20/09/2014

Lighting and Acoustical

Systems
Building Utilities 03 (BUILDU3)

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 1
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Today’s Agenda
• Session 01 Recap
• Session 02 Lecture
• Session 03 Agenda

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 2
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Session 01 Recap
 Acoustics, the science of sound
 Sounds we hear, what we cannot hear, what we’d rather not hear
 How we hear: Psychological and Physiological Acoustics
 Architectural Acoustics
 Brief History of Acoustics
 Glossary of Terms

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 3
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Short Quiz!
1. Four ways sound is produced?
2. How many octaves can you hear?
3. What is the range of frequency we can hear in hertz?
4. The least amount of sound energy we can hear (in joules?)
5. Highest level of sound pressure based on atmospheric pressure (in
decibels)?
6. Two types of sound we cannot hear?
7. Name one example of the social psychological effect of noise.
8. Damage of the ear canal is most susceptible along this frequency band.
9. The outer and middle ears amplify sound on its passage from the exterior
to the inner ear by about ____ db?
10. Name one of the four considerations of sound design beginning at the
schematic design phase.

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 4
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Answer Key
1. Vibrating Bodies, Change of Airflow, Possible answers for number 7
Time-dependent heat source, • Less cooperative
supersonic flow
2. 9 or 10 octaves • Lessen tendency to help
3. 20 hertz to 20 kilohertz • Increases aggressive behaviour
4. 10-20Joules • Reduces amount of cognitive
capacity
5. 191 decibels
• Reduces amount of information one
6. Infrasound and ultrasound can process
7. See box on the right -> • Tendency to oversimplify complex
8. 3,000-4,000hz relationships (concepts, ideas, etc.)
• Creates extreme judgments
9. 30 db
10. Room acoustic, sound isolation, • Negatively affects judgments
noise and vibration control, audio • Causes performance degradation
systems
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural Social Psychology of Noise,
Chapter 9, Cohen and Spacapan, 1984
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 5
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

THE GRAND ACOUSTICAL TERMINOLOGIES CONTEST!

UP FOR GRABS:

1st place: 15 bonus points

2nd place: 10 bonus points
3rd place: 7 bonus points
4th place: 5 bonus points

Mechanics:
Form 4 groups.
Each round a representative will come up the board to guess the
answer for 4 consecutive questions!
Team with most correct answers win!
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 6
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

ARE YOU READY?!

GO!
SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL SOUND TRANSMISSION LOSS SOUND BARRIER
BAFFLE SABIN AREA EFFECT
ACOUSTICAL ABSORPTION CLOUD
HERTZ AIRBORNE NOISE FLANKING
ACOUSTICS BARRIER VIBRATION
FREQUENCY PITCH
BOOMINESS ECHO ACOUSTICAL ANALYSIS FREE FIELD

ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS CYCLES PER SECONDACOUSTICAL ENVIRONMENT REFLECTION

RESONANCE
OCTAVE BANDS AIRBORNE SOUND LOUDNESS DAMPING
DECIBEL INVERSE SQUARE LAW REVERBERATION
BACKGROUND NOISE
COCKTAIL PARTY EFFECT IMPACT SOUND AMBIENT NOISE/SOUND
DIFFUSION NOISE NOISE REDUCTION
ATTENUATION
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
ASSISTIVE LISTENING DEVICE MASKING ARTICULATION CLASS
SOUND SOUND ABSORPTION WAVELENGTH
STRUCTURE BORNE NOISE VIBRATION ISOLATOR
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 7
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

break

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

9/20/2014
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics 2:20
8
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Session 02 Outline
Sound theory, concepts, and principles
 Frequency, Wavelength, and Amplitude
 Simple Harmonic Motion
 Superposition of Waves
 Sound waves and sine wave
 Acoustical Properties
 Levels and the Decibel
Human Perception and Reaction
 Human hearing mechanisms
 Pitch
 Loudness
 Intelligibility
 Annoyance
 Health and Safety
 Others
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 9
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts,

and principles
 Frequency, Wavelength, and Amplitude
 Simple Harmonic Motion
 Superposition of Waves
 Sound waves and sine wave
 Acoustical Properties
 Levels and the Decibel

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 10
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Frequency
• A steady sound is produced by the repeated back and forth
movement of an object at regular intervals.
• The time interval over which the motion recurs is called the
period.
• For example if our hearts beat 72 times per minute, the period
is the total time (in 60 seconds) divided by the number of beats
(72), which is 0.83 seconds per beat.
• We can invert the period to obtain the number of complete
cycles of motion in one time interval, which is called the
frequency.
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 11
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Frequency

• The frequency is expressed in units of cycles per second,

or Hertz (Hz), in honor of the physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–
1894).
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 12
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Frequency
• Calculating the frequency of a repeating event is
accomplished by counting the number of times that
event occurs within a specific time period, then dividing
the count by the length of the time period.
• For example, if 71 events occur within 15 seconds the
frequency is:

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 13
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Wavelength
• Among the earliest sources of musical sounds were
instruments made using stretched strings.
• When a string is plucked it vibrates back and forth and the
initial displacement travels in each direction along the
string at a given velocity.
• It is the distance over which the wave's shape repeats

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 14
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Wavelength
• The time required for the
displacement to travel
twice the length of the
string is:

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 15
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Wavelength
• Wavelength is a measure
of the distance between
repetitions of a shape
feature such as peaks,
valleys, or zero-crossings,
not a measure of how far
any given particle moves

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 16
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Wavelength
• PIANO:

When notes are played on a piano the strings vibrate at

specific frequencies, which depend on their length, mass,
and tension.

The lowest note has a fundamental frequency of about 27

Hz, while the highest fundamental is 4186 Hz.

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 17
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
the fundamental frequencies
associated with each note

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 18
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 19
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Frequency Spectrum
• If we were to measure the strength of the sound produced
by a particular note and make a plot of sound level versus
frequency we would have a graph called a spectrum.
• When the sound has only one frequency, it is called a pure
tone and its spectrum consists of a single straight line
whose height depends on its strength

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 20
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Frequency Spectrum
• If we were to measure the
strength of the sound
produced by a particular
note and make a plot of
sound level versus frequency
we would have a graph
called a spectrum.
• When the sound has only one
frequency, it is called a pure
tone and its spectrum consists
of a single straight line whose
height depends on its
strength
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 21
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Frequency Spectrum
• For most notes the
fundamental has the
highest amplitude,
followed by the harmonics
in descending order

http://cnx.org/resources/80163a29e4bb0f026487c2a6815f6d1d/spectrum.png

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 22
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Frequency Spectrum
• Sources such as waterfalls produce sounds at many
frequencies, rather than only a few, and yield a flat spectrum
• A hand clap (an impulsive sound) also yields a flat spectrum
• in order to construct an impulsive sound, we add up a very
large number of waves of higher and higher frequencies in
such a way that their peaks all occur at one time
• A clap often is used to listen for acoustical defects in rooms.

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 23
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Frequency, Wavelength, and

Amplitude
Amplitude
• If the amplitude is
increased, the sound gets
lounder - so a higher
volume.
• If the frequency is
increased, you get a higher
pitched sound.
http://scienceaid.co.uk/physics/waves/sound.html

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 24
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Simple Harmonic Motion

• Periodic motions need not be smooth.

• The beat of a human heart is periodic but very
complicated.
• In contrast, the vibration of a stretched string is quite
regular.
• Such behaviour is called simple harmonic motion and can
be written in terms of a sinusoidal function.

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 25
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Simple Harmonic Motion

• Sinusoidal waveforms are

components of circular
motion
• Deals with oscillating
functions, trigonometry,
complex numbers, and
exponential function

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 26
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Simple Harmonic Motion

• simple harmonic motion is

a type of periodic motion
where the restoring force is
directly proportional to the
displacement

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 27
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Simple Harmonic Motion

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 28
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Simple Harmonic Motion

• rotation of a vector; Since

there are 2 pi radians per
complete rotation, the
frequency of oscillation is:

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 29
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Simple Harmonic Motion

Changes in Phase
• If two waveforms are to be compared and have the same
frequency, their peaks and valleys will occur at the same
intervals
• If their peaks occur at the same time, they are said to be
in phase, and if not, they are out of phase
• A difference in phase is illustrated by a movement of one
waveform relative to the other in space or time.

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 30
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Simple Harmonic Motion

Changes in Phase
• For example, a pi/2 radian (90◦ ) phase shift slides the
second wave to the right in time, so that its zero crossing is
aligned with the peak of the first wave.

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 31
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Superposition of Waves

Linear Superposition
 Sound is mostly a combination of tones but some sounds
are pure tones (only one frequency).
 General acoustical environment is a complicated myriad
of sounds striking our ear drums at any one time
 We can interpret these myriad sounds because they add
up linearly without creating appreciable distortion
 Wave motions encountered in architecture are generally
linear
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 32
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Superposition of Waves

Linear Superposition
 Linear superposition is
based on Hooke’s law
(linear summation) and is
the total displacement or
pressure of several waves
occurring simultaneously is
the sum of their amplitude
values at any one time.

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 33
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Superposition of Waves

Linear Superposition
Beats
 When two waves having
different frequencies are
superimposed, there is no one
constant phase difference
between them
• An example of a high and low
frequency wave with the same
amplitude
• If the two frequencies are close
together, a phenomenon
known as beats occurs
beat! beat!
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 34
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Sound waves and sine wave

−A sound wave is a
longitudinal pressure
fluctuation that moves
through an elastic medium
−It is called longitudinal
because the particle
motion is in the same
direction as the wave
propagation
http://w3.shorecrest.org/~Lisa_Peck/Physics/All_Projects/Biggie_Project
/2010/meghan/meghan1/longitudal%20compresion%20waves.jpg

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 35
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Transmission of Sound - Designmate

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 36
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Sound waves and sine wave

−Transverse waves are at right angles to the direction of

propagation
−Propagation can be through gas, liquid, or solid but we
mostly experience sound by air.

whether a tree falling in a forest produces a sound?

That’s only an only an etymological problem!

A sound is produced because there is a pressure

wave, but a noise, which requires a subjective
judgment and thus a listener, is not.
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 37
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Sound waves and sine wave

Sound Generation
−If movement of a source (such as a piston in a
loudspeaker) is very small such that it is less than molecular
collision, the molecules absorb the motion and no energy
is transmitted to neighbouring molecules.
−If the movement of a source is slow enough such that air
flows gently around it, pressure is continuously equalized
and no sound is created.
−If the movement is such that molecules collide and there is
not time to equalized pressure, then a localized
compression of gas occurs and sound is generated
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 38
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Sound waves and sine wave

Importance of wavelengths of  1000 Hz, (middle of the

sound waves speech frequency range)
−sound will scatter (bounce) wavelength = 0.3 m
off a flat object that is several  lowest note on the piano the
wavelengths long in a wavelength is about 13 m
specular (mirror-like) manner • The highest frequency
−If the object is much smaller audible to humans (~20,000
than a wavelength, the Hz), wavelength =~ 0.5 inch
sound will simply flow around • Bats, using echolocation,
it as if it were not there transmit frequencies of
100,00Hz to scatter of a 2mm
mosquito (their prey)
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 39
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Sound waves and sine wave

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 40
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Sound waves and sine wave

Velocity of Sound
−the velocities in gasses
are relatively close to
the velocity of
molecular motion

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 41
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Sound waves and sine wave

Waves in other materials

−Sound waves in gasses are
only longitudinal, since a
gas does not support shear
or bending
−Solids can support shear,
torsion, bending, and
Rayleigh waves
−Rayleigh waves are most
commonly found in
earthquakes
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 42
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Acoustical Properties

Impedance
−A measure of the resistance to motion at a given point
−One of the most important properties
−Air has low impedance and a concrete slab has a high
impedance
−specific acoustic impedance: the ratio of the sound
pressure to the associated particle velocity at a point

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 43
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Acoustical Properties

Intensity
−the measure of the energy propagating through a given
area during a given time
−For a plane wave it is defined as the acoustic power
passing through an area in the direction of the surface
normal
−Sound power is the sound energy being emitted by a
source each cycle

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 44
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Acoustical Properties

Intensity
−Is proportional so that sound intensities may be added
unto each other arithmetically
−Lowest intensity is the threshold of human hearing, which is
about 10-12 W/m2
−A normal conversation between two people:10-6 W/m2
−A jet aircraft could produce 1W/m2
−Acoustic intensities encountered in daily life span a very
large range, leading to the adoption of levels or decibels
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 45
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Levels and the Decibel

Level
−A level is basically a fraction, expressed as 10 times the
logarithm of the ratio of two numbers

Why didn’t you

say so in the first
Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural place? Duuurh?
Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 46
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing
 20/09/2014

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Levels and the Decibel

• The logarithm of a number

divided by a reference
quantity is given the unit of
bels
• in honor of Alexander Graham
Bell, the inventor of the
telephone
• It is multiplied by 10 for
convenience, and therefore Levels are denoted by a capital L with
are shown in quantities of a subscript that indicates the type of level
deci-bels, to revert back to measured (intensity, pressure, power,
tenth of it’s quantity exposure)

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 47
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing

Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Levels and the Decibel

Decibel
• when two levels of equal value are combined the
resultant level is 3 dB greater than the original level
• i.e. two sounds, each producing an intensity level of 70 dB, when
combined would produce 73dB.
• when two widely varying levels are combined the result is
nearly equal to the larger level
Levels differ by: Resultant sound level (dB)
6 dB 1dB higher than the larger level
>10 dB ~equal as the larger level
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Levels and the Decibel

Sound Pressure Level

• most commonly used indicator of the acoustic wave strength
• reference sound pressure (just like intensity) is set at the
threshold of human hearing about 1000 Hz for a young person
• Resultant sound pressure level when it is equal to the reference
pressure is 0dB
• Sound intensity and pressure level are almost identical with
only the pressure differing less by the amount of air impedance

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Levels and the Decibel

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Levels and the

Decibel
Sound Power Level
• Sound Power: strength of an
acoustic source, expressed in
Watts
• Is much like the power of a light
bulb in that it is a direct
characterization of the source
strength
• Sound Power LEVEL: is a range
used to characterize the greatly
varying sound powers.
• reference power for this level is
10-12 Watts

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Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Levels and the Decibel

Source Characteristics
• Free field and near field
sound levelling off
• Near field measurement
distances are so close
compared to the size of
the source, the fall-off rate
does not apply.

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Levels and the Decibel

Source Characteristics
Sensitivity
−Mechanical equipment are measured by the sound
power level
−In the audio industry, loudspeakers are described by their
sensitivity
−sensitivity is the sound pressure level measured at a given
distance (usually 1 meter) on axis in front of the
loudspeaker for an electrical input power of 1 Watt
−are measured in octave bands
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Sound theory, concepts, and principles

Levels and the Decibel

Source Characteristics
Directionality, Directivity,
and Directivity Index
−sound pressure level at a
given distance from its
center is not the same in all
directions

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Human Perception and

Reaction
 Human hearing mechanisms
 Pitch, Loudness
 Intelligibility, Annoyance
 Health and Safety
 Others

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Human Perception and Reaction

Human hearing mechanisms

• The human ear can hear frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz

corresponding to 1.7cm to 17m or a ratio of 1000.
0 dB 1000 Hz 20 × 10-6 N/m2 or Pa
120 dB 20 Pa

• Atmospheric pressure: 101,000Pa

• The ear responds to extraordinarily small changes in pressure
• At the threshold of hearing, the ear drum moves at only 10
atomic diameters (atom = 1 to 2 angstroms or 10-10 meters).
• If our ears were any more sensitive we would hear the constant
background noise caused by thermal excitation of molecules
(Brownian movement)
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Human hearing mechanisms

• Ear has three main parts

• Outer (air-filled)
• Middle (air-filled)
• Inner (fluid-filled)
• Outer Ear
• Pinna (ear)
• Meatus (auditory canal)
• Lowest frequency resonated:
2700Hz
• Peak sensitivity: 3400Hz
• Increased sound level at ear
canal entrance by 10dB
• 15-30dB gain at ear drum
• Tympanic Membrane (Ear
Drum)
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Human Perception and Reaction

Human hearing mechanisms

• Middle Earth
• an air-filled cavity about 2 cu
cm in volume
• contains the mechanisms
(impedance matching
transformer) for the transfer of
the motion of the eardrum to
the cochlea in the inner ear
• Ear Drum
• A thin conical membrane
• At its center, is attached, the
malleus bone
• the malleus (hammer), incus
(anvil), and stapes (stirrup) act
as a mechanical linkage to the
Cochlea
• Eustachian Tube – atmospheric
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Human Perception and Reaction

Human hearing mechanisms

• Middle Earth
• Ear Drum: converting the low-
pressure, high-displacement
motion of the ear drum into a high-
pressure, low-displacement motion
• Motion transfer to Cochlea is not
linear but depends on amplitude
• Muscles tighten stapes to limit
excursion in high amplitudes
• Just as the eye pupil contracts to
protect from bright light
• Pain is produced when muscles
strain to protect nerve cells at high
noise levels
• Aural reflex is not complete
effective, having a delay of 0.5 ms
• Cannot block sound from gunshots
(rapid onset, impact sounds)
• Cannot contract indefinintely
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Human Perception and Reaction

Human hearing mechanisms

• Inner Ear
• Fluid-filled
• Sense balance and
acceleration (five separate
receptor organs)
• sacculus and utriculus: 15-30,000
hair cells in planar sheets to
detect V and H linear
acceleration
• 3 semi-circular canals for
orthogonal directions of angular
acceleration
• 7000 hair cells, provides
information on head orientation
and acceleration

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Human Perception and Reaction

Human hearing mechanisms

• Inner Ear
• Cochlea: Loudness and
frequency of airborne sound
waves
• fluid-filled tube containing the
hair cell transducers that sense
sound
• Stereocilia
• 5000 separately detectable
pitches over the 10 octaves of
audibility

• bilateral symmetry: backup

sense/location capability and
extra information for
decomposition of motion in any
direction
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Sound, Vibration, Wave Characteristics

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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness

 Chiefly a function of  human perception of how

frequency (Hz) high or low a tone sounds
 Subjective, depends on  Higher frequency higher
sound-pressure level pitch; Lower frequency lower
 Is measured in mel pitch
 Reference pitch of 1,000 mels
is defined as the pitch of a 1-
Khz tone with a sound-
pressure level of 60 dB.
 Human ear can discern 280
1Hz 1Hz
discernible steps in intensity
and 1,400 discernible steps in
pitch.
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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness
• Musical pitch is defined in terms of notes
• For low frequencies, the pitch goes down as the level of sound is increased (for
frequencies <300 Hz)
• For mid frequency, dependency is intensity
• At high frequencies the pitch increases with sound level (for frequencies >4000
Hz)

100 9000
Hz 100Hz Hz 9000Hz

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Pitch, Loudness

Critical Bands
−sensed by the position of maximum excursion along the basilar
membrane; when two tones are close enough with significant
overlap they are said to be of the same critical band
−play a role in music by defining regions of consonance and
dissonance
Tone Scales
• scale of notes, based on frequency intervals most fundamental
being the octave, or a doubling of frequency
• Each instrument has a band or range of tones (first harmonics,
or fundamentals, second (partials), or twice the frequency of
the fundamental, third, fourth, and so forth), or together a
tonal quality or spectrum, which is describes as the timbre.
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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness

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Pitch, Loudness

−human perception of the

magnitude of a sound,
how loud or soft sound is
−Loudness is subjective,
depends on psychological
and physiological state
−average of an ensemble of
listeners is taken as the
result for loudness
− Principles of ergodic
hypothesis in statistics
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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness PHONS

Loudness Levels
 Measured in phons
 Fletcher-Munson curves (experiments at Bell Labs, 1920-
30s)
 headphones
 Robinson-Dadson curves (1956)
 Anechoic chamber

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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch,
Loudness
 human hearing is significantly
less sensitive to low-frequency
sounds
 equal-loudness contours
 For any two points along
one of these curves the
perceived loudness of
tones is the same.
 At 1000 Hz the loudness level
is equal to the intensity level
(reference)

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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness

• Loudness curves based on octave-

band sound pressure level
measurements are commonly
used in buildings to establish
standards for various types of
activities
• including the identification of NOISE
CRITERIA LEVELS and conditions for
speech intelligibility
• rating indoor noise, noise from air-
conditioning equipment etc.
• The criteria curves define the limits
of octave band spectra that must
not be exceeded to meet
occupant acceptance in certain
spaces.
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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness

• Loudness curves based on

octave-band sound
pressure level
measurements are
commonly used in buildings
to establish standards for
various types of activities,
including the identification
of NOISE CRITERIA LEVELS
and conditions for speech
intelligibility
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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness

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Human Perception and Reaction

Pitch, Loudness

Environmental Impact
• Noise is often one of the
environmental effects
generated by a development,
through increases in traffic or
fixed noise sources.
• 1 dB change is the threshold for
most people; and a change in
level due to multiple sound
sources is equal to 1.26 ratio; it
would require a doubling of
noise source (ie, traffic) to
produce a 1dB change.
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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

Masking
 When two or more tones
sufficiently different are
listened to simultaneously, it
is difficult to perceive the
quieter tone.
 The quieter sound is masked
by the louder.
 Tones that are close in
frequency mask each other
more than those that are
widely separated.
 Tones mask upward in
frequency rather than
downward
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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

Speech Intelligibility
 Speech intelligibility is a direct
measure of the fraction of
words or sentences
understood by a listener.
• When the noise is higher than
the speech level, the signal-
to-noise ratio is negative
• 85-90% of words captured =
100% comprehension
• >60% of words captured =
90% comprehension

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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

is a measure of the degree to which background noise

interferes with speech.

Speech Interference Level

 a measure of a background noise’s potential to mask
speech
Preferred Speech Interference Level
• Estimates of the intelligibility of speech in the presence of
noise
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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

the SIL and

distance at which
a person would
have talk in a
normal, raised, very
loud or shouting
voice to be
understood

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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility,
Annoyance

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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

Noisiness Lolz
 Comparative and subjective measure
 Relative noisiness is described by a unit called noys
 Noisiness is affected by a number of factors that do not
influence loudness (Kryter,1970)
 Two that do affect loudness are the spectrum and the level

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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

Measuring Noisiness
 Time-averaging
 Averaging the sound level over a duration of time, a trade-off
between level and time (usually a one-hour time period).
 Weakness: does not accurately model human reaction to noise
from large variations of levels throughout the duration
 Extremely cumbersome for moving sources
 Compare:
 a steady noise level that does not vary over a time period, the Leq is the
same as the average level Lave
 a loud noise, say 90 dBA for one second, and 30 dBA for 59 seconds, then
the Leq for the minute time period would be 72.2 dBA; while Lave is only
31dB
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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

Measuring Noisiness
 Day-night level
 Characterization of environmental noise occurring between the
hours of 10 pm and 7 am the next day increased by 10 dB before
averaging
 Adding 10 dB, accounts for our increased sensitivity to nighttime
sounds

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Intelligibility, Annoyance PERSONAL

Annoyance
 Day-night level
 can be highly personal
 Any sound that is audible is potentially annoying to a given
individual
 Studies based mostly on aircraft noise, and much of it is based on
exterior noise levels
 Satisfactory levels of interior noise are less well defined.

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Intelligibility, Annoyance

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levels of noise
requisite
to protect public
health and welfare
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Human Perception and Reaction

Intelligibility, Annoyance

Annoyance
• in multifamily residential developments intrusive levels
generated by activities in another unit re rarely a problem
below 25 dBA.
• At 30 dBA they are clearly noticeable and can be a
source of annoyance, and above 35 dBA they frequently
generate complaints.

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Intelligibility, Annoyance

Annoyance
• In California, statutory limits in multifamily dwellings are set
at noise of a maximum of 45dB emanating from outside
the dwelling unit
• Statutory limits do not imply happiness but when civil penalties
are imposed
• Many people are not happy with noise levels of 45dB when the
source comes from outside their homes
 most residential structures provide about 20–25 dB of
exterior to interior noise reduction with windows closed
and about 10–15 dB with windows open
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Human Perception and Reaction adaptation occurs when stereocilia are pushed

Health and Safety farther than their normal excursion and the hair
cells acquire a new resting point, a new
operating position and do a recalibration or
reattachment of the spring to a gate at a slightly
different point on the neighboring cell.
Hearing Loss
 Noise levels above 120 dB produce physical pain in the human
ear
 sound levels about 80 dB above the auditory threshold cause stress on
the aural reflex muscles
 Exposure to loud noise damages the cochlear hair cells and a
loss of hearing acuity results
 temporary threshold shift: brief noise with long period of quiet =
temporary hearing loss
 The normal sounds we hear seem quieter after exposure to loud noises
• permanent threshold shift: the ear does not return to its original
threshold level
 The damage is done to the hair cells in the cochlea and is irreversible
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Human Perception and Reaction

Health and Safety

Hearing Loss
 Human hearing varies considerably with age, with different
frequencies degrading over time.
 no physiological effects for levels below 70 dBA
US Statutes on Protecting Hearing
• EPA task force recommended no more thana day-night level of 80
dBA to protect the population from adverse health effects on
hearing
• 8-hour Leq level of no more than 75 dBA to protect public health for
purposes of hearing conservation alone
• US OSHA: legal limit for workplace noise is 90 dBA for an 8-hour
workday with a 5 dBA per time halving tradeoff.

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Human Perception and Reaction

Health and Safety

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Human Perception and Reaction

Others

 Echo
 Perception of Direction
 Binaural Sounds

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=npGMhaOR7Rw

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Session 03 Agenda
Midterm Project Briefing Group Reporting Guidelines
 30 minutes each
Student Group Reporting
 Sound in the Free Field  You may present experiment
 Reflection and Diffusion examples
 Diffraction and Refraction  Grading mechanics:
 Reverberation  70% knowledge/mastery of
 Absorption subject matter
 20% presentation techniques
(verbal, gestural, etc.)
 5% PowerPoint Submission
 5% proper references, citations
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End of session 02
Thank you!

Aaron M Lecciones, MSc (Lond) | Architectural

Acoustics by M. Long; Master Handbook of Acoustics
9/20/2014 94
5th Ed. by FA Everest & KC Pohlmann; Springer
Handbook of Acoustics by T.D. Rossing