PARTS OF SPEECH

In the English language there are eight parts of speech. They help you understand words and how to use them in sentences. Every
word in every sentence is a part of speech. The chart below lists the eight parts of speech.

NOUNS A word that names a person, a place, a thing or

an idea.

Examples: _______________, _______________, _______________

PRONOUNS. A word used in place of a noun or an idea.

Examples: _______________, _______________, _______________

ADJECTIVES A word that describes a noun or a pronoun

Examples: _______________, _______________, _______________

VERBS A word that shows action.

Examples: _______________, _______________, _______________

ADVERBS A word that describes a verb, an adjective or

another adverb.

Examples: _______________, _______________, _______________

CONJUNCTIONS A word that connects other words or group of

words.

Examples: _______________, _______________, _______________

PREPOSITIONS A word that shows position or direction.

Examples: _______________, _______________, _______________

INTERJECTIONS A word (set off by commas or an exclamation

mark) that shows strong emotion.

Examples: _______________, _______________, ______________

I. NOUNS

a) Proper Nouns: A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, thing or idea. They are capitalized.

Examples: Santiago, James, El Paso

b) Common Nouns: A common noun is any noun that does not name a specific person, place, thing, or idea. Common nouns
are not capitalized.

Examples: funnel, cell, thermometer

c) Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun names a thing that is physical (can be touched and seen). They can be either proper or
common.

Examples: glass, Easter Island, telephone

d) Abstract Nouns: An abstract noun names an imaginary thing, person or a concept that cannot be touched. They can be
either common or proper.

Examples: happiness, freedom, peace

II. PRONOUNS: REFERENCE

By using pronouns, you avoid unnecessary repetition of important nouns and ideas within a text.

Example 1:

Michel told Sarah that she would be in charge of the organisation of the conference.

In the example above, the pronoun she is used to avoid the repetition of the proper noun Sarah. This
kind of reference is called anaphoric; the pronoun refers to a preceding element.

Example 2:

A few weeks before he died, Charles gave me a box of old cigars.

This second example the reference is cataphoric. Cataphoric reference means that a word in a text
refers to another later in the text and you need to look forward to understand.

Example 3:

Nobody did the homework.

There are also times when the meaning is not explicit from the text itself, but is obvious to those in a
particular situation. This is called exophoric reference. In this way, the pronoun refers to people in
general.

1) Subject Pronouns. A subject pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence:

I – you – he – she – it – we – you - they

2) Object Pronouns. An object pronoun is used as the object of a verb.

me - you - him – her – it – us – you - them

3) Reflexive Pronouns. A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that throws back the action upon the subject of a sentence.

myself – yourself – himself – herself – itself – ourselves - themselves

 4) Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is both a pronoun and a connector. It connects sentences. The relative pronouns are who, which, that,
what, and where (The pronoun who has two other forms, whose and whom)

China is the country that has the largest population in the world (‘that’ refers to China)
(THAT connects sentences 1) China is a country and 2) China has the largest population in the world)

The Chinese, who have one of the world’s oldest civilizations, have worked hard to modernise their country in little more than 20 years.
(‘WHO’ refers to the Chinese)

5) Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are used when we want to refer to people or things but we don’t know who or what they are or when this is not
important

We use some/any/no /every + body/one to refer to people and some/any/no/every + thing to refer to things, events, ideas or
activities

6) Possessive Pronouns

A possessive pronoun is a part of speech that substitutes for a possessive adjective (or noun + possessive “s”) and a noun.

mine - yours - his - hers - its - ours - theirs

For example:
A: This is my doll! Let go!
B: No, it’s mine! You let go!
In this conversation, possessive pronoun “mine” is substituting for “my doll”.
A: Is that Jenny’s handbag?
B: No, I think hers is black, not blue.
In the conversation above, possessive pronoun “hers” is substituting for “Jenny’s handbag”.

III. ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word used to describe a noun or pronoun.

The last stanza of the poem is breathtaking.

How many adjectives are there in this sentence? ___________________________________________________

Adjectives in the first position - before the noun - are called ATTRIBUTIVE adjectives.

Is there an attributive adjective in the example sentence? If so, which one? _________________________________

Those in the second position - after the noun - are called PREDICATIVE adjectives. Predicative adjectives do not occur immediately
after the noun. Instead, they follow a verb.

Is there a predicative adjective in the example sentence? If so, which one? _________________________________

We can use a noun as an adjective when it precedes a noun that it modifies; a mountain bike is a bike
designed for riding up mountains. 'Mountain' functions as an adjective modifying the noun 'bike'.
 POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

My, your, his, her, its, our, and their, are the English possessive adjectives, used with nouns to show
possession or ownership.

e.g.: My English Class is very interesting.

The Genitive case is the case that marks a noun as modifying another noun. It often marks a noun as
being the possessor of another noun. To mark possession we use the apostrophe (‘s) e.g.: Mary’s folder
(the folder of Mary).

e.g.: Tennessee Williams’s “A Streetcar Named Desire” won the Pulitzer prize in 1948.
The use of the “apostrophe” marks a possessive relation between Tennessee and his play ( A Streetcar
Named Desire)

Let’s have a look at the following examples:

Kurt’s songs are really good ↔ His songs are really good ( his refers to Kurt’s)

Now let’s have a look at a more complex structure.

Kurt and Kate went on holiday to the South of Chile, their children stayed with their grandparents in the
States. Kate trusts her parents to take care of their children.

their refers to Kurt and Kate’s (we put the apostrophe in the last name),
their refers to children’s
her refers to Kate’s
their refers to Kurt and Kate’s.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS OF ADJECTIVES

Comparatives and Superlatives are special forms of adjectives. They are used to compare two or more things. Comparatives are formed
using -er and superlatives are formed using –est in the case of one-syllable adjectives. When an adjective has more than one syllable
comparatives use more before the adjective and superlatives use most.

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

ONE-SYLLABLE ADJECTIVE TALL + ER = TALLER TALL + EST = TALLEST

+ ONE-SYLLABLE ADJECTIVE MORE + BEAUTIFUL= MORE MOST + BEAUTIFUL= MOST

BEAUTIFUL BEAUTIFUL

ADJECTIVES ENDING IN –ED OR -ING

Sometimes adjectives which derive from a verb end in –ed or –ing. Therefore, they can easily be mistaken for a verb. E.g:

VERB -ED ADJECTIVE -ING ADJECTIVE

BORE BORED BORING

EXHAUST EXHAUSTED EXHAUSTING

THRILL THRILLED THRILLING

RELAX RELAXED RELAXING

- Adjectives ending in –ed describe a temporary state, and tell you how you feel about something.
e.g.: Neil was bored at the party, so he left.

- Adjectives ending in –ing tell you about something, describe a characteristic.

e.g.: Neil is a boring guy, that’s why nobody paid attention to him at the party.
IV. VERBS

A verb has three principal forms: the present (infinitive), past, and past participle.

a) TENSE

The past and past participle of regular verbs are formed by adding ed to the present form:

Present (infinitive) Past Past Participle

Work worked worked
Live lived lived
Study studied studied

Irregular verbs are formed with different spellings:

Present (infinitive) Past Past Participle

Go went gone
See saw seen
Put put put

b) VOICE

The voice of a verb tells you whether the subject is doing the action or is receiving the action.

Active Voice: A verb is in the active voice if the subject is doing the action in a sentence.

Scott is washing the car (active voice)

Who is doing the action (wash)? _________________________________

Passive Voice: A verb is in the passive voice if the subject is receiving the action instead of personally doing the action.

The car is being washed (passive voice)

Who is doing the action (wash)? _________________________________

c) ASPECT

Continuous Aspect: formed with the auxiliary verb 'to be' + verb+ing. It shows that an action or state, past, present, or future, was,
is or will be unfinished at the time referred to:

e.g.: I'm reading Nelson Mandela's autobiography. (action unfinished now)

She was having a shower when the phone rang. (action unfinished at the time the phone rang)

Perfect Aspect: formed with the auxiliary verb 'to have' + past participle. It is used for finished actions that are relevant to the time
referred to or ones that continue up to the time referred to:

e.g.: She has worked here for donkey's years. (this continues up to now)

I have lost my keys. (a past action that is relevant now as I can't open the door)

VERB TENSE OVERVIEW WITH EXAMPLES

 ACTIVE FORMS

SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE FUTURE

I study English everyday 2 years ago, I studied English in I will help you study English
England
I’m going to study English Next year.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS PAST CONTINUOUS FUTURE CONTINUOUS

I am studying English at the moment I was studying English when you called I will be studying English when you
me yesterday arrive tonight

I was studying English while I was I am going to be studying English when

listening to music. you arrive tonight

PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT

I have studied English in several different I had studied English before I moved to I will have studied every tense by the
countries the U.S time I finish this course

My sister has never studied English

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

I have been studying English for five I had been studying English for five I will have been studying English for
years years before I moved to the USA over two hours by the time you arrive

ACTIVE-PASSIVE OVERVIEW
 Active Passive

Simple Present Once a week, Tom cleans the house. Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.

Present Continuous Right now, the president is giving a conference Right now, a conference is being given on T.V
on T.V

Past Continuous The salesman was helping the customer when The customer was being helped by the salesman
the thief came into the store. when the thief came into the store.

Present Perfect Many tourists have visited that castle. That castle has been visited by many tourists.

Past Perfect George had repaired many cars before he Many cars had been repaired by George before
received his mechanic's license. he received his mechanic's license.

Simple Future Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM. The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.
WILL

Simple Future Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally
BE GOING TO tonight.

d) MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS: Modal verbs are used with verbs and show how the speaker/writer conceives the action or state
referred to by the verb.

TO SHOW PRESENT AND FUTURE

Idea conveyed Modal auxiliaries explanation examples

ABILITY CAN Be able to is used when can does not I can swim very fast.
BE ABLE TO have the necessary grammatical form. I’d like to be able to swim
CERTAINTY MUST- CAN’T These are used to make deductions You must be tired after the journey. (I
UNCERTAINTY when we are more or less certain suppose you are)
about something. That can’t be Liz. She’s in Chile. (I’m
sure it’s impossible)

It may not rain. I might go out, I don’t

These express uncertainty or know. I could get wet.
MAY-MIGHT- possibility. Might is less likely that may.
COULD The negative use of could is not
possible in this context.

OBLIGATION MUST Have to describes obligation imposed You must arrive on time! (I say so)
HAVE TO on someone.
Must describes a personal obligation. You have to turn left here (the traffic
There may be no difference in some sign says so)
cases.
It’s late, I have to/ must leave. (no
difference)

Mustn’t describes something which is You mustn’t park here.

not permitted. (It’s against the rules)
Don’t have to describes something
MUSTN’T which is not necessary. You don’t have to wear a uniform.
DON’T HAVE TO (It’s not necessary)

Both describe “what is a good idea” I think you shouldn’t see him again.
and are used to give advice, or polite It’s not good for you.
instructions.
You should take this pills twice a day.
SHOULD
OUGHT TO People ought to be more polite.

You’d better not drive, you are very

tired. (it might be dangerous)
Gives advice about how to stop
something going wrong.

HAD BETTER
TO SHOW PAST

Idea conveyed Modal Explanation Examples

auxiliaries
PAST ABILITY COULD Describes past ability When he was a little child, he could write
with both hands.

WAS ABLE TO Describes the ability to successfully Tim was able to reach the aim first.
complete an action.

CERTAINTY MUST HAVE These are used to make deductions about She must have left her glasses in the
UNCERTAINTY CAN’T HAVE past actions. library.
(I am sure she left them there)

David can’t have been the author of this

message. (I am sure David didn’t write the
message)

These express possibility or uncertainty He may not have received the invitation,
MAY HAVE about past actions that’s why he is not here.
MIGHT HAVE (perhaps he didn’t)
COULD HAVE
You could have told me this before!
(it was a possibility)

They might have met a lot of new people

in their journey. (perhaps they did)

OBLIGATION HAD TO Generally used as past form of must. He’s late because he had to work late.

Did you have to wear a uniform at school?

SHOULD HAVE The speaker/writer shows reproach about You shouldn’t have talked to her so
something that was wrong. rudely. (it was wrong)

OUGHT TO He ought to have thought twice before

HAVE acting. (he made a mistake)
.
V. ADVERBS

An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a complete sentence. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or
degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".

Some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic -ly suffix. This suffix is added to an adjective.

strong (adjective) - strongly (adverb) happy (adjective) - happily (adverb)

In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:

Pete reads in three languages effectively

In this sentence, the adverb effectively modifies the verb ‘writes’ and indicates in what manner (or how) Pete reads.

Claire is an extremely intelligent girl.

In this sentence, the adverb extremely modifies the adjective ‘intelligent’

The summer has gone by amazingly fast.

In this sentence, the adverb amazingly modifies the adverb ‘fast’’

Unfortunately, the tickets for the concert are sold out.

In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.

VI. CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

1) Form
Conjunctions have three basic forms:

 Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although

 Compound (often ending with as or that)

for example: provided that, as long as, in order that

 Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that

The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are both ... and, either ... or and neither ... nor. In the table below, each pair of
correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use. Note that in the construction if ... then, the word then can usually be
omitted.
 Correlative Conjunctions

both ... and (used for adding information) He is both intelligent and good-natured.

either ... or (used for mentioning options) I will either go for a walk or read a book.

neither ... nor (used for mentioning negative

He is neither rich nor famous.
options)

hardly ... when (used for mentioning a He had hardly begun to work, when he was
sequence of events) interrupted.

if ... then (used when mentioning a condition

If that is true, then what happened is not surprising.
and a result)

No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus

no sooner ... than (sequence of events)
came.

not only ... but also (used for adding

She is not only clever, but also hard-working.
information)

rather ... than (used for mentioning options) I would rather go swimming than go to the library.

scarcely ... when (used for mentioning a

Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain.
sequence of events)

What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has
what with ... and (used for adding information)
many relatives.

whether ... or (used for mentioning options) Have you decided whether you will come or not?

2) Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions:
  Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be
single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.

 Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.

3) Position
 Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

 Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.

A) Coordinating Conjunctions

The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":

 and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or
similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:
______________________ + ____________________

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:
 I like [tea] and [coffee].
 [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:
 I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:
 She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:
 He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.
 He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.

B) Subordinating Conjunctions
The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are:
 after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:

________________ + __

Look at this example:

Main or Subordinate or
independent clause dependent clause

Ram went swimming although it was raining.

subordinating
conjunction

VII. PREPOSITIONS

A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is
called the object of the preposition. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of
the sentence as in the following examples:

The book is on the table.

The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
 The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.

In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time.

A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can
function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are:

about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but,
by, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, through,
throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within, and without.

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:

The children climbed the mountain without fear.

In this sentence, the preposition "without" introduces the noun "fear." The prepositional phrase "without fear" functions as an adverb
describing how the children climbed.

There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was defeated.

Here, the preposition "throughout" introduces the noun phrase "the land." The prepositional phrase acts as an adverb describing the
location of the rejoicing.

The spider crawled slowly along the banister.

The preposition "along" introduces the noun phrase "the banister" and the prepositional phrase "along the banister" acts as an adverb,
describing where the spider crawled.

The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes.

Here the preposition "under" introduces the prepositional phrase "under the porch," which acts as an adverb modifying the compound
verb "is hiding."

The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his office.

Similarly in this sentence, the preposition "in" introduces a prepositional phrase "in his office," which acts as an adverb describing the
location of the missing papers.

VIII. INTERJECTIONS

An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct
quotations.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:

Ouch, that hurt!

Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!