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YOUR NOTES
IB Maths DP 

2. Functions

CONTENTS
2.1 Linear Functions & Graphs
2.1.1 Equations of a Straight Line
2.2 Further Functions & Graphs
2.2.1 Functions
2.2.2 Graphing Functions
2.2.3 Properties of Graphs
2.3 Modelling with Functions
2.3.1 Linear Models
2.3.2 Quadratic & Cubic Models
2.3.3 Exponential Models
2.3.4 Direct & Inverse Variation
2.3.5 Sinusoidal Models
2.3.6 Strategy for Modelling Functions
2.4 Functions Toolkit
2.4.1 Composite & Inverse Functions
2.5 Transformations of Graphs
2.5.1 Translations of Graphs
2.5.2 Reflections of Graphs
2.5.3 Stretches of Graphs
2.5.4 Composite Transformations of Graphs
2.6 Further Modelling with Functions
2.6.1 Properties of Further Graphs
2.6.2 Natural Logarithmic Models
2.6.3 Logistic Models
2.6.4 Piecewise Models

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2.3 Modelling with Functions YOUR NOTES


2.3.1 Linear Models
Linear Models
What are the parameters of a linear model?
A linear model is of the form f (x ) = mx + c
The m represents the rate of change of the function
This is the amount the function increases/decreases when x increases by 1
If the function is increasing m is positive
If the function is decreasing m is negative
When the model is represented as a graph this is the gradient of the line
The c represents the value of the function when x = 0
This is the value of the function when the independent variable is not present
This is usually referred to as the initial value
When the model is represented as a graph this is the y-intercept of the line
What can be modelled as a linear model?
If the graph of the data resembles a straight line
Anything with a constant rate of change
C(d) is the taxi charge for a journey of d km
B(m) is the monthly mobile phone bill when m minutes have been used
R(d) is the rental fee for a car used for d days
d(t) is the distance travelled by a car moving at a constant speed for t seconds
What are possible limitations of a linear model?
Linear models continuously increase (or decrease) at the same rate
In real-life this might not be the case
The function might reach a maximum (or minimum)
If the value of m is negative then for some inputs the function will predict negative
values
In some real-life situations negative values will not make sense
To overcome this you can decide on an appropriate domain so that the outputs
are never negative

 ExamMakeTipsure that you are equally confident in working with linear models
both algebraically and graphically as it may be easier using one method
over the other when tackling a particular exam question

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The total cost, C , in New Zealand dollars (NZD), of a premium gym

membership at FitFirst can be modelled by the function
C = 14.95t + 30, t ≥ 0
where t is the time in weeks.
a)
Calculate the cost of the gym membership for 20 weeks.

b)
Find the number of weeks it takes for the total cost to exceed 1500 NZD.

c)
Under new management, FitFirst changes the initial payment to 20 NZD and
the weekly cost to 19.25 NZD. Write the new cost function after these
changes have been.

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2.3.2 Quadratic & Cubic Models YOUR NOTES


Quadratic Models
What are the parameters of a quadratic model?
A quadratic model is of the form f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c
The c represents the value of the function when x = 0
This is the value of the function when the independent variable is not present
This is usually referred to as the initial value
The a has the biggest impact on the rate of change of the function
If a has a large absolute value then the rate of change varies rapidly
If a has a small absolute value then the rate of change varies slowly
b
The maximum (or minimum) of the function occurs when x = −
2a
This is given in the formula booklet as the axis of symmetry
What can be modelled as a quadratic model?
If the graph of the data resembles a ∪ or ∩ shape
These can be used if the graph has a single maximum or minimum
H(t) is the vertical height of a football t seconds after being kicked
A(x) is the area of rectangle of length x cm that can be made with a 20 cm
length of string
What are possible limitations of a quadratic model?
A quadratic has either a maximum or a minimum but not both
This means one end is unbounded
In real-life this might not be the case
The function might have both a maximum and a minimum
To overcome this you can decide on an appropriate domain so that the outputs
are within a range
Quadratic graphs are symmetrical
This might not be the case in real-life

 ExamReadTipand re-read the question carefully, try to get involved in the

context of the question!
Imagine what happens to a stone as you throw it from a cliff, what
would the path look like?
What would it be like to manage a toy factory, would you expect
profit to rise or fall as you increase the price of the toy?
Sketch a graph of the function being used as the model, use your GDC
to help you
If you are completely stuck try “doing something” with the quadratic
function – sketch it, factorise it, solve it

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A company sells unicorn toys. The profit, £ P , of the selling one unicorn toy

can be modelled by the function
1
P (x ) = ( − x 2 + 20x − 50)
10
where x is the selling price of the toy.
Find the selling price which maximises profit. State the maximum profit.

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Cubic Models YOUR NOTES

What are the parameters of a cubic model? 
A cubic model is of the form f (x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
The d represents the value of the function when x = 0
This is the value of the function when the independent variable is not present
This is usually referred to as the initial value
The a has the biggest impact on the rate of change of the function
If a has a large absolute value then the rate of change varies rapidly
If a has a small absolute value then the rate of change varies slowly
What can be modelled as a cubic model?
If the graph of the data has exactly one maximum and one minimum within an
interval
If the graph is monotonic with no maximum or minimum
D(t) is the vertical distance below starting point of a bungee jumper t seconds
after jumping
V(x) is the volume of a cuboid of length x cm that can be made with a 200 cm2
of cardboard
What are possible limitations of a cubic model?
Cubic graphs have no global maximum or minimum
This means the function is unbounded
In real-life this might not be the case
The function might have a maximum or minimum
To overcome this you can decide on an appropriate domain so that the outputs
are within a range

 ExamReadTipand re-read the question carefully, try to get involved in the

context of the question!
Always sketch the graph using your GDC to help
Pay particular attention to the domain of the question
If the domain is given, make sure that you focus only on that section
when you sketch the graph
If the domain is not given, think about whether or not it needs to be
restricted based on the context of the question, e.g. can time be
negative?

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The vertical height of a child above the ground, h metres, as they go down

a water slide can be modelled by the function
4
h (t ) = ( 35 − 12t + 6t 2 − t 3) ,
7
where t is the time in seconds after the child enters the slide.
a)
State the vertical height of the slide.

b)
Given that the child reaches the ground at the bottom of the slide, find the
domain of the function.

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2.3.3 Exponential Models YOUR NOTES


Exponential Models
What are the parameters of an exponential model?
An exponential model is of the form
f (x ) = kax + c or f (x ) = ka −x + c for a > 0
f (x ) = k erx + c
Where e is the mathematical constant 2.718…
The c represents the boundary for the function
It can never be this value
The a or r describes the rate of growth or decay
The bigger the value of a or the absolute value of r the faster the function
increases/decreases
What can be modelled as an exponential model?
Exponential growth or decay
Exponential growth is represented by
ax where a > 1
a −x where 0 < a < 1
erx where r > 0
Exponential decay is represented by
ax where 0 < a < 1
a −x where a > 1
erx where r < 0
They can be used when there a constant percentage increase or decrease
Such as functions generated by geometric sequences
Examples include:
V(t) is the value of car after t years
S(t) is the amount in a savings account after t years
B(t) is the amount of bacteria on a surface after t seconds
T(t) is the temperature of a kettle t minutes after being boiled
What are possible limitations of an exponential model?
An exponential growth model does not have a maximum
In real-life this might not be the case
The function might reach a maximum and stay at this value
Exponential models are monotonic
In real-life this might not be the case
The function might fluctuate
How can I find the half-life using an exponential model?
You may need to find the half-life of a substance
This is the time taken for the mass of a substance to halve
Given an exponential model f (t ) = ka −t or f (t ) = k e−rt the half-life is the value of t
such that:

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f (t ) =
k YOUR NOTES
2 
ln2
For f (t ) = ka −t the half-life is given by t =
lna
k
= ka −t
2
at = 2
t lna = ln2
ln2
For f (t ) = k e−rt the half-life is given by t = r
k
= k e−rt
2
ert = 2
rt = ln2

 ExamLookTipout for the word "initial" or similar, as a way of asking you to make
the power equal to zero to simplify the equation
Questions regarding the boundary of the exponential model are also
frequently asked

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The value of a car, V (NZD), can be modelled by the function


V (t ) = 25125 × 0.8t + 8500, t ≥ 0

where t is the age of the car in years.
a)
State the initial value of the car.

b)
Find the age of the car when its value is 17500 NZD.

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2.3.4 Direct & Inverse Variation YOUR NOTES


Direct Variation
What is direct variation?
Two variables are said to vary directly if their ratio is constant (k)
This is also called direct proportion
If y and x n (for positive integer n) vary directly then:
It is denoted as y ∝ x n
y = kx n for some constant k
y
This can be written as =k
xn
The graphs of these models always start at the origin
How do I solve direct variation problems?
Identify which two variables vary directly
It might not be x and y
It could be x 3 and y
Use the given information to find their constant ratio k
Also called constant of proportionality
Substitute the given values of x and y into your formula
Solve to find k
Write the equation which models their relationship
y = kx n
You can then use the equation to solve problems

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A computer program sorts a list of numbers into ascending order. The time

it takes, t milliseconds, varies directly with the square of the number of
items, n , in the list. The computer program takes 48 milliseconds to order a
list with 8 items.
a)
Find an equation connecting t and n .

b)
Find the time it takes to order a list of 50 numbers.

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Inverse Variation YOUR NOTES

What is inverse variation? 
Two variables are said to vary inversely if their product is constant (k)
This is also called inverse proportion
If y and x n (for positive integer n) vary inversely then:
1
It is denoted y ∝
xn
k
y= for some constant k
xn
This can be written x n y = k
The graphs of these models all have a vertical asymptote at the y-axis
This means that as x gets closer to 0 the absolute value of y gets further away
from 0
x can never equal 0
How do I solve inverse variation problems?
Identify which two variables vary inversely
It might not be x and y
It could be x 3 and y
Use the given information to find their constant product k
Also called constant of proportionality
Substitute the given values of x and y into your formula
Solve to find k
Write the equation which models their relationship
k
y=
xn
You can then use the equation to solve problems

 ExamReciprocal
Tip
graphs generally have two parts/curves
Only one – usually the positive – may be relevant to the model
Think about why x/t/θ can only take positive values - refer to the
context of the question

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The time, t hours, it takes to complete a project varies inversely to the

number of people working on it, n . If 4 people work on the project it takes
70 hours to complete.
a)
Write an equation connecting t and n .

b)
Given that the project needs to be completed within 18 hours, find the
minimum number of people needed to work on it.

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2.3.5 Sinusoidal Models YOUR NOTES


Sinusoidal Models
What are the parameters of a sinusoidal model?
A sinusoidal model is of the form
f (x ) = asin(b (x − c) ) + d
f (x ) = a cos(b (x − c) ) + d
The a represents the amplitude of the function
The bigger the value of a the bigger the range of values of the function
The b determines the period of the function
The bigger the value of b the quicker the function repeats a cycle
360° 2π
The period is b (in degrees) or b (in radians)
The c represents the phase shift
This is a horizontal translation by c units
The d represents the principal axis
This is the line that the function fluctuates around
What can be modelled as a sinusoidal model?
Anything that oscillates (fluctuates periodically)
Examples include:
D(t) is the depth of water at a shore t hours after midnight
T(d) is the temperature of a city d days after the 1st January
H(t) is vertical height above ground of a person t second after entering a Ferris
wheel
What are possible limitations of a sinusoidal model?
The amplitude is the same for each cycle
In real-life this might not be the case
The function might get closer to the principal axis over time
The period is the same for each cycle
In real-life this might not be the case
The time to complete a cycle might change over time

 ExamReadTipand re-read the question carefully, try to get involved in the

context of the question!
Sketch a graph of the function being used as the model, use your GDC
to help you and focus on the given domain
Remember that if the model is adjusted, horizontal translations happen
before horizontal stretches

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The water depth, D , in metres, at a port can be modelled by the function


π
D (t ) = 3sin ⎛⎜ (t − 2) ⎞⎟ + 12, 0 ≤ t < 24
⎝ 12 ⎠
where t is the elapsed time, in hours, since midnight.
a)
Write down the depth of the water at midnight.

b)
Find the minimum water depth and the number of hours after midnight that
this depth occurs.

c)
Calculate how long the water depth is at least 13.5 metres each day.

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2.3.6 Strategy for Modelling Functions YOUR NOTES


Modelling with Functions
What is a mathematical model?
A mathematical model simplifies a real-world situation so it can be described
using mathematics
The model can then be used to make predictions
Assumptions about the situation are made in order to simplify the mathematics
Models can be refined (improved) if further information is available or if the model
is compared to real-world data
How do I set up the model?
The question could:
give you the equation of the model
tell you about the relationship
It might say the relationship is linear, quadratic, etc
ask you to suggest a suitable model
Use your knowledge of each model
E.g. if it is compound interest then an exponential model is the most
appropriate
You may have to determine a reasonable domain
Consider real-life context
E.g. if dealing with hours in a day then
E.g. if dealing with physical quantities (such as length) then
Consider the possible ranges
If the outcome cannot be negative then you want to choose a domain
which corresponds to a range with no negative values
Sketching the graph is helpful to determine a suitable domain

Which models do I need to know?

Linear
Piecewise (linear & non-linear)
Quadratic
Cubic
Exponential
Natural logarithmic
Logistic
Direct variation
Inverse variation
Sinusoidal

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YOUR NOTES
 ExamYouTip
need to be familiar with the format of the different types of 
equations and the general shape of the graphs they produce, you need
to always be thinking "does my answer seem appropriate for the given
situation?"
Sketching graphs is key
Make sure that you use your GDC to plot the relevant function(s)
Sometimes you may have to play around with the zoom function or
the axes to make sure that you are focused on the relevant domain

 Worked Example
A cliff has a height x metres above the ground. A stone is projected from
the edge of the cliff and it travels through the air until it hits the ground
and stops. The vertical height, in metres, of the stone above the ground t
seconds after being thrown is given by the function:
h (t ) = 95 + 6t − 5t 2 .
a)
State the value of x .

b)
Determine the domain of h (t ) .

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Finding Parameters YOUR NOTES

What do I do if some of the parameters are unknown? 
For some models you can use your knowledge to find unknown parameters
For a linear model f (x ) = mx + c you can calculate the m by finding the
gradient
For an exponential model f (x ) = kax + c you can calculate the a by finding the
percentage change
For a sinusoidal model f (x ) = asin(b (x − c) ) + d you can calculate a by finding
the amplitude
A general method is to form equations by substituting in given values
You can form multiple equations and solve them simultaneously using your
GDC
You could be expected to solve a system of three simultaneous equations
of three unknowns
This method works for all models
The initial value is the value of the function when the variable is 0
This is normally one of the parameters in the equation of the model

 ExamMakeTipsure that any sketches you are asked to make are fully labelled
with the coordinates of any important points, e.g. intersections with the
axes or other lines, local maxima/minima etc.

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The temperature, T ℃ , of a cup of coffee is monitored. Initially the

temperature is 80°C and 5 minutes later it is 40°C. It is suggested that the
temperature follows the model:
T (t ) = ka −t + 16, t ≥ 0
where t is the time, in minutes, after the coffee has been made.
a)
State the value of k .

b)
Find the value of a .

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2.4 Functions Toolkit YOUR NOTES


2.4.1 Composite & Inverse Functions
Composite Functions
What is a composite function?
A composite function is where a function is applied to another function
A composite function can be denoted
( f ∘ g ) (x )
fg (x )
f (g (x ))
The order matters
( f ∘ g ) (x ) means:
First apply g to x to get g (x )
Then apply f to the previous output to get f (g (x ))
Always start with the function closest to the variable
( f ∘ g ) (x ) is not usually equal to (g ∘ f ) (x )
How do I find the domain and range of a composite function?
The domain of f ∘ g is the set of values of x ...
which are a subset of the domain of g
which maps g to a value that is in the domain of f
The range of f ∘ g is the set of values of x ...
which are a subset of the range of f
found by applying f to the range of g
To find the domain and range of f ∘ g
First find the range of g
Restrict these values to the values that are within the domain of f
The domain is the set of values that produce the restricted range of g
The range is the set of values that are produced using the restricted
range of g as the domain for f
For example: let f (x ) = 2x + 1, − 5 ≤ x ≤ 5 and g (x ) = x , 1 ≤ x ≤ 49
The range of g is 1 ≤ g (x ) ≤ 7
Restricting this to fit the domain of f results in 1 ≤ g (x ) ≤ 5
The domain of f ∘ g is therefore 1 ≤ x ≤ 25
These are the values of x which map to 1 ≤ g (x ) ≤ 5
The range of f ∘ g is therefore 3 ≤ ( f ∘ g ) (x ) ≤ 11
These are the values which f maps 1 ≤ g (x ) ≤ 5 to

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YOUR NOTES
 ExamMakeTipsure you know what your GDC is capable of with regard to 
functions
You may be able to store individual functions and find composite
functions and their values for particular inputs
You may be able to graph composite functions directly and so
deduce their domain and range from the graph
The link between the domains and ranges of a function and its inverse
can act as a check for your solution
f f (x ) is not the same as ⎡⎢⎣f (x ) ⎤⎥⎦ 2

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 
Given f (x ) = x + 4 and g (x ) = 3 + 2x :
a)
Write down the value of (g ∘ f ) (12) .

b)
Write down an expression for ( f ∘ g ) (x ) .

c)
Write down an expression for (g ∘ g ) (x ) .

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Inverse Functions YOUR NOTES

What is an inverse function? 
Only one-to-one functions have inverses
A function has an inverse if its graph passes the horizontal line test
Any horizontal line will intersect with the graph at most once
The identity function id maps each value to itself
id(x ) = x
If f ∘ g and g ∘ f have the same effect as the identity function then f and g are
inverses
Given a function f (x ) we denote the inverse function as f −1 (x )
An inverse function reverses the effect of a function
f (2) = 5 means f −1 (5) = 2
Inverse functions are used to solve equations
The solution of f (x ) = 5 is x = f −1 (5)
A composite function made of f and f −1 has the same effect as the identity
function
( f ∘ f −1) (x ) = ( f −1 ∘ f ) (x ) = x

What are the connections between a function and its inverse

function?
The domain of a function becomes the range of its inverse
The range of a function becomes the domain of its inverse
The graph of y = f −1 (x ) is a reflection of the graph y = f (x ) in the line y = x
Therefore solutions to f (x ) = x or f −1 (x ) = x will also be solutions to
f (x ) = f −1 (x )
There could be other solutions to f (x ) = f −1 (x ) that don't lie on the line
y =x

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YOUR NOTES


How do I find the inverse of a function?

STEP 1: Swap the x and y in y = f (x )
If y = f −1 (x ) then x = f (y )
STEP 2: Rearrange x = f (y ) to make y the subject
Note this can be done in any order
Rearrange y = f (x ) to make x the subject
Swap x and y
Can many-to-one functions ever have inverses?
You can restrict the domain of a many-to-one function so that it has an inverse
Choose a subset of the domain where the function is one-to-one
The inverse will be determined by the restricted domain
Note that a many-to-one function can only have an inverse if its domain is
restricted first
For quadratics – use the vertex as the upper or lower bound for the restricted
domain
For f (x ) = x 2 restrict the domain so 0 is either the maximum or minimum
value
For example: x ≥ 0 or x ≤ 0
For f (x ) = a (x − h ) 2 + k restrict the domain so h is either the maximum or
minimum value
For example: x ≥ h or x ≤ h
For trigonometric functions – use part of a cycle as the restricted domain
For f (x ) = sinx restrict the domain to half a cycle between a maximum and a
minimum
π π
For example: − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
For f (x ) = cosx restrict the domain to half a cycle between maximum and a
minimum
For example: 0 ≤ x ≤ π
For f (x ) = tanx restrict the domain to one cycle between two asymptotes
For example: − π < x < π
2 2

How do I find the inverse function after restricting the domain?

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The range of the inverse is the same as the restricted domain of the original YOUR NOTES
function 
The inverse function is determined by the restricted domain
Restricting the domain differently will change the inverse function
Use the range of the inverse to help find the inverse function
Restricting the domain of f (x ) = x 2 to x ≥ 0 means the range of the inverse is
f −1 (x ) ≥ 0
Therefore f −1 (x ) = x
Restricting the domain of f (x ) = x 2 to x ≤ 0 means the range of the inverse is
f −1 (x ) ≤ 0
Therefore f −1 (x ) = − x

 ExamRemember
Tip
that an inverse function is a reflection of the original
function in the line y = x
Use your GDC to plot the function and its inverse on the same graph
to visually check this
1
f −1 (x ) is not the same as
f (x )

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The function f (x ) = (x − 2) 2 + 5, x ≤ m has an inverse.


a)
Write down the largest possible value of m .

b)
Find the inverse of f (x ) .

c)
Find the domain of f −1 (x ) .

d)
Find the value of k such that f (k ) = 9 .

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YOUR NOTES


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2.5 Transformations of Graphs YOUR NOTES


2.5.1 Translations of Graphs
Translations of Graphs
What are translations of graphs?
When you alter a function in certain ways, the effects on the graph of the function
can be described by geometrical transformations
For a translation:
the graph is moved (up or down, left or right) in the xy plane
Its position changes
the shape, size, and orientation of the graph remain unchanged
A particular translation (how far left/right, how far up/down) is specified by a
⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟
translation vector ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ :
⎝y ⎠
x is the horizontal displacement
Positive moves right
Negative moves left
y is the vertical displacement
Positive moves up
Negative moves down

What effects do horizontal translations have on the graphs and

functions?
⎛a⎞
A horizontal translation of the graph y = f (x ) by the vector ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ is represented by
⎝0 ⎠
y = f (x − a )
The x-coordinates change
The value a is subtracted from them
The y-coordinates stay the same
The coordinates (x , y ) become (x − a, y )
Horizontal asymptotes stay the same

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Vertical asymptotes change YOUR NOTES

x = k becomes x = k − a 

What effects do vertical translations have on the graphs and

functions?
⎛0 ⎞
A vertical translation of the graph y = f (x ) by the vector ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ is represented by
⎝b ⎠
y − b = f (x )
This is often rearranged to y = f (x ) + b
The x-coordinates stay the same
The y-coordinates change
The value b is added to them
The coordinates (x , y ) become (x , y + b )
Horizontal asymptotes change
y = k becomes y = k + b
Vertical asymptotes stay the same

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YOUR NOTES


 ExamTo Tip
get full marks in an exam make sure you use correct mathematical
terminology
⎛ 2 ⎞⎟
For example: Translate by the vector ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ −4 ⎠

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x ) .


a)
Sketch the graph of y = f (x + 3) .

b)
Sketch the graph of y = f (x ) + 3 .

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YOUR NOTES


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2.5.2 Reflections of Graphs YOUR NOTES


Reflections of Graphs
What are reflections of graphs?
When you alter a function in certain ways, the effects on the graph of the function
can be described by geometrical transformations
For a reflection:
the graph is flipped about one of the coordinate axes
Its orientation changes
the size of the graph remains unchanged
A particular reflection is specified by an axis of symmetry:
y =0
This is the x-axis
x =0
This is the y-axis

What effects do horizontal reflections have on the graphs and

functions?
A horizontal reflection of the graph y = f (x ) about the y-axis is represented by
y = f ( − x)
The x-coordinates change
Their sign changes
The y-coordinates stay the same
The coordinates (x , y ) become ( − x , y )
Horizontal asymptotes stay the same
Vertical asymptotes change
x = k becomes x = − k

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YOUR NOTES


What effects do vertical reflections have on the graphs and functions?

A vertical reflection of the graph y = f (x ) about the x-axis is represented by
− y = f (x )
This is often rearranged to y = − f (x )
The x-coordinates stay the same
The y-coordinates change
Their sign changes

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The coordinates (x , y ) become (x , − y ) YOUR NOTES

Horizontal asymptotes change

y = k becomes y = − k
Vertical asymptotes stay the same

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x ) .


a)
Sketch the graph of y = − f (x ) .

b)
Sketch the graph of y = f ( − x ) .

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YOUR NOTES


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2.5.3 Stretches of Graphs YOUR NOTES


Stretches of Graphs
What are stretches of graphs?
When you alter a function in certain ways, the effects on the graph of the function
can be described by geometrical transformations
For a stretch:
the graph is stretched about one of the coordinate axes by a scale factor
Its size changes
the orientation of the graph remains unchanged
A particular stretch is specified by a coordinate axis and a scale factor:
The distance between a point on the graph and the specified coordinate axis
is multiplied by the constant scale factor
The graph is stretched in the direction which is parallel to the other
coordinate axis
For scale factors bigger than 1
the points on the graph get further away from the specified coordinate
axis
For scale factors between 0 and 1
the points on the graph get closer to the specified coordinate axis
This is also called a compression

What effects do horizontal stretches have on the graphs and

functions?
A horizontal stretch of the graph y = f (x ) by a scale factor q centred about the y-
axis is represented by
⎛x ⎞⎟
y = f ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝q ⎠
The x-coordinates change
They are divided by q
The y-coordinates stay the same
⎛x ⎞
The coordinates (x , y ) become ⎜⎜ , y ⎟⎟
⎝q ⎠
Horizontal asymptotes stay the same
Vertical asymptotes change
k
x = k becomes x =
q

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YOUR NOTES


What effects do vertical stretches have on the graphs and functions?

A vertical stretch of the graph y = f (x ) by a scale factor p centred about the x-
axis is represented by
y
= f (x )
p
This is often rearranged to y = pf (x )
The x-coordinates stay the same
The y-coordinates change
They are multiplied by p
The coordinates (x , y ) become (x , py )
Horizontal asymptotes change
y = k becomes y = pk
Vertical asymptotes stay the same

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YOUR NOTES


 ExamTo Tip
get full marks in an exam make sure you use correct mathematical
terminology
For example: Stretch vertically by scale factor ½
Do not use the word "compress" in your exam

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x ) .


a)
Sketch the graph of y = 2f (x ) .

b)
Sketch the graph of y = f (2x ) .

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YOUR NOTES


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2.5.4 Composite Transformations of Graphs YOUR NOTES


Composite Transformations of Graphs
What transformations do I need to know?
⎛ −k ⎞⎟
y = f (x + k ) is horizontal translation by vector ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
If k is positive then the graph moves left
If k is negative then the graph moves right
⎛⎜ 0 ⎞⎟
y = f (x ) + k is vertical translation by vector ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝k ⎠
If k is positive then the graph moves up
If k is negative then the graph moves down
1
y = f (kx ) is a horizontal stretch by scale factor k centred about the y-axis
If k > 1 then the graph gets closer to the y-axis
If 0 < k < 1 then the graph gets further from the y-axis
y = kf (x ) is a vertical stretch by scale factor k centred about the x-axis
If k > 1 then the graph gets further from the x-axis
If 0 < k < 1 then the graph gets closer to the x-axis
y = f ( − x ) is a horizontal reflection about the y-axis
A horizontal reflection can be viewed as a special case of a horizontal stretch
y = − f (x ) is a vertical reflection about the x-axis
A vertical reflection can be viewed as a special case of a vertical stretch
How do horizontal and vertical transformations affect each other?
Horizontal and vertical transformations are independent of each other
The horizontal transformations involved will need to be applied in their correct
order
The vertical transformations involved will need to be applied in their correct
order
Suppose there are two horizontal transformation H1 then H2 and two vertical
transformations V1 then V2 then they can be applied in the following orders:
Horizontal then vertical:
H1 H2 V1 V2
Vertical then horizontal:
V1 V2 H1 H2
Mixed up (provided that H1 comes before H2 and V1 comes before V2):
H1 V1 H2 V2
H1 V1 V2 H2
V1 H1 V2 H2
V1 H1 H2 V2

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YOUR NOTES
 ExamIn anTipexam you are more likely to get the correct solution if you deal 
with one transformation at a time and sketch the graph after each
transformation

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x ) .


1 ⎛x ⎞
Sketch the graph of y = 2 f ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ .
⎝ ⎠

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Composite Vertical Transformations af(x)+b YOUR NOTES

How do I deal with multiple vertical transformations? 
Order matters when you have more than one vertical transformations
If you are asked to find the equation then build up the equation by looking at the
transformations in order
⎛0 ⎞
A vertical stretch by scale factor a followed by a translation of ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎝b ⎠
Stretch: y = af (x )
Then translation: y = ⎡⎢⎣ af (x ) ⎤⎥⎦ + b
Final equation: y = af (x ) + b
⎛0 ⎞
A translation of ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ followed by a vertical stretch by scale factor a
⎝b ⎠
Translation: y = f (x ) + b
Then stretch: y = a ⎡⎢⎣ f (x ) + b ⎤⎥⎦
Final equation: y = af (x ) + ab
If you are asked to determine the order
The order of vertical transformations follows the order of operations
First write the equation in the form y = af (x ) + b
First stretch vertically by scale factor a
If a is negative then the reflection and stretch can be done in any order
⎛0 ⎞⎟
Then translate by ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝b ⎠

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x ) .


Sketch the graph of y = 3f (x ) − 2.

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Composite Horizontal Transformations f(ax+b) YOUR NOTES

How do I deal with multiple horizontal transformations? 
Order matters when you have more than one horizontal transformations
If you are asked to find the equation then build up the equation by looking at the
transformations in order
1 ⎛ −b ⎞
A horizontal stretch by scale factor followed by a translation of ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
a ⎝ 0 ⎠
Stretch: y = f ( ax )
Then translation: y = f ( a (x + b ))
Final equation: y = f ( ax + ab )
⎛ −b ⎞⎟ 1
A translation of ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ followed by a horizontal stretch by scale factor
⎝ 0 ⎠ a
Translation: y = f (x + b )
Then stretch: y = f ( ( ax ) + b )
Final equation: y = f ( ax + b )
If you are asked to determine the order
First write the equation in the form y = f ( ax + b )
The order of horizontal transformations is the reverse of the order of
operations
⎛ −b ⎞⎟
First translate by ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0 ⎠
1
Then stretch by scale factor a
If a is negative then the reflection and stretch can be done in any order

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The diagram below shows the graph of y = f (x ) .


Sketch the graph of y = f (2x − 1) .

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2.6 Further Modelling with Functions YOUR NOTES


2.6.1 Properties of Further Graphs
Logarithmic Functions & Graphs
What are the key features of logarithmic graphs?
A logarithmic function is of the form f (x ) = a + b ln x , x > 0
Remember the natural logarithmic function lnx ≡ loge (x )
This is the inverse of f (x ) = ex
ln( ex ) = x and elnx = x
The graphs do not have a y-intercept
The graphs have a vertical asymptote at the y-axis:
⎛⎜ − a ⎞⎟
The graphs have one root at ⎝e b , 0 ⎠
This can be found using your GDC
The graphs do not have any minimum or maximum points
The value of b determines whether the graph is increasing or decreasing
If b is positive then the graph is increasing
If b is negative then the graph is decreasing

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Logistic Functions & Graphs YOUR NOTES

What are the key features of logistic graphs? 
L
A logistic function is of the form f (x ) =
1 + C e−kx
L, C & k are positive constants
Its domain is the set of all real values
Its range is the set of real positive values less than L
⎛ L ⎞
The y-intercept is at the point ⎜⎜0, 1 + C ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
There are no roots
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = L
This is called the carrying capacity
This is the upper limit of the function
For example: it could represent the limit of a population size
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0
The graph is always increasing

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2.6.2 Natural Logarithmic Models YOUR NOTES


Natural Logarithmic Models
What are the parameters of natural logarithmic models?
A natural logarithmic model is of the form f (x ) = a + b lnx
The a represents the value of the function when x = 1
The b determines the rate of change of the function
A bigger absolute value of b leads to a faster rate of change
What can be modelled as a natural logarithmic model?
A natural logarithmic model can be used when the variable increases rapidly for a
period followed by a much slower rate of increase with no limiting value
M(I) is the magnitude of an earthquake with an intensity of I
d(I) is the decibels measured of a noise with an intensity of I
What are possible limitations a natural logarithmic model?
A natural logarithmic graph is unbounded
However in real-life the variable might have a limiting value

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The sound intensity level, L , in decibels (dB) can be modelled by the

function
L ( I) = a + 8lnI ,
where I is the sound intensity, in watts per square metre (Wm-2).
a)
Given that a sound intensity of 1 Wm-2 produces a sound intensity level of
110 dB, write down the value of a .

b)
Find the sound intensity, in Wm-2, of a car alarm that has a sound intensity
level of 105 dB.

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2.6.3 Logistic Models YOUR NOTES


Logistic Models
What are the parameters of logistic models?
L
A logistic model is of the form f (x ) =
1 + C e−kx
The L represents the limiting capacity
This is the value that the model tends to as x gets large
The C (along with the L) helps to determine the initial value of the model
L
The initial value is given by 1 + C
Once L has been determined you can then determine C
The k determines the rate of increase of the model
What can be modelled using a logistic model?
A logistic model can be used when the variable initially increases exponentially
and then tends towards a limit
H(t) is the height of a giraffe t weeks after birth
P(t) is the number of bacteria on an apple t seconds after removing from
protective packaging
P(t) is the population of rabbits in a woodlands area t weeks after releasing an
initial amount into the area
What are possible limitations of a logistic model?
A logistic graph is bounded by the limit L
However in real-life the variable might be unbounded
For example: the cumulative total number of births in a town over time
A logistic graph is always increasing
However in real-life there could be periods where the variable decreased or
fluctuates

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The number of fish in a lake, F , can be modelled by the function


800
F (t ) =
1 + C e−0 .6 t
where t is the number of months after fish were introduced to the lake.
a)
Initially, 50 fish were introduced to the lake. Find the value of C .

b)
Write down the limiting capacity for the number of fish in the lake.

c)
Calculate the number of months it takes until there are 500 fish in the lake.

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2.6.4 Piecewise Models YOUR NOTES


Linear Piecewise Models
What are the parameters of a piecewise linear model?
A piecewise linear model is made up of multiple linear models f i (x ) = m i x + c i
For each linear model there will be
The rate of change for that interval mi
The value if the independent variable was not present ci
What can be modelled as a piecewise linear model?
Piecewise linear models can be used when the rate of change of a function
changes for different intervals
These commonly apply when there are different tariffs or levels of charges
Anything with a constant rate of change for set intervals
C(d) is the taxi charge for a journey of d km
The charge might double after midnight
R(d) is the rental fee for a car used for d days
The daily fee might triple if the car is rented over bank holidays
s(t) is the speed of a car travelling for t seconds with constant acceleration
The car might reach a maximum speed
What are possible limitations of a piecewise linear model?
Linear models have a constant rate of change
In real-life this might not be the case
A function might increase (or decrease) gradually rather than at a constant rate

 ExamMakeTipsure that you know how to plot a piecewise model on your GDC

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The total monthly charge, £ C , of phone bill can be modelled by the

function
⎧⎪ 10 + 0.02m 0 ≤ m ≤ 100
C ( m) = ⎪⎨⎪
⎪⎩ 9 + 0.03m
,
m > 100

where m is the number of minutes used.

a)
Find the total monthly charge if 80 minutes have been used.

b)
Given that the total monthly charge is £16.59, find the number of minutes
that were used.

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Non-Linear Piecewise Models YOUR NOTES

What are the parameters of non-linear piecewise models? 
A non-linear piecewise model is made up of multiple functions f i (x )
Each function will be defined for a range of values of x
The individual functions can contain any function
For example: quadratic, cubic, exponential, etc
When graphed the individual functions should join to make a continuous graph
This fact can be used to find unknown parameters
⎧⎪ f (x )
⎪ 1 a ≤x <b
If f (x ) = ⎪⎨⎪⎪ then f 1 (b ) = f 2 (b )
⎪⎩ f 2 (x ) b ≤x < c

What can be modelled as a non-linear piecewise model?

Piecewise models can be used when different functions are needed to represent
the output for different intervals of the variable
S(x) is the standardised score on a test with x raw marks
For small values of x there might be a quadratic model
For large values of x there might be a linear model
H(t) is the height of water in a bathtub with after t minutes
Initially a cubic model might be a appropriate if the bottom of the bathtub
is curved
Then a linear model might be a appropriate if the sides of top of the
bathtub has the shape of a prism
What are possible limitations a non-linear piecewise model?
Piecewise models can be used to model real-life accurately
Piecewise models can be difficult to analyse or apply mathematical techniques to

 ExamReadTipand re-read the question carefully, try to get involved in the

context of the question!
Pay particular attention to the domain of each section, if it is not given
think carefully about any restrictions there may be as a result of the
context of the question
If sketching a piecewise function, make sure to include the coordinates
of all key points including the point at which two sections of the
piecewise model meet

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 Jamie is running a race. His distance from the start, x metres, can be

modelled by the function
⎧⎪ 3t 0 ≤t <5
x (t ) = ⎪⎨⎪
⎪⎩ 125 − a (t − 15) ² 5 ≤ t < 15

where t is the time, in seconds, elapsed since the start of the race.
a)
Find the value of a .

b)
Find the time taken for Jamie to reach 100 metres from the start.

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2.1 Linear Functions & Graphs YOUR NOTES


2.1.1 Equations of a Straight Line
Equations of a Straight Line
How do I find the gradient of a straight line?
Find two points that the line passes through with coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
The gradient between these two points is calculated by
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
This is given in the formula booklet
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope
A line with gradient 1 will go up 1 unit for every unit it goes to the right
A line with gradient -2 will go down two units for every unit it goes to the right
What are the equations of a straight line?
y = mx + c
This is the gradient-intercept form
It clearly shows the gradient m and the y-intercept (0, c)
y − y 1 = m (x − x 1)
This is the point-gradient form
It clearly shows the gradient m and a point on the line (x1, y1)
ax + by + d = 0
This is the general form
⎛ d ⎞⎟ ⎛ d⎞
You can quickly get the x-intercept ⎜⎜ − , 0⎟ and y-intercept ⎜⎜0, − ⎟⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ b⎠
How do I find an equation of a straight line?
You will need the gradient
If you are given two points then first find the gradient
It is easiest to start with the point-gradient form
then rearrange into whatever form is required
multiplying both sides by any denominators will get rid of fractions
You can check your answer by using your GDC
Graph your answer and check it goes through the point(s)
If you have two points then you can enter these in the statistics mode and find
the regression line y = ax + b

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YOUR NOTES
 ExamA sketch
Tip
of the graph of the straight line(s) can be helpful, even if not 
demanded by the question
Use your GDC to plot them
Ensure you state equations of straight lines in the format required
Usually y = mx + c or ax + by + d = 0
Check whether coefficients need to be integers (they usually are for
ax + by + d = 0 )

 Worked Example
The line l passes through the points ( − 2, 5) and (6, − 7) .
Find the equation of l , giving your answer in the form ax + by + d = 0
where a, b and c are integers to be found.

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Parallel Lines YOUR NOTES

How are the equations of parallel lines connected? 
Parallel lines are always equidistant meaning they never intersect
Parallel lines have the same gradient
If the gradient of line l1 is m1 and gradient of line l2 is m2 then...
m1 = m2 ⇒ l 1 & l 2 are parallel
l 1 & l 2 are parallel ⇒ m1 = m2
To determine if two lines are parallel:
Rearrange into the gradient-intercept form y = mx + c
Compare the coefficients of x
If they are equal then the lines are parallel

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The line l passes through the point (4, − 1) and is parallel to the line with

equation 2x − 5y = 3 .
Find the equation of l , giving your answer in the form y = mx + c .

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Perpendicular Lines YOUR NOTES

How are the equations of perpendicular lines connected? 
Perpendicular lines intersect at right angles
The gradients of two perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals
If the gradient of line l1 is m1 and gradient of line l2 is m2 then...
m1 × m2 = − 1 ⇒ l 1 & l 2 are perpendicular
l 1 & l 2 are perpendicular ⇒ m1 × m2 = − 1
To determine if two lines are perpendicular:
Rearrange into the gradient-intercept form y = mx + c
Compare the coefficients of x
If their product is -1 then they are perpendicular
Be careful with horizontal and vertical lines
x = p and y = q are perpendicular where p and q are constants

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The line l 1 is given by the equation 3x − 5y = 7 .


1 5
The line l 2 is given by the equation y = 4 − 3 x .

Determine whether l 1 and l 2 are perpendicular. Give a reason for your

answer.

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2.2 Further Functions & Graphs YOUR NOTES


2.2.1 Functions
Language of Functions
What is a mapping?
A mapping transforms one set of values (inputs) into another set of values
(outputs)
Mappings can be:
One-to-one
Each input gets mapped to exactly one unique output
No two inputs are mapped to the same output
For example: A mapping that cubes the input
Many-to-one
Each input gets mapped to exactly one output
Multiple inputs can be mapped to the same output
For example: A mapping that squares the input
One-to-many
An input can be mapped to more than one output
No two inputs are mapped to the same output
For example: A mapping that gives the numbers which when squared
equal the input
Many-to-many
An input can be mapped to more than one output
Multiple inputs can be mapped to the same output
For example: A mapping that gives the factors of the input

What is a function?
A function is a mapping between two sets of numbers where each input gets
mapped to exactly one output
The output does not need to be unique
One-to-one and many-to-one mappings are functions
A mapping is a function if its graph passes the vertical line test
Any vertical line will intersect with the graph at most once

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YOUR NOTES


What notation is used for functions?

Functions are denoted using letters (such as f , v , g , etc)
A function is followed by a variable in a bracket
This shows the input for the function
The letter f is used most commonly for functions and will be used for the
remainder of this revision note
f (x ) represents an expression for the value of the function f when evaluated for
the variable x
Function notation gets rid of the need for words which makes it universal
f = 5 when x = 2 can simply be written as f (2) = 5
What are the domain and range of a function?
The domain of a function is the set of values that are used as inputs
A domain should be stated with a function
If a domain is not stated then it is assumed the domain is all the real values
which would work as inputs for the function
Domains are expressed in terms of the input
x ≤2
The range of a function is the set of values that are given as outputs
The range depends on the domain
Ranges are expressed in terms of the output
f (x ) ≥ 0
To graph a function we use the inputs as the x-coordinates and the outputs as
the y-coordinates
f (2) = 5 corresponds to the coordinates (2, 5)
Graphing the function can help you visualise the range
Common sets of numbers have special symbols:
ℝ represents all the real numbers that can be placed on a number line
x ∈ℝ means x is a real number
a
ℚ represents all the rational numbers where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0
b
ℤ represents all the integers (positive, negative and zero)
ℤ + represents positive integers
ℕ represents the natural numbers (0,1,2,3...)

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YOUR NOTES


 ExamQuestions
Tip
may refer to "the largest possible domain"
This would usually be x ∈ℝ unless natural numbers, integers or
quotients has already been stated
There are usually some exceptions
e.g. x ≥ 0 for functions involving a square root (so the function
can be 1-to-1 and have an inverse)
e.g. x ≠ 2 for a reciprocal function with denominator x-2

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 For the function f (x ) = x 3 + 1, 2 ≤ x ≤ 10:


a)
write down the value of f (7) .

b)
find the range of f (x ) .

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Piecewise Functions YOUR NOTES

What are piecewise functions? 
Piecewise functions are defined by different functions depending on which interval
the input is in
⎧⎪ x + 1 x ≤5
E.g. f (x ) = ⎪⎨⎪⎪
⎩ 2x − 4 5 < x < 10
The region for the individual functions cannot overlap
To evaluate a piecewise function for a particular value x = k
Find which interval includes k
Substitute x = k into the corresponding function

 Worked Example
For the piecewise function
⎧⎪ 2x − 5 −10 ≤ x ≤ 10
f (x ) = ⎪⎨⎪
⎪⎩ 3x + 1
,
x > 10

a)
find the values of f (0) , f (10) , f (20) .

b)
state the domain.

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2.2.2 Graphing Functions YOUR NOTES


Graphing Functions
How do I graph the function y = f(x)?
A point ( a, b ) lies on the graph y = f (x ) if f ( a) = b
The horizontal axis is used for the domain
The vertical axis is used for the range
You will be able to graph some functions by hand
For some functions you will need to use your GDC
You might be asked to graph the sum or difference of two functions
Use your GDC to graph y = f (x ) + g (x ) or y = f (x ) − g (x )
Just type the functions into the graphing mode
What is the difference between “draw” and “sketch”?
If asked to sketch you should:
Show the general shape
Label any key points such as the intersections with the axes
Label the axes
If asked to draw you should:
Use a pencil and ruler
Draw to scale
Plot any points accurately
Join points with a straight line or smooth curve
Label any key points such as the intersections with the axes
Label the axes
How can my GDC help me sketch/draw a graph?
You use your GDC to plot the graph
Check the scales on the graph to make sure you see the full shape
Use your GDC to find any key points
Use your GDC to check specific points to help you plot the graph

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Key Features of Graphs YOUR NOTES

What are the key features of graphs? 
You should be familiar with the following key features and know how to use your
GDC to find them
Local minimums/maximums
These are points where the graph has a minimum/maximum for a small
region
They are also called turning points
This is where the graph changes its direction between upwards and
downwards directions
A graph can have multiple local minimums/maximums
A local minimum/maximum is not necessarily the minimum/maximum of the
whole graph
This would be called the global minimum/maximum
For quadratic graphs the minimum/maximum is called the vertex
Intercepts
y­­– intercepts are where the graph crosses the y-axis
At these points x = 0
x – intercepts are where the graph crosses the x-axis
At these points y = 0
These points are also called the zeros of the function or roots of the
equation
Symmetry
Some graphs have lines of symmetry
A quadratic will have a vertical line of symmetry
Asymptotes
These are lines which the graph will get closer to but not cross
These can be horizontal or vertical
Exponential graphs have horizontal asymptotes
Graphs of variables which vary inversely can have vertical and horizontal
asymptotes

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YOUR NOTES


 ExamMostTipGDC makes/models will not plot/show asymptotes just from

inputting a function
Add the asymptotes as additional graphs for your GDC to plot
You can then check the equations of your asymptotes visually
You may have to zoom in or change the viewing window options to
confirm an asymptote
Even if using your GDC to plot graphs and solve problems sketching
them as part of your working is good exam technique
Label the key features of the graph and anything else relevant to the
question on your sketch

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 Two functions are defined by


1
f (x ) = x 2 − 4x − 5 and g (x ) = 2 + .
x +1
a)
Draw the graph y = f (x ) .

b)
Sketch the graph y = g (x ) .

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YOUR NOTES


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Intersecting Graphs YOUR NOTES

How do I find where two graphs intersect? 
Plot both graphs on your GDC
Use the intersect function to find the intersections
Check if there is more than one point of intersection

How can I use graphs to solve equations?

One method to solve equations is to use graphs
To solve f (x ) = a
Plot the two graphs y = f (x ) and y = a on your GDC
Find the points of intersections
The x-coordinates are the solutions of the equation
To solve f (x ) = g (x )
Plot the two graphs y = f (x ) and y = g (x ) on your GDC
Find the points of intersections
The x-coordinates are the solutions of the equation
Using graphs makes it easier to see how many solutions an equation will have

 ExamYouTip
can use graphs to solve equations
Questions will not necessarily ask for a drawing/sketch or make
reference to graphs
Use your GDC to plot the equations and find the intersections
between the graphs

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 Two functions are defined by


4
f (x ) = x 3 − x and g (x ) = .
x
a)
Sketch the graph y = f (x ) .

b)
Write down the number of real solutions to the equation x 3 − x = 2 .

c)
Find the coordinates of the points where y = f (x ) and y = g (x ) intersect.

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YOUR NOTES


d)
4
Write down the solutions to the equation x 3 − x = x .

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2.2.3 Properties of Graphs YOUR NOTES


Quadratic Functions & Graphs
What are the key features of quadratic graphs?
A quadratic graph is of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c where a ≠ 0 .
The value of a affects the shape of the curve
If a is positive the shape is ∪
If a is negative the shape is ∩
The y-intercept is at the point (0, c)
The zeros or roots are the solutions to ax 2 + bx + c = 0
These can be found using your GDC or the quadratic formula
These are also called the x-intercepts
There can be 0, 1 or 2 x-intercepts
b
There is an axis of symmetry at x = − 2a
This is given in your formula booklet
If there are two x-intercepts then the axis of symmetry goes through the
midpoint of them
The vertex lies on the axis of symmetry
b
The x-coordinate is − 2a
The y-coordinate can be found using the GDC or by calculating y when
b
x=−
2a
If a is positive then the vertex is the minimum point
If a is negative then the vertex is the maximum point

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YOUR NOTES


 ExamUseTip
your GDC to find the roots and the turning point of a quadratic
function
You do not need to factorise or complete the square
It is good exam technique to sketch the graph from your GDC as
part of your working

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 a)

Write down the equation of the axis of symmetry for the graph
y = 4x 2 − 4x − 3 .

b)
Sketch the graph y = 4x 2 − 4x − 3 .

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Cubic Functions & Graphs YOUR NOTES

What are the key features of cubic graphs? 
A cubic graph is of the form y = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d where a ≠ 0.
The value of a affects the shape of the curve
If a is positive the graph goes from bottom left to top right
If a is negative the graph goes from top left to bottom right
The y-intercept is at the point (0, d)
The zeros or roots are the solutions to ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0
These can be found using your GDC
These are also called the x-intercepts
There can be 1, 2 or 3 x-intercepts
There is always at least 1
There are either 0 or 2 local minimums/maximums
If there are 0 then the curve is monotonic (always increasing or always
decreasing)
If there are 2 then one is a local minimum and one is a local maximum

 ExamUseTip
your GDC to find the roots, the local maximum and local minimum
of a cubic function
When drawing/sketching the graph of a cubic function be sure to label
all the key features
x and y axes intercepts
the local maximum point
the local minimum point

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 
Sketch the graph y = 2x 3 − 6x 2 + x − 3.

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Exponential Functions & Graphs YOUR NOTES

What are the key features of exponential graphs? 
An exponential graph is of the form
y = kax + c or y = ka −x + c where a > 0
y = k erx + c
Where e is the mathematical constant 2.718…
The y-intercept is at the point (0, k + c)
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = c
The value of k determines whether the graph is above or below the asymptote
If k is positive the graph is above the asymptote
So the range is y > c
If k is negative the graph is below the asymptote
So the range is y < c
The coefficient of x and the constant k determine whether the graph is increasing
or decreasing
If the coefficient of x and k have the same sign then graph is increasing
If the coefficient of x and k have different signs then the graph is decreasing
There is at most 1 root
It can be found using your GDC

 ExamYouTip
may have to change the viewing window settings on your GDC to
make asymptotes clear
A small scale can make it look as though the curve and an
asymptote intercept
Be careful about how two exponential graphs drawn on the same axes
look
Particularly which one is "on top" either side of the y -axis

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 a)

On the same set of axes sketch the graphs y = 2x and y = 3x . Clearly label
each graph.

b)
Sketch the graph y = 2e−3x + 1 .

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Sinusoidal Functions & Graphs YOUR NOTES

What are the key features of sinusoidal graphs? 
A sinusoidal graph is of the form
y = asin(b (x − c) ) + d
y = a cos(b (x − c) ) + d
The y-intercept is at the point where x = 0
(0, -asin(bc) + d) for y = asin(b (x − c) ) + d
(0, acos(bc) + d) for y = a cos(b (x − c) ) + d
The period of the graph is the length of the interval of a full cycle
360° 2π
This is b (in degrees) or b
The maximum value is y = a + d
The minimum value is y = -a + d
The principal axis is the horizontal line halfway between the maximum and
minimum values
This is y = d
The amplitude is the vertical distance from the principal axis to the maximum
value
This is a
The phase shift is the horizontal distance from its usual position
This is c

 ExamMakeTipsure your angle setting is in the correct mode (degrees or radians)

at the start of a question involving sinusoidal functions
Pay careful attention to the angles between which you are required to
use or draw/sketch a sinusoidal graph
e.g. 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 a)

Sketch the graph y = 3sin(2(x °− 15°) ) + 1 for the values 0 ≤ x ≤ 360 .

b)
State the equation of the principal axis of the curve.

c)
State the period and amplitude.

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