ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic induction:
It is the phenomenon of generating electric current by varying magnetic field.
Magnetic flux:
It is defined as the product of the component of magnetic field along the normal of the surface and area
element.
The number of field lines passing normally across unit area also
magnetic flux.
 B = BA cos 
Let A is the area of the plane surface,
B is the magnetic field,
 is the angle between the directions of A and B.
By the definition of magnetic flux,
 
 B = BA cos  =  B = B • A
➢ Magnetic flux is maximum when  = 0o and Magnetic flux is minimum when  = 90o
➢ The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber or Wb (Another unit is Tm2 ( tesla metre2)
➢ Magnetic flux is a scalar
NP.1 A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5 W is placed vertically in the east-west plane. A uniform
magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north-east direction. The magnetic field is decreased
to zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate. Determine the magnitudes of induced emf and current during this time-
interval.
Solution The angle 𝜃 made by the area vector of the coil with the magnetic field is 45°. From Eq. (6.1), the
initial magnetic flux is
0.1×10−2
∅ = BA cos 𝜃 = Wb
√2
Final flux, ∅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0
The change in flux is brought about in 0.70 s. From Eq. (6.3), the magnitude of the induced emf is given by
|∆∅𝐵 | 0.1×10−2
𝜀= = 1.0mV
∆𝑡 √2×0.7
𝜀 10−3
And the magnitude of the current is 𝐼 = 𝑅 = 0.5 = 2mA
Note that the earth’s magnetic field also produces a flux through the loop. But it is a steady field (which does
not change within the time span of the experiment) and hence does not induce any emf.
Coil-magnet experiment of Faraday and Henry to study electromagnetic induction (current induced by
a magnet):
The arrangement consists of a coil with galvanometer and
a bar magnet.
1. When the north pole of a bar magnet is pushed towards
the coil, the galvanometer shows deflection in one
direction. This indicates that the current induces in the
coil.
2. When the magnet is brought to rest, the deflection in the
galvanometer reduces to zero.
3. When the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the
galvanometer shows deflection in opposite direction. This
indicates that the current is induced in the opposite
direction.
4. When the south pole of the magnet is moved suddenly towards or away from the coil, the galvanometer
deflections are opposite to those observed with the north-pole.
5. The deflection of the galvanometer is large when the magnet moves faster towards or away from the
coil.
6. When the coil is moved keeping the magnet at rest, the same effects are observed.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 1

Coil-coil experiment of Faraday and Henry to study electromagnetic induction (current induced by a
current):
C1 and C2 are the two coils. C1 is connected to a galvanometer (G) and
the C2 connected to a battery.
1) When the coil C2 is pushed towards the coil C1, the galvanometer
shows deflection in one direction. This indicates that the current is
induced in the coil C1.
2) When the coil C2 is pulled away from the coil C1, the galvanometer
shows deflection in opposite direction. This indicates that the
current is induced in coil C1 in the opposite direction.
3) When the coil C1 is moved suddenly towards or away from the coil
C2, the effects are observed.
4) When the two coils are held at rest or moved with zero relative
velocity, the deflection in the galvanometer reduces to zero.
5) The deflection of the galvanometer is large when the coils are moved towards or away from each other.
Coil-coil experiment of Faraday and Henry to study electromagnetic induction (current induced by
changing current):
The arrangement consists of two coils C1 and C2. The coil
C1 is connected to a galvanometer (G) and Battery and a tap key K.
1) When the key is pressed, the galvanometer shows a
deflection in one direction and returns to zero immediately.
2) When the key is released, the galvanometer shows a
deflection in opposite direction and returns to zero
immediately.
3) When the key is kept pressed continuously, the
galvanometer does not shows any deflection.
4) When an iron rod is inserted into the coils along the axis,
the galvanometer deflection increases enormously.
NP 2: Consider Faraday Experiment (a) What would you do to obtain a large deflection of the galvanometer?
(b) How would you demonstrate the presence of an induced current in the absence of a galvanometer?
Solution
(a) To obtain a large deflection, one or more of the following steps can be taken: (i) Use a rod made of soft
iron inside the coil C2, (ii) Connect the coil to a powerful battery, and (iii) Move the arrangement rapidly
towards the test coil C1.
(b) Replace the galvanometer by a small bulb, the kind one finds in a small torch light. The relative motion
between the two coils will cause the bulb to glow and thus demonstrate the presence of an induced current.
In experimental physics one must learn to innovate. Michael Faraday who is ranked as one of the best
experimentalists ever, was legendary for his innovative skills.
Result of experiments of Faraday and Henry:
Whenever, there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with the closed circuit, an e.m.f. is induced in
the circuit. This exists as long as there is change in magnetic flux exists. This phenomenon is called
electromagnetic induction.
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction:
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the circuit.
d B d B
Explanation: e = − Where e is the e.m.f induced in the circuit, is the rate of change of
dt dt
magnetic flux,
Negative sign indicates the direction of e.
d B
In the case of closely wound coil of N turns, e = − N
dt

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NP.3:A circular coil of radius 10 cm, 500 turns and resistance 2 W is placed with its plane perpendicular to
the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. It is rotated about its vertical diameter through 180°
in 0.25 s. Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and current induced in the coil. Horizontal component of the
earth’s magnetic field at the place is 3.0×10–5 T.
Solution
Initial flux through the coil,
∅𝐵 (initial) = BA cos 𝜃 = 3.0 ×10–5 × (𝜋 ×10–2) ×cos 0° = 3 𝜋 ×10–7 Wb
Final flux after the rotation,
∅𝐵 (final) = 3.0×10–5 × (𝜋 ×10–2) ×cos 180° = –3 𝜋 ×10–7 Wb
Therefore, estimated value of the induced emf is,
|∆∅ |
𝜀 = 𝑁 ∆𝑡𝐵 = = 500 × (6 𝜋 ×10–7)/0.25
= 3.8 ×10–3 V
I = 𝜀 /R = 1.9 ×10–3 A
Note that the magnitudes of e and I are the estimated values. Their instantaneous values are different and
depend upon the speed of rotation at the particular instant.
Methods of producing changing magnetic flux:
A changing magnetic flux can be obtained by
(i) Moving a conductor through a uniform magnetic field
(ii) rotating a conductor in an appropriately oriented uniform magnetic field
(iii) Stationary conductor in a varying magnetic field.
Note:
There is a sparking, when an electric current is switched off because; sudden break in the circuit, a
large emf is induced across the gap in the switch. That is why there is a sparking.
Lenz's law:
Statement:
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce current which opposes the change in
magnetic flux that produced it.
Explanation:
When the North-Pole of a bar magnet is
moved towards the coil, emf is induced in the coil.
This induces current in the anticlockwise direction
through the coil so as to generate North-pole. This
opposes the movement of the magnet.
When North-Pole is moved away from the coil, emf induces again. This induces the current in the
clockwise direction through the coil so as to generate South-Pole. It opposes the movement of the magnet.
Lenz's law is the consequence of law of conservation of energy:
The arrangement consists of a coil with galvanometer and a bar magnet as shown in the figure.
When the magnet is pushed towards the coil or pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer shows
deflection .momentarily. This indicates electrical energy is generated in the coil. This energy is produced at
the expense of mechanical energy according to the law of conservation of
energy.
When North-Pole of the magnet is pushed towards the coil, the
current induced in the coil produces North-Pole in the coil. This opposes
the motion of the magnet. If this induced current develops South-Pole, the
magnet would be attracted towards the coil and it would gain kinetic
energy at the expense of nothing. This is against to the law of conservation
of energy. Therefore, when North-Pole of the magnet is pushed towards
the coil, the induced current must develop North-Pole only. Hence, Lenz's
law is the consequence of the law of conservation of energy.
Note 1:
A spacecraft orbiting the earth has a coil of wire in it. An astronaut measures small current in the coil,
even though there is no battery connected to it and there are no magnets in the spacecraft. This possible as the

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 3

spacecraft moves through the space it moves from a region of magnetic field strength to a region of different
magnetic field strength. The changing magnetic field through the coil induces an emf and corresponding
induced current in it.
Note 2:
Two identical loops one made of copper and the other made of aluminium are rotated with the same
angular velocity in an uniform magnetic field. Then the Induced emf is same in both the loops, since it does
not depend on the nature the material of the loop. (it depends only on rate of change of magnetic flux)

NP.4:Figure shows planar loops of different shapes moving out of or

into a region of a magnetic field which is directed normal to the plane of
the loop away from the reader. Determine the direction of induced
current in each loop using Lenz’s law.
Solution
(i) The magnetic flux through the rectangular loop abcd increases, due to
the motion of the loop into the region of magnetic field, The induced
current must flow along the path bcdab so that it opposes
the increasing flux.
(ii) Due to the outward motion, magnetic flux through the triangular loop
abc decreases due to which the induced current flows along bacb, so as to
oppose the change in flux.
(iii) As the magnetic flux decreases due to motion of the irregular shaped loop abcd out of the region of
magnetic field, the induced current flows along cdabc, so as to oppose change in flux.
Note that there are no induced current as long as the loops are completely inside or outside the region of the
magnetic field.
NP.5: (a) A closed loop is held stationary in the magnetic field between the north and south poles of two
permanent magnets held fixed. Can we hope to generate current in the loop by using very strong magnets?
(b) A closed loop moves normal to the constant electric field between the plates of a large capacitor. Is a
current induced in the loop
(i) when it is wholly inside the region between the capacitor plates
(ii) when it is partially outside the plates of the capacitor? The electric field is normal to the plane of the loop.
(c) A rectangular loop and a circular loop are moving out of a uniform magnetic field region (Fig. 6.8) to a
field-free region with a constant velocity v. In which loop do you expect the induced emf to be constant during
the passage out of the field region? The field is normal to the loops.

(d) Predict the polarity of the capacitor in the situation described by Fig.

Solution
(a) No. However strong the magnet may be, current can be induced only by changing the magnetic flux
through the loop.
(b) No current is induced in either case. Current can not be induced by changing the electric flux.
(c) The induced emf is expected to be constant only in the case of the rectangular loop. In the case of circular
loop, the rate of change of area of the loop during its passage out of the field region is not constant, hence
induced emf will vary accordingly.
(d) The polarity of plate ‘A’ will be positive with respect to plate ‘B’ in the capacitor.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 4

TP.1: Predict the direction of induced current in the situations described by the following Figs. (a) to (f ).

TP.2: Use Lenz’s law to determine the direction of induced current in the situations described by Fig.
(a) A wire of irregular shape turning into a circular shape;
(b) A circular loop being deformed into a narrow straight wire.

Motional electromotive force (motional e.m.f):

Motional emf is the emf induced in a conductor moving in the magnetic field.
Expression for the emf, induced across the ends of a conducting rod moving in a perpendicular magnetic
field:
In the figure, PQRS is the rectangular conducting loop
placed in uniform magnetic field, PQ is the part of PQRS free to
move in the magnetic field B, B is the magnetic field normal to the
plane of the paper and directed inward, l is the length of the
conductor PQ , v is the uniform velocity of the conductor PQ, x is
the distance traveled by the conductor PQ, G is the galvanometer.
When the conductor PQ moves towards the left, all the free
charges of the conductor PQ experience force. This produces the
current through the loop PQRS as shown in the figure.
Magnetic flux enclosed by the loop is given by,
 = B  Area of the loop PQRS
But, Area= length X breadth,   = B  l  x ------------- (1)
From Faraday's law, magnitude of induced emf is given by,
d B
e= ------------- (2)
dt

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 (l) in (2) e=
d
(Blx )  e = Bl dx 
dx
=v
dt dt dt
 e = Blv
Note:
1. When a conductor moves in the magnetic field, the free charges of the conductor experience force.
Hence, the work is done in moving the charges.
 Work done = force  displacement  W = Bqv  l
2. If  be the angle between the directions of B and v, then 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑣𝑞 sin 𝜃
3. Fleming's right rule to find the direction of induced current:
If the fore finger, centre finger and the thumb of the right hand are stretched perpendicular to each
other such that the fore finger pointing in the direction of the, magnetic field, the thumb pointing the
direction of motion of the conductor , then the centre finger indicates the direction of induced current in
the conductor.
Energy conservation when a conductor moves in a
magnetic field:
Consider a rectangular conducting loop PQRS in which
the conductor PQ is free to move. Let B be the uniform
magnetic field strength applied perpendicular to the plane of
the paper and directed inward. Let the rod PQ moves with a
constant velocity v towards the left.
Magnitude of motional emf induced across the
conductor PQ is given by,
e = Blv ---------------- (1)
Expression for current induced:
If R is the resistance of closed loop, then induced current is given by,
e
I = ---------------- (2)
R
Blv
(1) in (2)  I = ---------------- (3)
R
Force experienced by conductor:
The magnetic force experienced by the conductor PQ is given by,
F = BIl sin 
 = 90 o  sin 90 o = 1
F = BIl ---------------- (4)
Blv B 2l 2v
(3) in (4)  F = B l  F = ---------------- (5)
R R
This force acts in the outward direction opposite to the velocity of PQ in accordance with Lenz's law.
Hence to move the conductor PQ, it should be pulled with constant force F.
Power required pushing the conductor:
It is given by, P = Force  velocity ----------- (6)
B 2l 2v B 2l 2v 2
(5) in (6)  P = v  P = ----------- (7)
R R
Power dissipated as Joule heat:
It is given by PJ = I R ----------- (8)
2

2
 Blv  B 2l 2v 2
(3) in (8)  PJ =   R  PJ = ----------- (9)
 R  R
Energy conservation:
On comparing (7) and (9), we get, P = PJ. Thus, mechanical energy move the conductor is first
converted into electrical energy and then to thermal energy. This is the law of conservation of energy.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 6

Relation between induced charge and change in magnetic flux:
According to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, magnitude emf is given by,
d
e= ---------------- (1)
dt
If R is the resistance of closed loop, then induced current is given by,
e dq e
I =  = ---------------- (2)
R dt R
dq d 1 d
Eq (1) in (2)  =  dq =
dt dt R R
Change in magnetic flux
 Induced charge =
R
NP.6: A metallic rod of 1 m length is rotated with a frequency of 50 rev/s,
with one end hinged at the centre and the other end at the circumference of
a circular metallic ring of radius 1 m, about an axis passing through the
centre and perpendicular to the plane of the ring (Fig.). A constant and
uniform magnetic field of 1 T parallel to the axis is present everywhere. What
is the emf between the centre and the metallic ring?
Solution
Method I:As the rod is rotated, free electrons in the rod move towards the
outer end due to Lorentz force and get distributed over the ring. Thus, the
resulting separation of charges produces an emf across the ends of the rod.
At a certain value of emf, there is no more flow of electrons and a steady state is reached. Using Eq. (6.5),
the magnitude of the emf generated across a length dr of the rod as it moves at right angles to the magnetic
field is given by
𝑅 𝑅 𝐵𝜔𝑅 2
dε = Bv dr . Hence, ε = ∫dε = ∫𝑜 𝐵𝑣 𝑑𝑟 =∫𝑜 𝐵𝜔𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 2
Note that we have used v = 𝜔 r. This gives
1
ε = 2 × 1.0 × 2𝜋 × 50 × 12 = 157 V
Method II
To calculate the emf, we can imagine a closed loop OPQ in which point O and P are connected with a resistor
R and OQ is the rotating rod. The potential difference across the resistor is then equal to the induced emf and
equals B × (rate of change of area of loop). If 𝜃 is the angle between the rod and the radius of the circle at P
at time t, the area of the sector OPQ is given by
𝜃 1
𝜋𝑅 2 × 2𝜋 = 2 𝑅 2 𝜃 where R is the radius of the circle. Hence, the induced emf is
𝑑 1 1 𝑑𝜃 1 2
𝜀 = 𝐵 × [ 𝑅 2 𝜃 ] = 𝐵𝑅 2 = 𝐵𝑅 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 2 2 𝑑𝑡 2
NP.7: A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with a speed of 120 rev/min in a plane
normal to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field HE at a place. If HE = 0.4 G at the place, what
is the induced emf between the axle and the rim of the wheel? Note that 1 G = 10–4 T.
Solution
1
Induced emf = 2 𝜔𝐵𝑅2 = (1/2) × 4𝜋 ×0.4 ×10–4 × (0.5)2 = 6.28 ×10–5 V
The number of spokes is immaterial because the emf’s across the spokes are in parallel.
TP.4: A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm with a small cut is moving out of a region of uniform
magnetic field of magnitude 0.3 T directed normal to the loop. What is the emf developed across the cut if the
velocity of the loop is 1 cm s–1 in a direction normal to the (a) longer side, (b) shorter side of the loop? For
how long does the induced voltage last in each case?
TP.5: A 1.0 m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of 400 rad s –1 about an axis normal to
the rod passing through its one end. The other end of the rod is in contact with a circular metallic ring. A
constant and uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the axis exists everywhere. Calculate the emf
developed between the centre and the ring.

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TP.6: A horizontal straight wire 10 m long extending from east to west is falling with a speed of 5.0 m s –1, at
right angles to the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field, 0.30 ×10–4 Wb m–2.
(a) What is the instantaneous value of the emf induced in the wire?
(b) What is the direction of the emf?
(c) Which end of the wire is at the higher electrical potential?
Phenomenon of self-induction:
Consider a helical coil (solenoid) connected to a rheostat, battery and a key. When the current in the
coil is increased using rheostat, increasing magnetic flux is produced. Due to the increase in magnetic flux,
emf and hence current induces in the same coil. This emf opposes the growth of battery current.
When the current in the coil is decreased using rheostat, decreasing
magnetic flux is produced. Due to the decrease in magnetic flux, emf and hence
current induces in the same coil. This emf opposes the decay of battery current.
The direction of induced current in the coil is according to Lenz’s law.
Self-induction:
It is the phenomenon of induction of emf and hence current in a coil due
to the variation of current in the same coil.

Self-inductance (or) coefficient of self-inductance (L):

Let  be the magnetic flux linked with the coil due to the flow of current I in it, then
I   = LI ---------------- (1)
Where L is proportionality constant. It is called self-inductance of the coil.
d dI dI −e
Eq (1)  = L  e= −L  L=
dt dt dt dI dt
Self-inductance of a coil is the emf induced in the coil when the current is changed at the rate in the same coil.
SI unit of self-inductance is henry and is denoted by H
Henry:
−e dI
Consider the relation L = if e =1V, = 1 A / s then L= 1H
dI dt dt
Self-inductance of a coil is said to be 1 henry, if 1 volt of emf is induced in the coil when the current
is changed at the rate of 1A/s in the same coil.
TP.3: A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.0 cm2 placed inside the solenoid normal
to its axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily from 2.0 A to 4.0 A in 0.1 s, what is the
induced emf in the loop while the current is changing?
TP.7: Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A in 0.1 s. If an average emf of 200 V induced, give an
estimate of the self-inductance of the circuit.
Flux linkage:
It is the product of number of turns in the coil and the magnetic flux linked with the coil. That is, Flux
linkage = N 
Expression for self-inductance of a solenoid:
Let l, L and N be the length, inductance and number of turns respectively of
the long solenoid. Let I be the current in the solenoid. Let n be the number of turns
per unit length of solenoid.
We know that,
Flux linkage is directly proportional to the current
That is, N  I
 N = LI
N NBA
 L=  L=
I I
N o nIA
 L=  for solenoid, B =  o nI
I
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  o NNA N
 𝐿 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝑛𝐴  L =  n=
l l
o N A 2
 L=
l
o r N 2 A
If the solenoid has a core of relative permeability  r then, L=
l
 N 2A
1. The value of inductance depends on geometry of the conductor   and intrinsic
 l 
material properties  o  r
2. Self-inductance of a straight wire is zero.
Note:
1. Self-inductance of a coil plays the role of inertia. It is the electromagnetic analog of mass in mechanics.
2. Whenever the current flows through the inductor, the self inductance opposes the growth of the current.
Hence, some work has to be done by external agencies in establishing the current. This work done is
stored as potential energy in the form of magnetic field.
Inductor:
It is a circuit element which opposes the change in the current flowing through it.

Circuit symbol of inductor is

Self-inductance of a coil:
Self-inductance of a coil is the e.m.f induced in the coil due to the unit rate of change of current in the
same coil.
Energy stored in an inductor:
Let dW be the work done in developing the current i in an inductor in time dt.
Let e be the e.m.f induced in an inductor.
dW 𝑊 𝑞𝑉
The rate of work done is given by, = ei  Power = 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑒𝑖
dt
dW dI dI
 = L i e=L
dt dt dt
 dW = L i dI
The total work done in developing the current from i = 0 to i = I
I
I I
i 2  1
I

 W =  dW =  L i dI = L  idI = L   = Li 2
o o o  2 0 2
This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy.
1
 Energy stored in the coil, U = Li 2
2
NP.9: (a) Obtain the expression for the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid in terms of magnetic field B,
area A and length l of the solenoid. (b) How does this magnetic energy compare with the electrostatic energy
stored in a capacitor?
Solution
1 1 𝐵 2
(a) We have magnetic energy is 𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝐿𝑖 2 = 2 𝐿 (𝜇 𝑛) (since B =𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼, for a solenoid)
𝑜
1 𝐵 2
𝑈𝐵 = 2 𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 (𝜇 𝑛) (∵ 𝐿 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙)
𝑜
1
= 2𝜇 𝐵 2 𝐴𝑙
𝑜
𝑈𝐵
(b) The magnetic energy per unit volume is, 𝑢𝐵 = (where V is volume that contains flux)
𝑉
𝑈𝐵 𝐵2
= =
𝐴𝑙 2𝜇𝑜

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 9

We have already obtained the relation for the electrostatic energy stored per unit volume in a parallel plate
1
capacitor 𝑢𝐶 = 2 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 2
In both the cases energy is proportional to the square of the field strength. Equations 𝑢𝐵 and 𝑢𝐶 have been
derived for special cases: a solenoid and a parallel plate capacitor, respectively. But they are general and valid
for any region of space in which a magnetic field or/and an electric field exist.
Phenomenon of mutual induction:
Consider a pair of coils P and S. The primary Coil P is
connected to battery (Ba) through a key. The secondary coil S is
connected to galvanometer (G). They are placed side by side
without touching each other.
When the current in the primary coil is increased using
rheostat, the magnetic flux linked with both the coils increases
Due to the increase in flux, e.m.f. and hence current
induces in the secondary coil. This induced current in the
secondary coil, generates magnetic flux. This magnetic flux induces emf and hence current in the primary coil
which opposes the growth of battery current in the primary coil. This indicated by the deflection in the
galvanometer.
When the current in the primary coil is decreased using rheostat, the magnetic flux linked with the both
the coils decreases. Due to the decrease in flux, e.m.f. and hence current induces in the secondary coil. This is
indicated by the deflection in the galvanometer but in opposite direction. This induced current in the secondary
coil, generates magnetic flux. This magnetic flux induces emf and hence current in the primary coil which
opposes the decay of battery current in the primary coil. The direction of induced current in the secondary is
according to Lenz’s law.
Mutual induction:
It is the phenomenon of induction of emf and hence current in the secondary coil due to the variation
of current in the primary coil.
Mutual inductance (or) coefficient of mutual induction:
Let  be the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil due to the flow of current I in the primary
coil, then
I   = MI ---------------- (1)
Where M is proportionality constant. It is called mutual inductance between a pair of coils.
d dI dI −e
Eq (1)  = M  e = −M  M= .
dt dt dt dI dt
SI unit of mutual inductance is henry and is denoted by H
Henry:
−e dI
Consider the relation M = if e =1V, = 1 A / s then M = 1H
dI dt dt
Mutual inductance between a pair of coils is said to be 1 henry, if 1 volt of emf induced in one coil,
when the current is changed at rate of 1A/s in the neighbouring coil.
Define mutual inductance:
Mutual inductance between a pair of coils is numerically equal to the emf induced in a coil due to the
unit rate of change of current in the neighbouring coil.
Mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids of
same length:
Consider two long air-cored solenoids S1 and S2
each of length l. The solenoid S2 surrounds the solenoid
S1. Let 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 be the number of turns of S1 and S2
respectively. Let 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 be the radii of S1 and S2
respectively. Let 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 be the currents flowing in the
S1 and S2 respectively.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 10

Mutual inductance of S1 with respect to S2:
We know that, flux linkage of solenoid S1  current in the solenoid S2 ⇒ N 11  I 2
N
 N1 1 = M 12 I2  M 12 = 1 1 ---------- (1)
I2
Where M 12 is the mutual inductance of S1 with respect to S 2 .
The magnetic flux due to S 2 linked with the solenoid S1 is given by 1 = B2  area of S1
 1 = B2  A1  1 =  o n 2 I 2 A1  B2 =  o n 2 I 2
N N
 1 =  o 2 I 2 A1 ---------- (2)  n2 = 2
l l
N1 N2  o N 1 N 2 A1
Eq (2) in (1)  M 12 = o I 2 A1  M 12 = ---------- (3)
I2 l l
 N N A
Similarly, mutual inductance of S 2 with respect to S1 is given by, M 21 = o 1 2 1 ---------- (4)
l
From (3) and (4), we have, M 12 = M 21
Therefore, mutual inductance of pair of coils is given by
 N N A
M = o 1 2 1 for air core solenoids.
l
  N N A
If the solenoids has a core of relative permeability  r then, M = o r 1 2 1
l
The value of mutual inductance depends upon the number of turns of the coils, the distance between
the coils, the geometrical shapes and size of the coils and also on the angular orientation between the coils.
Coefficient of coupling:
M
It is the measure of the coupling between the two Coils. It is given by the formula k =
L1 L2
where L1 and L2 are coefficients of self-induction of the coils.
M is the coefficient of mutual induction of the two coils
1. If the two coils are wound one over the other, then the mutual
inductance is maximum and k also maximum.

2. If the coils are perpendicular to other coil, then the mutual inductance is minimum and
k also minimum.

3. If the coils are in arranged as in figure, then the mutual inductance lies in
between minimum and maximum value and k lies between zero and one.
NP.8: Two concentric circular coils, one of small radius r1 and the other of large radius r2, such that r1 <<
r2, are placed co-axially with centres coinciding. Obtain the mutual inductance of the arrangement.
𝜇𝑜 𝐼2
Solution Let a current I2 flow through the outer circular coil. The field at the centre of the coil is 𝐵2 = 2𝑟
2
Since the other co-axially placed coil has a very small radius, B2 may be considered constant over its cross-
𝜇𝑜 𝐼2 𝜇𝑜 𝜋𝑟12 𝜇𝑜 𝜋𝑟12
sectional area. Hence,∅1 = 𝜋𝑟12 𝐵2 = 𝜋𝑟12 = 𝑀12 𝐼2 Thus, 𝑀12 = Then 𝑀12 = 𝑀21 =
2𝑟2 2𝑟2 2𝑟2
Note that we calculated M12 from an approximate value of ∅1 , assuming the magnetic field B2 to be uniform
over the area 𝜋𝑟12. However, we can accept this value because r1 << r2.

TP.8: A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil changes from 0 to
20 A in 0.5 s, what is the change of flux linkage with the other coil?
AC generator:
It is a device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 11
Principle of AC generator:
Electromagnetic induction (or) when a coil rotates in the uniform magnetic field, emf induces in it
Different types of generators:
The generators are distinguished on the basis of mechanical energy provided used to rotate the coil
(armature).
Hydro-electric generators: These are the generators in which armature is rotated by using water falling from
a height.
Thermal electric generators: These are the generators in which armature is rotated using steam.
Nuclear power reactor:
These are the generators in which armature is rotated using steam. This steam is produced by heating
the water using nuclear fuel.
Construction and working of an alternating generator:
Construction:
It consists of a coil abcd wound over a soft iron
core. The coil with core is called as armature. The ends
of the coil are connected to two slip rings R1 and R2.
Armature and slip rings are supported on a shaft SH. N
and S are the poles of powerful horse shoe magnet
which provides magnetic field perpendicular to the axis
of rotation of the coil. The brushes B1 and B2 are
permanently in contact with the slip rings.
Working:
When the coil is rotated in the magnetic field, it
cuts the magnetic field lines and hence magnetic flux
linked with the coil changes. An e.m.f. and hence current induces in the coil. The direction of induced current
can be determined by the Fleming's right hand rule. The polarity of induced emf changes for every half rotation
of coil. During each half rotation of coil, the emf increases from zero to maximum and then decreases gradually
from maximum to zero. The current is also found to vary in the same manner. The output is taken across the
brushes.
When the magnetic field and the speed of revolution of the coil are uniform, the emf and hence current
varies sinusoidally and is shown in the figure-2.
The working of a.c generator is illustrated with the coil rotating in the uniform magnetic field:
Consider the relation
e = eo sin t = eo sin  ----- (1)
 t = 
Where  is the angle between the directions
of magnetic field B and area vector A. The
area vector is along the normal drawn to the
plane of the coil.
Stage-1:
When  = 0o ie the plane of the coil
is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(1)  e = eo sin 0 o = 0
Stage-2:
When  = 90o ie the plane of the coil
is parallel to the magnetic field.
(1)  e = eo sin 90 o = eo
Stage-3:
When  = 180o ie the plane of the
coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 12

 (1)  e = eo sin 180 o = 0
Stage-4:
When  = 270o ie the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field.
(1)  e = eo sin 270 o = − eo
Stage-5:
When  = 360o ie the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(1)  e = eo sin 360 o = 0
The instantaneous emf induced in a coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field:
When the coil is rotated in the magnetic
field, the flux linked with the coil varies. At any
instant of time t, A cos  is the component of area
vector along the direction of B.
The magnetic flux linked with the coil at any instant
of time t is given by,
 B = B  component of area vector along the
field direction.
For 1turn,  B = BA cos 
For N turns, 𝜙𝐵 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝜙𝐵 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 ------------------- (1)  = t
where  is the angular velocity of the coil at time t ,
From the Farady's second law,
d 𝑑
 e=  𝑒 = − (𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)  from Eq (1) 𝜙𝐵 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
dt 𝑑𝑡

 𝑒 = −𝑁𝐵𝐴(− sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝜔  𝑒 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡  e = eo sin t

Where eo is the peak value of emf = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
e e sin t
If R is the resistance of the coil, then induced current is given by I = I = o
R R
eo
 I = I o sin t , where I o is the peak value of current =
R
NP.10: Kamla peddles a stationary bicycle. The pedals of the bicycle are attached to a 100 turn coil of area
0.10 m2. The coil rotates at half a revolution per second and it is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.01 T
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. What is the maximum voltage generated in the coil?
Solution Here 𝜈 = 0.5 Hz; N =100, A = 0.1 m2 and B = 0.01 T. Employing
𝜀𝑜 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔e0 = NBA (2 𝜋 𝜈) = 100 ×0.01×0.1 ×2 ×3.14 ×0.5 = 0.314 V
The maximum voltage is 0.314 V.
We urge you to explore such alternative possibilities for power generation.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 13