Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY2128

The Creation and Utilization of Transistors

Ibrahim S. Murtadha Hamza
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PAAET Kuwait

Abstract:- The transistor is a crucial component in revolutionary breakthrough in electronic technology. This
modern electronics, enabling the miniaturization and compact, energy-efficient, and reliable alternative to the
improvement of electronic systems. Its invention in 1947 vacuum tube paved the way for the development of smaller,
by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley faster, and more reliable electronic devices. The transistor's
at Bell Labs marked a revolutionary breakthrough in ability to perform the functions of a vacuum tube, but at a
electronic technology. The transistor's compact, energy- fraction of the size and power consumption, was a
efficient, and reliable nature allowed for the development transformative development that laid the groundwork for the
of smaller, faster, and more reliable electronic devices. rapid evolution of electronics and the information age. 4,5,6
Since its inception, the transistor has undergone
numerous innovations and advancements, evolving from Since its invention, the transistor has undergone
the original point-contact transistor to the highly efficient numerous innovations and advancements, evolving from the
and compact field-effect transistors (FETs) and metal- original point-contact transistor to the highly efficient and
oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) compact field-effect transistors (FETs) and metal-oxide-
used today. These advancements have facilitated the semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) used
development of increasingly complex and powerful today. These advancements have facilitated the development
electronic systems, including computers, smartphones, of increasingly complex and powerful electronic systems,
and the vast networks that form the backbone of the including computers, smartphones, and the vast networks that
internet. The ongoing research and development in form the backbone of the internet. The ongoing research and
transistor technology continues to push the boundaries of development in transistor technology continue to push the
what is possible, driving progress in fields ranging from boundaries of what is possible, driving progress in fields
computing and telecommunications to healthcare and ranging from computing and telecommunications to
renewable energy. The transistor's significance cannot be healthcare and renewable energy.7,9
overstated; it is a cornerstone of modern technology and
a key driver of innovation and economic growth. The significance of the transistor cannot be overstated;
it is a cornerstone of modern technology and a key driver of
Keywords:- Transistor, Electronic, Semiconductor, innovation and economic growth. As we delve deeper into the
Materials Science. various aspects of transistors, including their materials,
manufacturing processes, and future prospects; it becomes
I. INTRODUCTION evident that these devices are not just components of
electronic circuits but are fundamental building blocks of the
Transistors are the backbone of modern electronics, modern world. Understanding the history, operation, and
playing a crucial role in the operation of virtually all impact of transistors is essential for anyone seeking to
electronic devices today. These semiconductor devices are comprehend the technological landscape of the 21st century.
able to amplify or switch electronic signals, making them
indispensable components in a wide array of applications, II. HISTORY OF THE TRANSISTOR
from simple household gadgets to sophisticated industrial
machinery. The inception of the transistor marked the dawn The transistor, a cornerstone of modern electronics, was
of the digital age, propelling humanity into an era of born out of a quest to find a compact, reliable, and efficient
unprecedented technological advancement and connectivity. alternative to the vacuum tubes of the early 20th century.
This foundational invention has not only enabled the Vacuum tubes, though pivotal in the advancement of
miniaturization of electronic circuits but has also significantly electronic technology, were bulky, consumed a lot of power,
improved the efficiency and performance of electronic and had a limited lifespan, making them impractical for many
systems.1,2,3 applications. The breakthrough came in 1947 at Bell
Laboratories in the United States, where scientists John
The history of the transistor begins in the early 20th Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invented the
century, amidst a quest to overcome the limitations of the first point-contact transistor, a discovery that would earn
vacuum tubes used in electronic circuits at the time. Vacuum them the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956. 8
tubes, though effective in amplifying electrical signals, were
bulky, energy-intensive, and prone to failure, which limited
their practicality in compact and reliable devices. The
invention of the transistor in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Labs represented a

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Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY2128

This invention heralded a new era in electronics, making B. Alternative Semiconductor Materials
it possible to develop smaller, more reliable, and more Beyond silicon, the quest for materials with superior
efficient devices. The initial point-contact transistor was properties for specific applications has led to the exploration
quickly followed by the development of the bipolar junction and use of alternative semiconductor materials. Germanium,
transistor (BJT) in 1948, which offered better reliability and for instance, was used in early transistors before being largely
performance. BJTs became a fundamental building block in supplanted by silicon due to its better thermal stability and
the fabrication of electronic devices, from radios and lower cost. However, germanium still finds use in certain
televisions to computers.7,9 high-speed devices and infrared optics due to its high charge
carrier mobility.14
The 1960s saw the emergence of the metal-oxide-
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), which Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is another alternative material
further revolutionized electronic circuit design due to its low that offers advantages over silicon in high-frequency and
power consumption and high density, making it ideal for optoelectronic applications, such as in the manufacture of
integrated circuits. The MOSFET's invention is often credited LEDs, laser diodes, and high-speed integrated circuits. GaAs
to Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in transistors are particularly valued in mobile phones and
1959. This technology laid the groundwork for the satellite communications for their ability to operate at
microelectronics revolution of the late 20th century, enabling frequencies where silicon devices cannot effectively
the development of microprocessors and semiconductor function.15
memory, which are the heart of all modern computing
devices.9 Over the decades, continual advancements in Silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) are two
transistor technology have pushed the boundaries of what is more materials that have gained attention for their potential
electronically possible, leading to the exponential growth of in high-power and high-temperature applications. Silicon
computing power described by Moore's Law. This law, carbide is used in power devices that operate at higher
proposed by Gordon Moore in 1965, observed that the voltages and temperatures than those possible with silicon,
number of transistors on a microchip-doubles approximately making it ideal for electric vehicles and high-power
every two years, a trend that has largely held true, driving applications. Gallium nitride, on the other hand, excels in
forward the complexity and capabilities of electronic high-frequency devices and is increasingly used in RF and
devices.9 microwave applications.16,17

The history of the transistor is not just a story of The sourcing and supply of these alternative materials,
scientific and technological achievement but also a narrative however, come with their own set of challenges. While
of how a single invention can transform the world. From silicon is abundant and widely available, materials like
enabling the rise of computers and smartphones to its critical gallium and indium are much rarer and are subject to supply
role in the development of sensors, solar cells, and a myriad constraints and geopolitical issues. The extraction and
of other electronic devices, the transistor continues to be an processing of these materials also pose environmental
essential element of innovation in the 21st century. concerns, necessitating the development of sustainable and
ethical sourcing practices.18
III. RAW MATERIALS AND SOURCING
IV. SUPPLY CHAIN CHALLENGES
A. Silicone and Its Global Supply
Silicon stands as the cornerstone of transistor The global supply chain for transistors and their raw
technology, serving as the primary material for most materials faces numerous challenges, including geopolitical
semiconductor devices due to its abundant availability and tensions, environmental, and ethical concerns, which have a
excellent semiconductor properties. Extracted from quartz significant impact on the availability, cost, and sustainability
sand (silica), silicon's global supply chain is robust, with of semiconductor manufacturing.
major reserves found across various continents, including
Asia, North America, Europe, and South America. China, the A. Geopolitical Tensions
United States, Brazil, and Russia are among the top countries The production and supply of semiconductor materials
in terms of silicon production, ensuring a steady supply of this are highly concentrated in specific regions, leading to
critical material for the semiconductor industry.10,11 vulnerabilities in the global supply chain. For instance, the
tension between the United States and China has raised
The process of converting natural silica into high-purity concerns about the availability of critical materials like
silicon suitable for semiconductor applications is both silicon, gallium, and rare earth elements, essential for
complex and energy-intensive. It involves the reduction of semiconductor manufacturing. The U.S. Department of
silica using carbon in a high-temperature arc furnace, Commerce has highlighted the risks associated with the
followed by purification processes to achieve the concentration of semiconductor manufacturing capabilities in
semiconductor-grade silicon, with a purity of 99.99% or East Asia, emphasizing the need for diversified supply chains
higher. This level of purity is crucial for the efficient to ensure national security.19
performance of semiconductor devices, as impurities can
significantly affect their electrical properties.12,13

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Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY2128

B. Environmental and Ethical Concerns recognized as the largest semiconductor foundries

The extraction and processing of semiconductor worldwide, with a significant portion of the market share.
materials have significant environmental impacts, including TSMC's annual report and Samsung's financial disclosures
habitat destruction, water pollution, and greenhouse gas offer detailed insights into their capacities, technological
emissions. The production of high-purity silicon, for advancements, and contributions to the global semiconductor
example, requires large amounts of energy, contributing to supply.25,26
CO2 emissions. A study published in the "Journal of Cleaner
Production" examines the lifecycle environmental impact of The strategic positioning of Taiwan, South Korea, and
semiconductor manufacturing, calling for the adoption of the United States in the semiconductor manufacturing
greener manufacturing processes and materials. 20 industry is no accident. It is the result of years of investment
in research and development, education to cultivate a skilled
The mining of rare earth elements and other critical workforce, and policies designed to foster innovation and
materials raises ethical concerns related to labor practices and growth in high-tech sectors. The Semiconductor Industry
community impacts. Countries like the Democratic Republic Association (SIA) annually reports on the health and trends
of Congo, a major supplier of cobalt, have been scrutinized of the semiconductor industry, noting the critical importance
for labor conditions and human rights issues. The "Extractive of these nations in maintaining the robustness and reliability
Industries Transparency Initiative" (EITI) promotes of the global semiconductor supply chain.27
transparency and accountability in the extraction of natural
resources to address these ethical concerns.21 VI. THE FUTURE OF TRANSISTORS

The semiconductor industry is responding to these A. Miniaturization and Efficiency

challenges through various initiatives, including the The drive towards further miniaturization and increased
development of alternative materials with lower efficiency of transistors is a central theme of semiconductor
environmental impacts, the adoption of circular economy research. Following Moore's Law, the industry has
practices to reduce waste, and the diversification of supply successfully doubled the number of transistors on a microchip
chains to mitigate geopolitical risks. For instance, the approximately every two years, leading to exponential
"Semiconductor Industry Association" (SIA) advocates for growth in computing power. However, as transistor sizes
policies to strengthen the resilience of the semiconductor approach the physical limits of silicon-based technology,
supply chain and to support research into sustainable researchers are finding innovative ways to continue this trend.
materials and processes.22 Techniques such as 3D stacking and FinFET (Fin Field-
Effect Transistor) architectures allow for greater transistor
V. MAJOR EXPORTERS AND PRODUCERS density and improved performance without necessarily
reducing the size of individual transistors. These methods not
A. Leading Nations in Raw Materials only enhance computational power but also contribute to
China's prominence in the global supply of critical raw energy efficiency by reducing power consumption. 28,29
materials for semiconductor manufacturing, such as rare earth
elements and polysilicon, is unparalleled. The country's B. New Materials and Technologies
strategic dominance is underscored by its position as the In addition to architectural innovations, the exploration
world's largest producer of rare earth elements, critical not of new materials beyond silicon represents a frontier in
only for transistors but for a myriad of electronic components transistor technology. Materials such as graphene, with its
that power today's technology. The United States Geological exceptional electrical conductivity and strength, and
Survey (USGS) provides extensive data on this production, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), known for their
highlighting China's significant role in the sector.23,24 semiconducting properties, are under intense study for their
potential to surpass silicon in speed and efficiency. Moreover,
Beyond rare earth elements, the global supply of the development of silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride
semiconductor-grade silicon is another critical area where (GaN) technologies is advancing power electronics, enabling
certain countries stand out. The United States, Brazil, and devices that can operate at higher temperatures, voltages, and
Russia are noted for their substantial contributions, with efficiencies than those made with traditional silicon. 16,30
extensive silicon production facilities that support the
semiconductor industry's needs. The International Energy Quantum computing presents another transformative
Agency (IEA) reports on global silicon production, indicating direction for the future of transistors. While traditional
these countries' pivotal roles in ensuring a steady supply of transistors operate based on the binary system, quantum
this essential material.12 transistors utilize the principles of quantum mechanics to
process information in fundamentally new ways. This could
B. Top Countries in Transistor Manufacturing lead to computers that are vastly more powerful than today's
When it comes to the manufacturing of transistors and most advanced supercomputers for certain tasks, such as
integrated circuits, Taiwan, South Korea, and the United cryptography and complex simulations. An example of how
States are at the forefront. These countries are home to this has been applied is the advent of artificial intelligence
industry giants such as TSMC in Taiwan, Samsung services, which have been on the rise in recent years, and is
Electronics in South Korea, and Intel Corporation in the predicted to impact every corner of global commerce. 31
United States. TSMC and Samsung, in particular, are

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Volume 9, Issue 5, May – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAY2128

VII. CONCLUSION [3]. Raj A. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE

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