TEAM TENT DISCUSSION GROUP

YEAR 3 SEMESTER ONE

ELE3114: ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND DRIVES I
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND INDUCTION

SOLUTIONS
Question 1
a) Define and explain a magnetic circuit?
This refers to a complete closed path followed by a group of magnetic flux lines.
In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux leaves from north pole, passes through
the circuit and returns to the north pole
b) Write short notes on the following terms in relation to magnetic
circuits:
i) Relative permeability
This refers to ratio of permeability of medium to permeability of free space.
ii) Permeance
Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance. It is the ease of the magnetic material
with which magnetic flux is set-up in it. It is equivalent to conductance in an
electric circuit. Its unit is weber per ampere-turn.
1 𝜇𝐴
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = =
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙
iii) Magnetic reluctance
This is the opposition offered to the magnetic flux by a magnetic circuit. It is
expresses as; 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑙/(𝜇𝐴)
iv) Hysteresis of a magnetic material
This is a phenomenon in which the magnetic flux density (B) lags behind the
magnetic field intensity (H) in a magnetic material.
v) Composite magnetic circuit
A composite magnetic circuit consists of different magnetic materials. The
magnetic materials have different permeabilities and length it may also have air
gaps and each path will have its own reluctance.
vi) Magnetic fringing
 This is a phenomenon in which magnetic flux lines of force tend to bulge out
as they cross air gaps in a magnetic circuit. The reason is that the magnetic
lines of force repel each other when passing through non-magnetic material.
vii) Leakage factor
Leakage factor is defined as the ratio of total flux to the useful flux.
c)
i) State Ohm’s law for magnetic circuits.
The ‘ohms law’ of a magnetic circuit is given by;
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥)(𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 𝑖𝑒 𝑵𝒊 = 𝝓𝒎 𝓡
ii) Give similarities of electric and magnetic circuits.

Magnetic circuit Electric circuit

mmf (Ampere-turns) emf (volts)
Magnetic reluctance Electrical Resistance
Magnetic reluctivity Resistivity
Permeance Conductance
Magnetic Flux Electric Current
Magnetic flux density Current density
Magnetic field intensity Electric field intensity

d) Why does leakage occur in a magnetic circuit.

In a parallel magnetic circuit, a large amount of flux follows the intended path. At
the same time a small amount of flux leaks through the surrounding air since air
is not a magnetic insulator. Therefore, leakage of flux takes place easily. The
leakage flux is useless, it is harmful in an electrical machine.
e) Why is it necessary to keep air gaps in magnetic circuits as small as
possible.
Usually, the ampere-turns (AT) required for the airgap is much greater than that
required for the magnetic circuit. It is because the reluctance of air is very high as
compared to that offered by the magnetic material and also the effect of magnetic
fringing increases with increase in size of the air gap. Therefore, it is always
preferred to keep air gaps in magnetic circuits as small as possible
Question 2
The magnetic circuit shown in the figure 2 below has dimensions: 𝑨𝒄 =
𝟒 × 𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟐 , 𝒍𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝒄𝒎, 𝒍𝒄 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒄𝒎, 𝑵 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔. Assume that 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 for
iron. Find the exciting current for 𝑩𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑻 and the corresponding flux
and flux linkages.

Fig. 2

𝑙 𝐵𝑙
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝑖 = 𝜙𝑚 ℛ = 𝐵𝐴 ( )=
𝜇𝐴 𝜇
From the equivalent electric circuit, the core reluctance is in series with that of
the air gap. Hence the net mmf becomes;
𝐵𝑐 𝑙𝑐 𝐵𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝑁𝑖 = +
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝, 𝐵𝑐 = 𝐵𝑔 = 𝐵
𝐵 𝑙𝑐 1.2 40
𝑖= [ + 𝑙𝑔 ] = [ + 0.06] × 10−2 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟏 𝑨 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑁𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 600 6000
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥, 𝜙𝑚 = 𝐵𝐴 = 1.2 × 4 × 4 × 10−4 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐 𝒎𝑾𝒃
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝜆 = 𝑁𝜙𝑚 = 600 × 1.92𝑚 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟐 𝑾𝒃. 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔
Question 3
A wrought iron bar 𝟑𝟎 𝒄𝒎 long and 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 in diameter is bent into a circular
shape as shown in the figure 3 below. It is then wound with 600 turns of
wire. Calculate the current required to produce a flux of 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎𝑾𝒃 in the
magnetic circuit in the following cases:

Fig. 3
i) No air-gap.
𝜙𝑚 ℛ 𝑙𝑐 𝜙𝑚 (30 × 10−2 )(0.5 × 10−3 )
𝑖= = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝑨
𝑁 𝑁𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐴𝑐 (600)(4000)(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(𝜋 × 10−4 )

ii) With an air gap of 𝟏 𝒎𝒎, 𝝁𝒓 (𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏) = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕)

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑔
(0.5 × 10−3 ) 30
𝑖= −7 −4
[ + 0.1] × 10−2 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔𝟗 𝑨
4𝜋 × 10 × 600(𝜋 × 10 ) 4000

iii) With an air gap of 𝟏 𝒎𝒎. Assume the following data for the
magnetization of iron:
𝐻(𝐴𝑇/𝑚) 2500 3000 3500 4000
𝐵(𝑇) 1.55 1.59 1.60 1.615
𝜙𝑚 0.5 × 10−3
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝐵𝑐 = 𝐵𝑔 = = = 1.59 𝑇
𝐴 𝜋 × 10−4
𝐴𝑡 𝐵𝑐 = 1.59 𝑇, 𝐻𝑐 = 3000 𝐴𝑇/𝑚
𝐻𝑐 𝑙𝑐 𝐵𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝑖= +
𝑁 𝑁𝜇𝑜 𝐴𝑔
(3000)(30 × 10−2 ) (0.5 × 10−3 )
𝑖= + 0.1 × 10−2 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟏𝟏 𝑨
600 4𝜋 × 10−7 × 600(𝜋 × 10−4 )
Question 4
For the magnetic circuit in figure 4 below, find the magnetic flux
density and flux in each of the outer limbs and the central limbs.
Assume the relative permeability of iron of the core to be:
i) infinitely high
ii) 4500

Fig. 4

i)
𝜇𝑟 = ∞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤:
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝑖 = (1000)(0.5) = 500 𝐴𝑇
(2 × 10−3 )
ℛ𝑔1 = = 0.6366 × 106 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(25 × 10−4 )
(1 × 10−3 )
ℛ𝑔2 = = 0.3183 × 106 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(25 × 10−4 )
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃;
𝑁𝑖 500
𝜙1 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝑾𝒃
ℛ𝑔1 0.6366𝑀
𝜙1 0.785𝑚
𝐵1 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝑻
𝐴 25 × 10−4
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃;
𝑁𝑖 500
𝜙2 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟕𝟏 𝒎𝑾𝒃
ℛ𝑔2 0.3183𝑀
𝜙2 1.571𝑚
𝐵2 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟖 𝑻
𝐴 25 × 10−4
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃;
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 = 1.571𝑚 + 0.785𝑚 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝒎𝑾
𝜙 2.356𝑚
𝐵= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟏 𝑻
𝐴𝑚 50 × 10−4
ii)
𝜇𝑟 = 4500, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤:

𝑙𝑐1 = 𝑙𝑐2 = (40 + 5) + 2(30 + 5 + 2.5) = 120 𝑐𝑚

Since gap lengths are negligible compared to core lengths, various core
reluctances can be calculated as follows:
(120 × 10−2 )
ℛ𝑐1 = ℛ𝑐2 = = 0.085 × 106 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
4500(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(25 × 10−4 )
𝑙𝑐3 = (40 + 5) = 45 𝑐𝑚
(45 × 10−2 )
ℛ𝑐3 = −7 −4
= 0.016 × 106 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
4500(4𝜋 × 10 )(50 × 10 )
ℛ𝑐1 + ℛ𝑔1 = 0.6366 + 0.084 = 0.7206 × 106 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
ℛ𝑐2 + ℛ𝑔2 = 0.3183 + 0.085 = 0.4033 × 106 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
ℛ𝑒𝑞 = [ℛ𝑐1 + ℛ𝑔1 ]||[ℛ𝑐2 + ℛ𝑔2 ] + ℛ𝑐3
0.4033 × 0.7206
ℛ𝑒𝑞 = [ + 0.016] × 106 = 0.2746 × 106 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
0.7206 + 0.4033
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃;
500
𝜙= = 1.821 𝑚𝑊𝑏
0.2746𝑀
𝜙 1.821𝑚
𝐵= = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝑻
𝐴𝑚 50 × 10−4
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃;
0.4033
𝜙1 = ( 1.821𝑚) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟑 𝒎𝑾𝒃
1.1239
0.653𝑚
𝐵1 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝑻
25 × 10−4
𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃;
0.7206
𝜙2 = (1.821𝑚) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝑾𝒃
1.1239
1.168𝑚
𝐵2 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟕 𝑻
25 × 10−4
Question 5
The magnetic circuit shown in figure 5 has cast steel core. The cross-
sectional area of the central limb is 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐 and that of each outer limb
is 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟐. Calculate the exciting current needed to setup a flux of
𝟎. 𝟖 𝒎𝑾𝒃 in the air gap. Neglect magnetic leakage and fringing. The
magnetization characteristic of cast steel is also provided on curve below.

Fig. 5
𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒈𝒂𝒑;
0.8 × 10−3 1
𝐵𝑔 = = 1 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑔 = 𝐴/𝑚
800 × 10−6 4𝜋 × 10−7
1 × 10−3
𝑚𝑚𝑓 = = 796 𝐴𝑇
4𝜋 × 10−7
𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃:
𝐵𝑐 = 𝐵𝑔 = 1 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝐻𝑐 = 1000 𝐴𝑇/𝑚

𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 1000(160 × 10−3 ) = 160 𝐴𝑇

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒃𝒔;
𝐵𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑠, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒;
0.8
𝜙𝑚 (@ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑠) = = 0.4 𝑚𝑊𝑏
2
0.4 × 10−3
𝐵(@ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑠) = = 0.667 𝑇
600 × 10−6
𝐵𝑐 = 0.667 𝑇, 𝑯𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑨𝑻/𝒎 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒅𝒇.
𝑚𝑚𝑓 (@ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑠) = 375(400 × 10−3 ) = 150 𝐴𝑇
𝑚𝑚𝑓 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙) = 796 + 160 + 150 = 1106 𝐴𝑇
1106
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝑨
500
Question 6
a) Advance a qualitative explanation for reduction of eddy current loss
by using a core composed of silicon steel laminations.
• Eddy current loss reduction is achieved by adding silicon to steel since it
has a higher value of resistivity.
• The resulting composite silicon-steel core is then split into thin sheets
called laminations in the planes parallel to the magnetic field.
• Each lamination is insulated from the other by a fine layer of insulation
(varnish or oxide film). This arrangement reduces the area of each section
and hence the induced emf.
It also increases the resistance of eddy currents path since the area
through which the currents can pass is smaller.
 Illustration

• The power loss due to eddy currents is proportional to the square of

frequency of the magnetic field given by the empirical formula below;
𝑷𝒆 = ( 𝑲′𝒆 𝑩𝒎 )𝒇𝟐 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑷𝒆 ∝ 𝒇𝟐
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒; 𝐾𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒′ 𝐵𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐾𝑒′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙.
𝐵𝑚 𝑖 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
b) Explain how hysteresis losses arise in an iron core and how they are
minimized?
• When a magnetizing force is applied, the magnetic material is magnetized
and the molecular magnets are lined up in a particular direction according
to domain theory of magnetization.
• However, when the magnetizing force in a magnetic material is reversed,
the internal friction of the molecular magnets (magnetic dipoles) opposes
the reversal of magnetism, resulting in hysteresis.
• To overcome this internal friction of the molecular magnets (or to wipe off
the residual magnetism), a part of the magnetizing force is used. The work
done by the magnetizing force against this internal friction of molecular
magnets produces heat.
• This energy, which is wasted in the form of heat due to hysteresis, is
called hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss occurs in all the magnetic parts of
electrical machines where there is reversal of magnetization.
Consequently, it increases the temperature of the machine which is
undesirable.
 • Therefore, a suitable magnetic material is selected for the construction of
such parts, e.g., silicon steel is most suitable in which hysteresis loss is
minimum.

• From the above magnetization curves, it can be seen that the hysteresis
loop for silicon steel is shown in (b). has smallest area which indicates
that this material will have small hysteresis loss.
• Therefore, it is most suitable for the construction of those parts of electrical
machines in which reversal of magnetization is very quick e.g., armature
of DC machines, transformer core, starter of induction motors etc.
• The hysteresis loss can be evaluated according to Steinmetz empirical
formula in which the loss is proportional to the frequency as shown below;
𝑷𝒉 = (𝑲′𝒉 𝑩𝒏𝒎 )𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑷𝒉 ∝ 𝒇
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒; 𝐾ℎ = 𝐾ℎ′ 𝐵𝑚
𝑛
𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
′
𝐾ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑠, 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙.
𝐵𝑚 𝑖 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑏/𝑚2
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑧 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

c) The eddy current loss is directly proportional to the square of the

supply frequency whereas hysteresis loss is proportional to the
supply frequency. Given that the total core loss of a specimen of
silicon steel is found to be 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑾 at 𝟓𝟎 𝑯𝒛. Keeping the flux density
constant, the loss becomes 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾 when the frequency is raised to
𝟕𝟓 𝑯𝒛. Calculate separately the hysteresis and eddy current loss at
each of these frequencies.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡; 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃ℎ = 𝑘𝑒 𝑓 2 + 𝑘ℎ 𝑓
1500 = 𝑘𝑒 (50)2 + 𝑘ℎ (50) ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒; 50𝑘𝑒 + 𝑘ℎ = 30 … … … … … … … … … … … 1)
3000 = 𝑘𝑒 (75)2 + 𝑘ℎ (75) ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒; 75𝑘𝑒 + 𝑘ℎ = 40 … … … … … … … … … … … .2)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑠𝑙𝑦; 𝐴 = 0.4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 10
𝑯𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔;
𝑃ℎ (50 𝐻𝑧) = 10(50) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑾
𝑃ℎ (75𝐻𝑧) = 10(75 𝐻𝑧) = 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝑾
𝑬𝒅𝒅𝒚 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔;
𝑃𝑒 (50 𝐻𝑧) = 0.4(50)2 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾
𝑃𝑒 (75 𝐻𝑧) = 0.4(75)2 = 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑾
Question 8
a) Write the expression for inducted emf (rms) in an ac excited coil
wound in an iron core. Use standard symbols
𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝑩𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑨𝒄 𝑵𝒇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝐴𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
b) Write the expression for the self-inductance of a coil wound on an
iron core.
𝑁 2 𝐵𝐴 𝑁 2 𝜇𝐴
𝐿= =
𝐻𝑙 𝑙
c) What is the phase angle between flux and induced emf in an ac
excited coil wound on an iron core?
𝜋
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 90 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑟
2
d) For the magnetic circuit shown below, find the self and mutual
inductances between the two coils. Core permeability is 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎.
 i) When the 500 turns coil is excited with 1A.
𝑙1 = 2(6 + 0.5 + 1) + (4 + 2) = 21 𝑐𝑚
𝑙2 = 2(3 + 0.5 + 1) + (4 + 2) = 15 𝑐𝑚
(21 × 10−2 )
ℛ1 = = 0.261 × 106
1600(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(4 × 10−4 )
(15 × 10−2 )
ℛ2 = = 0.187 × 106
1600(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(4 × 10−4 )
(6 × 10−2 )
ℛ0 = = 0.149 × 106
1600(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(2 × 10−4 )
ℛ ′ = ℛ1 + ℛ0 ||ℛ2 = [0.261 + 0.187||0.149] × 106 = 0.344 × 106
500
𝜙1 = = 1.453 𝑚𝑊𝑏
0.344 × 106
0.149
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 2 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 1, 𝜙21 = 𝜙2 = 1.453𝑚 ( ) = 0.644 𝑚𝑊𝑏
0.187 + 0.149
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 1, 𝐿11 = 𝑁1 𝜙1 = 500(1.453𝑚) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟔𝟓 𝑯
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 2, 𝑀21 = 𝑁2 𝜙21 = 1000(0.644𝑚) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟒 𝑯
ii) When the 1000 turns coil is excited with 1A.
ℛ ′′ = ℛ2 + ℛ0 ||ℛ1 = [0.187 + 0.281||0.149] × 106 = 0.284 × 106
1000
𝜙2 = = 3.521 𝑚𝑊𝑏
0.284 × 106
𝑁2 𝜙2
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 2, 𝐿22 = = 1000(3.521𝑚) = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝑯
𝑖
𝑁1 𝜙12
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 1, 𝑀12 = = 𝑀21 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟒 𝑯
𝑖
(𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒚𝒐𝒖 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒅𝒐 𝒊𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔)
Question 8
For the magnetic circuit shown in “Fig. 2 of Question 2”, find the
following:
a) Induced 𝒆𝒎𝒇, 𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝒄 = (𝟏. 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟏𝟒𝒕) 𝑻
𝐼𝑛 𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜆 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑠 1.152 𝑊𝑏 − 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑐 = 1.2 𝑇,
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑐 , 𝜆 = 1.152 sin 314𝑡 𝑊𝑏. 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
𝑑𝜆
Induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒 = = 361.7 cos 314𝑡 𝑉
𝑑𝑡

b) Reluctance 𝓡𝒄 and 𝓡𝒈
 0.4
ℛ𝑐 = = 3.316 × 104 𝐴𝑇/𝑚
6000(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(16 × 10−4 )
6 × 10−4
ℛ𝑔 = = 29.842 × 104 𝐴𝑇/𝑊𝑏
(4𝜋 × 10−7 )(16 × 10−4 )
c) coil inductance, L and
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑸𝒖𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 2 𝑖 = 1.06 𝐴
𝜆 1.152
𝐿= = = 1.09𝐻
𝑖 1.06
d) magnetic field energy at 𝑩𝒄 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑻
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 1 𝜆2
𝑊𝑓 = ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝜆 = ∫0 (𝐿 ) 𝑑𝜆 = 2 ( 𝐿 )
1 1.1522
𝑊𝑓 = 2 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏 𝑱
1.09

Question 9
a) What is the relevance of air gaps in the cores of rotating machines?
Air gaps in rotating machines are needed to facilitate electromagnetic
interactions, control magnetic flux, accommodate mechanical tolerances,
prevent electrical contact, and aid in heat dissipation, ensuring the machines'
efficient and reliable operation.
b) Discuss the importance of prime mover, electric generators, electric
motors and transformers in practical power system networks.
Prime Movers:
• Prime movers are devices responsible for converting various forms of
energy (such as mechanical, chemical, or thermal energy) into mechanical
energy that drives electric generators. They are the initial source of power
generation in most power plants.
• Examples: Steam turbines, gas turbines, internal combustion engines,
hydro turbines, and wind turbines are common prime movers.
• Function: Prime movers are crucial for supplying the initial mechanical
energy needed to rotate the generator's rotor. They determine the overall
efficiency and reliability of power generation in a power plant.
Electric Generators:
• Electric generators are vital for converting mechanical energy into electrical
energy. They are the heart of power generation systems and play a key
role in supplying electricity to homes, industries, and businesses.
• Examples: Alternators, synchronous generators, and induction generators
are common types of electric generators.
• Function: Generators produce electricity by rotating a coil or rotor within a
magnetic field, inducing an electromotive force (EMF) and generating
 alternating current (AC). They are responsible for generating the electricity
that powers homes, industries, and infrastructure.
Electric Motors:
• Electric motors are essential for converting electrical energy back into
mechanical energy. They are used in countless applications, including
industrial machinery, transportation, HVAC systems, and appliances.
• Examples: There are various types of electric motors, such as induction
motors, synchronous motors, and DC motors.
• Function: Electric motors convert electrical power into rotational or linear
mechanical motion. They are fundamental in a wide range of equipment
and processes, from driving pumps and fans to powering vehicles and
conveyor systems.
Transformers:
• Transformers are critical for voltage transformation and power distribution
within a power system network. They allow for efficient transmission of
electricity over long distances and enable voltage levels to be adjusted as
needed.
• Examples: Power transformers and distribution transformers are common
types of transformers used in power systems.
• Function: Transformers step up or step down voltage levels, allowing
electricity to be transmitted at high voltages over long distances with
minimal energy loss and then reduced to safe and usable levels for end-
users. They are essential for maintaining the quality and reliability of the
electrical supply.
c) Explain the origin of magnetostriction noise (humming) in
ferromagnetic materials.
• Magnetostriction effect is a property of ferromagnetic materials in which
their dimensions are changed due to change of magnetic field.
• If a piece of magnetic sheet like steel is magnetized it will extend itself.
And when the magnetization is taken away, it goes back to its original
condition.
• The lengthwise change is of the order of 10-5 m and is accompanied by
transverse changes of the opposite sign.
• Their nature is hysteric with consequent dissipation of energy when
magnetization is alternating. Further, there are associated mechanical
stresses which produce noise in audible bandwidth which can be a
nuisance for high flux densities employed in transformers in modern
practice.
d) Explain why a ferromagnetic material exhibits its typical B-H
behaviour.
A ferromagnetic material exhibits its typical B-H (magnetic flux density vs.
magnetic field strength) behavior due to the unique alignment of magnetic
moments within its atomic or molecular structure. This behavior is
characterized by a steep initial increase in magnetization with applied
magnetic field strength, followed by saturation and hysteresis effects
explained below;

Atomic Magnetic Moments: In a ferromagnetic material, such as iron,

nickel, or cobalt, individual atoms or ions have inherent magnetic moments
arising from the spin and orbital motion of their electrons. These magnetic
moments are like tiny bar magnets associated with each atom.

Magnetic Domains: Ferromagnetic materials are divided into small

regions called magnetic domains. Within each domain, the magnetic
moments of individual atoms are aligned in the same direction, producing
a net magnetic moment for that domain. However, the orientations of
magnetic moments in different domains can be random, resulting in no net
magnetization for the entire material.

Spontaneous Alignment: When a ferromagnetic material is exposed to

an external magnetic field (H), the magnetic moments within the domains
tend to align themselves with the field direction. This alignment process is
spontaneous and energetically favorable because it reduces the energy
associated with the magnetic moments being out of alignment.

Saturation: As the external magnetic field strength (H) is increased, more

and more magnetic domains align with the field, leading to an increase in
the total magnetization (B). This process continues until most of the
magnetic domains are aligned, reaching a point of saturation. At
saturation, further increases in H do not significantly increase the
magnetization because nearly all domains are already aligned.

Hysteresis: When the external magnetic field is reduced to zero (i.e., the
material is demagnetized), some of the magnetic domains may not revert
to their initial random orientations. This results in a residual
magnetization (remanent magnetization), and the B-H curve does not
return to the origin but instead follows a different path. This phenomenon
is called hysteresis and is characteristic of ferromagnetic materials.
f) Write brief notes on the magnetic susceptibility, relative
permeability and dipoles of the following classifications of magnetic
materials giving at least one example of each:
i) Diamagnetic
• These are materials that do not have permanent magnetic dipoles and they
are weakly magnetized in the opposite direction to that of the magnetic
field.
• Diamagnetic materials exhibit negative magnetic susceptibility.
• The relative permeability of diamagnetic materials is slightly less than 1,
meaning they have a very weak response to magnetic fields and tend to
weaken the overall magnetic field.
• They have paired electrons, and their magnetic moments tend to cancel
each other out, resulting in a net magnetic moment close to zero.
• Examples include; gold, bismuth, copper
ii) Paramagnetic
• These are materials that have permanent magnetic dipoles and they are
weakly magnetized in the direction of the applied magnetic field.
• Paramagnetic materials exhibit positive magnetic susceptibility.
• The relative permeability of paramagnetic materials is greater than 1 but
still relatively close to 1, indicating a modest increase in magnetic field
strength when subjected to an external field.
• Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons, which create magnetic
moments that align with the external magnetic field, contributing to their
weak magnetism
• Examples include; gold, platinum
iii) Ferromagnetic
• These are materials that have permanent magnetic dipoles and they are
strongly magnetized by weak magnetic fields. These materials have a
strong interaction between dipoles hence leading to parallel orientation of
dipoles.
• Ferromagnetic materials exhibit very high positive magnetic susceptibility.
They have a strong tendency to align their magnetic moments with the
applied field.
• The relative permeability of ferromagnetic materials is significantly greater
than 1, often reaching values in the thousands or more, which greatly
enhances the strength of the magnetic field.
• Ferromagnetic materials have numerous unpaired electrons, and their
magnetic moments align spontaneously in domains. These domains
contribute to strong magnetization.
• Examples include; iron, nickel, cobalt
COMPILED BY DAVID