1-1 = P1 ×A where A = area of pipe

Pressure force at section 2-2 = P2 ×A
Frictional force = F1
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have
Equating the value of P1 - P2, we get
This Equation is known as Darcy – Weisbach equation, commonly used for finding
loss of head due to friction in pipes
Then f is known as a friction factor or co-efficient of friction which is a dimensionless
quantity. f is not a constant but, its value depends upon the roughness condition of
pipe surface and the Reynolds number of the flow.

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4.4 MAJOR AND MINOR LOSSES OF FLOW IN PIPES

Major Losses
The major losses of energy are due to friction. Which are considerable hence it is called
as major losses. It is determined by Darcy- Weisbach formula and Chezy’s formula. Head
loss due to friction is denoted by hf.
Darcy- Weisbach formula
Where, hf – loss of head due to friction in meter of fluid
f - Coefficient of friction
Coefficient of friction is function of Reynolds’s Number (Re).
L- Length of pipe in m.
V- Velocity of flow in m/s.

d- Diameter of pipe in m.
Chezy’s formula-
Where V – velocity of flow in m/s
C – Chezy’s constant

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Minor losses
The losses due to disturbances in flow pattern or due to change in velocity are called as
minor losses. These losses may occur due to sudden change in the area of flow and the
direction of flow. These losses are less as compare to major losses. The minor loss of the
head (energy) includes the following cases:
1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3. Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe
4. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe
5. Loss of head due to bends
6. Loss of head in various pipe fittings
7. Loss of head due to obstruction
1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
Fig. represents a pipe in

which fluid experiences
sudden enlargement. Here the
head lossoccurs due to the
separation of the flow at the
periphery of the smaller pipe,
which leads to eddying
motion in the corner region.
The Equation gives head loss due to sudden expansion.
Where, V1 = Velocity of fluid at section 1-1

V2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2-2
2. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction
Fig. represents a pipe in which
fluid experiences sudden
contraction. The stream lines
are converging from section 1-
1 to section C-C. The head loss
occurs only after the vena
contracta CC. This is because
the flow up to this section is
accelerating and the boundary
layer separation does not occur. CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS
Using Bernoulli's equation, continuity and momentum equation at section 1-1 and 2-2,
it can be proved that head loss due to sudden contraction is,
Where, V2 = Velocity of fluid at section 2-2
Cc = Coefficient of contraction = Ac /A2
If Cc not given,
3. Loss of Head at the entrance of a pipe
The loss of head at the entrance of pipe is a similar case to loss of head due to sudden
contraction as there is an abrupt reduction in area from an area of reservoir to area of a
pipe. The loss of head is caused mainly by the turbulence created by the sudden
enlargement of the jet after it has passed through the vena contracta.
4. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe

When the fluid from the pipe enters into a relatively larger reservoir the entire velocity is
dissipated. If V is the velocity of fluid in a pipe, the head loss at exit is given by
5. Loss of head due to bends
The loss of head in bends provided in pipes may be expressed as,
V is the mean velocity of flow of liquid and K = coefficient of bend and is depends on
the angle of bend, radius of the curvature and diameter of pipe.

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6. Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings
Pipe fittings in a piping system cause obstruction to flow and the loss of head occurs. The
loss of head may be expressed as,
Where, K = Coefficient of pipe fitting
Various pipe fitting shown in following figure,
7. Loss of head due to obstruction

The loss of head due to obstruction in a pipe takes place due to reduction in the cross
sectional area of the pipe by the presence of obstruction which is followed by an abrupt
enlargement of the stream lines beyond the obstruction. (Shown in figure)
Let, V = Velocity of fluid in pipe

A0 = Maximum area of obstruction
A = Area of pipe
ho = head loss due to obstruction

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PROBLEM 1. At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240mm to 480mm

diameter, the hydraulic gradient rises by 10mm. Estimate the rate of flow.
Given: Dia. of smaller pipe D1= 240mm =0.24m
Dia. of larger pipe D2 = 480mm = 0.48m
Let the rate of flow = Q
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to both sections i.e smaller and larger sections
Now substituting the value of he and V1 in equation (1)

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PROBLEM 2. A 150mm dia. pipe reduces in dia. abruptly to 100mm dia. If the pipe
carries water at 30lts/sec, calculate the pressure loss across the contraction. Take co-
efficient of contraction as 0.6.
Given: Dia. of larger pipe D1 = 150mm = 0.15m
Dia. of smaller pipe D2 = 100mm = 0.10m
Discharge Q = 30 lts/sec = 0.03m3/sec Co-efficient of contraction CC = 0.6

From continuity equation, we have Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
Applying Bernoulli‟s equation before and after contraction
But Z1 = Z2 and hc the head loss due to contraction is given by the equation
Substituting these values in equation (1), we get

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Pressure loss across contraction = P1- P2 = 0.909N/cm2
PROBLEM 3. Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of diameter 200mm at a

velocity of 3m/sec. A circular solid plate of diameter150mm is placed in the pipe to
obstruct the flow. Find the loss of head due to obstruction in the pipe, if CC =0.62.
Given: Diameter of pipe D = 200mm = 0.2m
Velocity V = 3m/sec
Diameter of obstruction d = 150mm =0.15m
CC = 0.62
= 3.311m

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4.5 PIPES IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL

PIPES IN SERIES:
When pipes of different lengths and different diameters are connected end to end to form
a pipe line, such arrangement or connection of pipes will be considered as pipes in series
or compound pipes. Following figure, displayed here, indicates the arrangement of
connection of three pipes in series.
Let us consider the following terms from above figure
L1, L2 and L3: Length of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively

d1, d2 and d3: Diameter of pipes 1, 2 and 3 respectively
V1, V2 and V3: Velocity of flow through pipes 1, 2 and 3
respectively
f1, f2 and f3: Co-efficient of friction for pipes 1, 2 and 3
respectively
H = Difference of water level in two tanks
We must note it here that difference in liquid surface level will be equal to the sum of
total head loss in the pipes.
If we neglect the minor head losses, we will have following equation for total head loss
as mentioned here.
Let us consider that co-efficient of friction i.e. f is same for all three pipes and therefore
we can write the equation for head loss as mentioned here.

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PIPES IN PARALLEL:
When a main pipeline divides in to
two or more parallel pipes, which
may again join together
downstream and continue as
main line, the pipes are said to be
in parallel. The pipes are connected
in parallel in order to increase the
discharge passing through the
main.
It is analogous to parallel electric current in which the drop in potential and flow of
electric current can be compared to head loss and rate of discharge in a fluid flow
respectively.
The rate of discharge in the main line is equal to the sum of the discharges in each of
the parallel pipes.
Thus Q = Q1 + Q2
The flow of liquid in pipes (1) and (2) takes place under the difference of head between
the sections A and B and hence the loss of head between the sections A and B will be
the same whether the liquid flows through pipe (1) or pipe (2). Thus if D1, D2 and L1, L2
are the diameters and lengths of the pipes (1) and (2) respectively, then the velocities of
flow V1 and V2 in the two pipes must be such as to give
EQUIVALENT PIPE
In practice adopting pipes in series may not be feasible due to the fact that they may be
of unistandard size (ie. May not be comemercially available) and they experience other
minor losses. Hence, the entire system will be replaced by a single pipe of uniform
diameter D, but of the same length L=L1+ L2+ L3 such that the head loss due to friction
for both the pipes, viz equivalent pipe & the compound pipe are the same.
For a compound pipe or pipes in series

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PROBLEM 1:The difference in water surface levels in two tanks, which are connected
by three pipes in series of lengths 400 m, 200 m and 300 m and of diameters 400 mm,
300 mm and 200 mm respectively, is 16m. Estimate the rate of flow of water if co-
efficient of friction for these pipes is same and equal to 0.005, considering: (i) minor
losses also (ii) neglecting minor losses.

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PROBLEM 2:Three pipes of length 800m,500m and 400m of diameter 500mm,400mm

and 300mm respectively are connected are connected in series these pipes are to be
replaced by a single pipe of length 1700m.find the diameter of single pipe.

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5.1 BOUNDARY LAYER
When fluids flow over surfaces, the molecules near the surface are brought to rest
due to the viscosity of the fluid. The adjacent layers are also slow down, but to a lower
and lower extent. This slowing down is found limited to a thin layer near the surface. The
fluid beyond this layer is not affected by the presence of the surface. The fluid layer near
the surface in which there is a general slowing down is defined as boundary layer. The
velocity of flow in this layer increases from zero at the surface to free stream velocity at
the edge of the boundary layer.
When a real fluid flow past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particles adhere
to the boundary and condition of no slip occurs. This means that the velocity of fluid
close to the boundary will be same as that of the boundary. If the boundary is stationary,
the velocity of fluid at the boundary will be zero. The theory dealing with boundary layer
flows is called boundary layer theory.
According to the B.L. theory, the flow of fluid in the neighbourhood of the solid
boundary may be divided into two regions as shown below
Figure 5.1.1 Description of the Boundary Layer

The simplest boundary layer to study is that formed in the flow along one side of a
thin, smooth, flat plate parallel to the direction of the oncoming fluid. No other solid
surface is near, and the pressure of the fluid is uniform. If the fluid were inviscid no
velocity gradient would, in this instance, arise. The velocity gradients in a real fluid are
therefore entirely due to viscous action near the surface.
The fluid, originally having velocity in the direction of plate, is retarded in the
neighborhood of the surface, and the boundary layer begins at the leading edge of the
plate. As more and more of the fluid is slowed down, the thickness of the layer increases.
The fluid in contact with the plate surface has zero velocity, ‘no slip’ and a velocity
gradient exists between the fluid in the free stream and the plate surface.
The flow in the first part of the boundary layer (close to the leading edge of the plate)
is entirely laminar. With increasing thickness, however, the laminar layer becomes
unstable, and the motion within it becomes disturbed. The irregularities of the flow
develop into turbulence, and the thickness of the layer increases more rapidly. The
changes from laminar to turbulent flow take place over a short length known as the
transition region.

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Graph of velocity u against distance y from surface at point X

Reynolds’ Number Concept
If the Reynolds number locally were based on the distance from the leading edge
of the plate, then it will be appreciated that, initially, the value is low, so that the fluid
flow close to the wall may be categorized as laminar. However, as the distance from the
leading edge increases, so does the Reynolds number until a point is reached where the
flow regime becomes turbulent.
For smooth, polished plates the transition may be delayed until Re equals 500000.
However, for rough plates or for turbulent approach flows transition may occur at much
lower values. Again, the transition does not occur in practice at one well-defined point
but, rather, a transition zone is established between the two flow regimes.
The figure above also depicts the distribution of shear stress along the plate in the
flow direction. At the leading edge, the velocity gradient is large, resulting in a high
shear stress. However, as the laminar region progresses, so the velocity gradient and
shear stress decrease with thickening of the boundary layer. Following transition the
velocity gradient again increases and the shear stress rises.
Theoretically, for an infinite plate, the boundary layer goes on thickening
indefinitely. However, in practice, the growth is curtailed by other surfaces in the
vicinity.
Factors affecting transition from Laminar to Turbulent flow Regimes
As mentioned earlier, the transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer condition
may be considered as Reynolds number dependent,
and a figure of 5 x 105 is often quoted.

However, this figure may be considerably reduced if the surface is rough. For Re<105,
the laminar layer is stable; however, at Re near 2 x 105 it is difficult to prevent
transition.

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5.2 BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS
Boundary Layer thickness
The velocity within the boundary layer increases from zero at the boundary surface to the
velocity of the main stream asymptotically. Therefore the thickness of the boundary layer
is arbitrarily defined as that distance from the boundary in which the velocity reaches 99
per cent of the velocity of the velocity of the free stream (u = 0.99U ). It is denoted by
the symbol . This definition however gives an approximate value of the boundary
layer thickness and hence is generally termed as nominal thickness of the boundary
layer.
The boundary layer thickness for greater accuracy is defined as in terms of certain
mathematical expression which are the measure of the boundary layer on the flow. The
commonly adopted definitions of the boundary layer thickness are:
1. Displacement thickens ( )
2. Momentum thickness ( )
3. Energy thickness (c )
Displacement thickness ( )
The displacement thickness can be defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the
boundary by which the main/free stream is displaced on account of formation boundary
layer.
or
It is an additional “Wall thickness” that would have to be added to compensate for the
reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation”.
Figure 5.2.1 Displacement thickness

Let fluid of density flow past a stationary plate with velocity U as shown above.
Consider an elementary strip of thickness dry at a distance y from the plate.

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Assumed unit width, the mass flow per second through the elementary strip
Mass of flow per second through the elementary strip (unit width) if the plate were not
there
Reduce the mass flow rate through the elementary strip
Total momentum of mass flow rate due to introduction of plate
(If the fluid is incompressible)
Let the plate is displaced by a distance and velocity of flow for the distance is
equal to the main/free stream velocity (i.e. U). Then, loss of the mass of the fluid/sec.
flowing through the distance
Equating eqns. (iii) and (iv) we get
Momentum Thickness ( )
This is defined as the distance which the total loss of momentum per second be equal to
if it were passing a stationary plate. It is denoted by  .
It may also be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the
solid body by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for reduction in
momentum of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.
Refer to diagram of displacement thickness above,
Mass of flow per second through the elementary strip = udy

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Momentum/Sec. of this fluid inside the boundary layer
= udy  U = u 2dy
Momentum/sec. of the same mass of fluid before entering boundary layer =uUdy
Loss of Momentum/sec. = uUdy − u 2dy = u (U − u)dy
Total loss of momentum/sec
Let  = Distance by which plate is displaced when the fluid is flowing with a constant
velocity U. then loss of momentum/Sec. of fluid flowing through distance  with a
velocity U.
Equating eqns. (i) and (ii), we have
Energy Thickness
Energy thickness is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to the boundary of
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the
reduction in K.E of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation. It is
denoted by
Refer to the above displacement thickness diagram,
Mass of flow per second through the elementary strip = udy
K.E of this fluid inside the boundary layer
K.E of the same mass of fluid before entering the boundary layer

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Loss of K.E. through elementary strip
Total loss of K.E of fluid
Let = Distance by which the plate is displaced to compensate for the reduction in
K.E
Then loss of K.E. through of fluid flowing with velocity
Equating eqns (i) and (ii), we have
or

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5.3 DRAG FORCE ON FLAT PLATE DUE TO BOUNDARY LAYER
Momentum Equation for Boundary Layer by Von Karman
Von Karman suggested a method based on the momentum equation by the use of which
the growth of a boundary layer along a flat plate, the wall shear stress and the drag force
could be determined (when the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is
known).Starting from the beginning of the plate, the method can be wed for both laminar
and turbulent boundary layers.
The figure below shows a fluid flowing over a thin plate (placed at zero incidence) with
a free stream velocity equal to U. Consider a small length dx of the plate at a distance x
from the leading edge as shown in fig. (a). Consider unit width of plate perpendicular to
the direction of flow.
Figure 5.3.1 Drag Force on Flat Plate due to Boundary layer

Let ABCD be a small element of a boundary layer (the edge DC represents the outer
edge of the boundary layer).
Mass rate of fluid entering through AD
 Mass rate of fluid entering the control volume through the surface DC
= mass rate of fluid through BC – Mass rate of fluid through AD
The fluid is entering through DC with a uniform velocity U.

Momentum rate of fluid entering the control volume of X-direction through AD.
Momentum rate of fluid leaving the Control Volume in X-direction through BC

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Momentum rate of fluid entering the control volume through DC in X-direction
Rate of change of momentum of Control Volume = Momentum rate of fluid through

BC – Momentum rate of fluid through AD –Momentum of fluid through DC
As per momentum principle, the rate of change of momentum on the control volume
BCD must be equal to the total force on the control volume in the same direction. The
only external force acting on the control volume is the share force acting on the side AB
in the direction B to A (fig. b) above). The value of this force (drag force) is given by,
Thus the total external force in the direction of the rate of change of momentum
Equating equation (x) and (xi), we have
or

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This equation is known as von Karman momentum equation for boundary layer flow
and it is used to find out the frictional drag on smooth flat plate for both laminar and
turbulent boundary layer.
The following boundary conditions must be satisfied for any assumed velocity
distribution.
The sheer stress,  o for a given velocity profile in laminar, transition or turbulent zone
is obtained from equations (xii) and (xiii) above. Then drag force on a small distance dx
of a plate is given by

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5.4 Solved Problems Boundary Layer Thickness

PROBLEM 1:The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by
where u is the velocity y from the plate and u=U at , y = , being boundary layer
thickness.Find
i. The displacement thickness
ii. The momentum thickness
iii. The energy thickness and
iv. The value of  */ 
Solution:
Velocity distribution:
(ii) The momentum thickness

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iii. The energy thickness
iv. The value of  */ 
PROBLEM 2:The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by ,
 being the boundary layer thickness.Calculate the following
Solution

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PROBLEM 3 : Find the displacement thickness ,the momentum thickness and energy
thickness for the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by

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PROBLEM 4: For the velocity for the laminar boundary layer flows given as
find out the expression for boundary layer thickness ( ), shear stress ( 0), co-efficient
of drag (CD) in terms of Reynolds number.

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5.5 BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION AND CONTROL – DRAG ON FLAT

PLATE
SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
When a solid body is immersed in a flowing fluid, a thin layer of fluid called the boundary
layer is formed adjacent to the solid body. In this thin layer of fluid, the velocity varies
from zero to free stream velocity in the direction normal to the solid body.
Along the length of the solid body, the thickness of the boundary layer increases. The
fluid layer adjacent to the solid surface has to do work against surface friction at the
expense of its kinetic energy. This loss of the kinetic energy is recovered from the
immediate fluid layer in contact with the layer adjacent to solid surface through
momentum exchange process.
Thus the velocity of the layer goes on decreasing. Along the length of the solid body, at
a certain point a stage may come when the boundary layer may not be able to keep
sticking to the solid body if it cannot provide kinetic energy to overcome the resistance
offered by the solid body. In other words, the boundary layer will be separated from the
surface. This phenomenon is called the boundary layer separation. The point on the body
at which the boundary layer is on the verge of separation from the surface is called point
of separation.

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Figure 5.6.1 Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer separation

The flow separation depends upon factors such as

(i) The curvature of the surface
(ii) The Reynolds number of flow

(iii) The roughness of the surface
The velocity gradient for a given velocity profile, exhibits the following characteristics
for the flow to remain attached, get detached or be on the verge of separation:

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Methods of preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer
The following are some of the methods generally adopted to retard or arrest the flow
separation:
1. Streamlining the body shape

2. Tripping the boundary layer from laminar to turbulent by provision of surface
roughness
3. Sucking the retarded flow
4. Injecting high velocity fluid in the boundary layer

5. Providing slots near the leading edge
6. Guidance of flow in a confined passage
7. Providing a rotating cylinder near the leading edge

8. Energizing the flow by introducing optimum amount of swirl in the in coming flow
PROBLEM 1: For the following velocity profiles, determine whether the flow is attached
or detached or on the verge of separation:

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com ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.1.1 Deformation of a Solid and a Fluid Exposed to an applied Force

Fluid deforms continuously under the action of a shear force

Shear stress in a moving fluid:

Figure 1.1.2 Comparison of Solid, Liquid and Gas

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

The official International System of Units (System International Units). Strong

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Dimensions: Dimensions of the primary quantities:

Dimensions of derived quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental

Quantity Representative Dimensions

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

weightdensity of water is 9810N/m3.

Note: Relationship between mass density and weight density:

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity and has no unit.

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.3.1 Definition diagram of Liquid viscosity

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

or Coefficient of Viscosity or Viscosity of the fluid.

called Newton’s law of viscosity.

 Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids:

Unit of Kinematics Viscosity

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Problem 10 : A circular disc of 0.3m dia and weight 50 N is kept on an inclined

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Let F1 be the force required to overcome viscosity resistance of liquid above

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Total force required to drag the plate =F1 +F2 = 19.68+19.68

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.3.2 Capillarity

Problem 11 : Capillary tube having an inside diameter 5mm is dipped in water at 20 0.

Problem 12 : Calculate capillary rise in a glass tube when immersed in Hg at 200C.

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Capillary effect for water

Capillary effect for mercury:

Figure 1.3.3 Surface Tension inside a Water Droplet

The excess pressure within a Soap bubble:

Figure 1.3.4 Surface Tension within a Soap bubble

Bulk Modulus (K):

where p = increase in pressure; V = original volume; V = change in volume

S.I. unit of compressibility is N–1m2 and C.G.S. unit is dyne–1 cm2.

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.3.5 Vapour Pressure

CE3301 FLUID MECHANICS

1.4 PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS BY MANOMETERS

A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure,

Two types of manometer, such as

The U type manometer, which is considered as a primary pressure standard, derives

P2 = Pressure applied to the high pressure connection

ρ = mass density of the fluid within the columns

2.U tube manometer