Module 2: Part B-Oscillators

Negative feedback can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of a stage which has a precisely controlled
gain. Similarly, positive feedback can be applied to an oscillator, where the output is fed back in such a way
as to reinforce the input.

Positive feedback
Fig. 20, shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback applied. Note that the amplifier
provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift
is 0°.
A= Vo/Vin
Vo=A Vin, where Vin=VS +Vf
and Vf = βVo
Vo = A(Vs +βVo)
Vo =AVs + A βVo
Vo - A βVo =AVs  AVs =Vo (1- Aβ)
So, the equation of overall gain with
positive feedback is given by

Fig.20 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

The overall voltage gain, G, is given by:

Now consider what will happen when the loop gain, βAv, approaches just less than 1 (say, 0.99). The
denominator (1 - βAv) will become close to zero. This will have the effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e.
the overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without feedback.

Illustration of effect of negative and positive feedback upon overall voltage gain

Overall voltage gain with negative feedback Overall voltage gain with positive feedback
Amplifier gain
Av = 9
feedback, β = 0.1
Amplifier gain
Av = 10
feedback, β = 0.1

Conditions for oscillation (Barkhausen's criteria for oscillation)

Oscillator is a device that generates continuous and periodic waveforms without taking input signal.
The conditions for oscillation are:
(a) the feedback must be positive
(i.e. the phase shift must be 0o or 360o.);
(b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1
(i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective
feedback network). Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an amplifier with sufficient gain to
overcome the losses of the network that provide positive feedback.
RC Ladder oscillator

RC Phase shift oscillator shown in fig.21, consists of a BJT amplifier (TR1) and three RC sections of phase
shift network. At some particular frequency f0, the phase shift in each RC section is 60º so that the total phase-
shift produced by the RC network is 180º. Amplifier produces another 180º phase shift. As a result, the phase
shift around the entire loop is 360º.

Fig.21 Sine wave oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network

That means, the loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at
least 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate.

Wien bridge oscillator

The output of the OPAMP is fed back to Wien bridge feedback circuit with respect to points A and Bas shown
in fig.22. Points C and D provide – ve and + ve inputs to the OPAMP. A phase shift of 180º is produced by
inverting OPAMP. A further phase shift of 180º is produced by the RC feedback bridge circuit. As a result,
the phase shift around the entire loop is 360º.
 Fig.22 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien bridge Oscillator
Particular frequency at which the values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance will become equal,
producing maximum output voltage.

The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given by

In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the minimum amplifier gain will be 3.

Multivibrators

Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms consisting of one or more
rectangular pulses. The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact that this type of waveform is rich
in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).
Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active devices present within the oscillator circuit
being operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and driven into saturation.
The main types of multivibrator are:

(a) Astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses (these are sometimes also referred to as
free-running multivibrators);

(b) Monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stable state and are thus
sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’);

(c) Bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control signal to change
from one state (T1) to another (T2).

Single-stage astable oscillator

An astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using one operational amplifier, as
shown in Fig. 23. The circuit employs positive feedback with the output fed back to the non-inverting input
via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2.
 When VO = +VCC , capacitor charges towards VUT When VO = -VCC , capacitor charges towards VLT
Fig. 23 Single-stage astable oscillator using an operational amplifier

When power is turned ON, output VO normally swings either to +Vcc or to -Vcc.
Assume: i) C is initially uncharged
ii) VO = +VCC
The upper threshold voltage (the maximum +ve value at the inverting input) will be given by:

The lower threshold voltage (the maximum -ve value at the inverting input) will be given by:

Capacitor C charges through R and the voltage VC rise exponentially. As voltage across the capacitor is just
greater than VUT, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC.
Capacitor C will then start to discharge through R and the voltage VC, fall exponentially. As voltage across the
capacitor is slightly lesser than VLT, the output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC.
This cycle will continue indefinitely.

Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the output waveform produced by the astable oscillator is given by:

25 Basic Electronics and Communication Engineering (21ELN14/24) GMIT-DVG

Crystal controlled oscillators

To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the
frequency determining device to produce high frequency stability in oscillators. Such
oscillators are called as crystal oscillators.
The quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a hermetically sealed
enclosure, see Fig.) vibrates whenever a potential difference is
applied across its faces (this phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect). The frequency of oscillation is determined
by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental mode
over a frequency range extending from 100 kHz to around20
MHz.

Sinusoidal and Non sinusoidal oscillator

Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output
having a sine waveform are called sinusoidal or harmonic
oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies
ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.
Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output
having a square, rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-
sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators. Such oscillators can provide
output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz.