2.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electric potential:
Electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work done in bringing unit positive charge from
infinity to that point against the electric field.
work done W
V=  V=
charge q
Potential difference:
Electric potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from one point to another point.
Let VA & VB be the potentials at two points A and B respectively in an electric field of strength E.
Potential difference = (VB - VA)
1. Both electric potential and potential difference are scalar quantities.
2. The SI unit of both electric potential and potential difference is
“volt”
3. Electric potential at infinity is taken as zero.
4. Electric potential is the property of a point and is independent of the path traced by the charge.
Electric potential due to an isolated point charge:

In the figure,
q is the point charge placed at O in free space,
x is the distance between q and 1C,
P is a point at a distance r from O,
E is the electric field due to the charge q,
+l C is the charge placed at a point A,
A and B are the two points separated by a small distance of dx.
From Coulomb's law,
1 q 1  1 q1q2 
F= -------- (1)  F = , where q = q and q = 1C 
4 o x 2 4 o x 2
1 2
 
The work done in moving 1C of charge from A to B is
dW = -F dx [ Work done = Force  displacement]
where negative sign indicates that the work is done opposite to the direction of electric field.
The total work done in moving 1C of charge from x =  to x = r can be calculated by using integration.
r r r r r
1 q q 1 q  1 q 1 1 
W =  dW =  − Fdx =  − dx = −  dx = − − x  = 4  r −  
  
4 o x 2
4 o  x 2
4 o   o  
1 q
W =
4 o r
1 q
For a charge of 1C, V = W  V =
4 o r
Note:
1. Although V is called the potential at a point, but actually V is equal to potential difference between the
points r and 
1 q
2. Electric potential due to charge +q placed in air, V =
4 o r
1 (− q )
3. Electric potential due to charge -q placed in air, V =
4 o r
V V
4. Electric potential in dielectric medium other than free space, Vm = air = air
r K

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 1

 Comparison of variation of electric potential and electric
field due to a charge:
In the above figure, V verses r curve with distance between
 1
a point charge V  
 r
1
E verses r curve for a charge (𝐸 ∝ 𝑟 2)

NP.1(a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4×10–7C located 9 cm away.
(b) Hence obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2×10–9 C from infinity to the point P. Does the answer
depend on the path along which the charge is brought?
1 𝑄
(a) 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 = 4× 104 V
𝑜
(b) W = qV = 2× 10–9C× 4×104V = 8× 10–5 J
No, work done will be path independent. Any arbitrary infinitesimal path can be resolved into two
perpendicular displacements: One along r and another perpendicular to r. The work done corresponding to
the later will be zero.
TP1:Two charges 5 × 10–8 C and –3 × 10–8 C are located 16 cm apart. At what point(s) on the line joining
the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
Electric potential due to an electric dipole:
In the figure, -q and +q are the magnitudes of charges, 2a is the distance between the charges, O is the
midpoint of the dipole, P is the point at a distance r from O,  is the angle between dipole axis and the line
joining O and P.

POB = AOM (Vertical opposite angles)

Potential at P due to the charge -q,
1 (− q ) 1 q
V1 = =− ---------- (1)
4 o AP 4 o AP
1 q
Potential at P due to the charge q, V2 = ---------- (2)
4 o BP
Resultant potential at P due to dipole,
V = V2 + V1
1 q 1 q
V = −
4 o BP 4 o AP
1  q q 
V =  −  ---------- (3)
4 o  BP AP 
To find AP and BP, draw BN perpendicular to OP and AM
perpendicular to PO produced.
But A is very close to M,  AP  PM
AP = PO+OM
AP = PO + OM ------- (4)  PO = r from figure
OM
From right angled triangle, AMO, cos  =  OM = OA cos  ------- (5)
OA
(5) in (4)  AP = r + OA cos 
AP = r + a cos  ------- (6)  AO= a from figure.
Similarly, it can be obtained that, BP = r - a cos  --------- (7)
q  1 1 
(6) and (7) in (3)  V =  − 
4 o  (r − a cos  ) (r + a cos  ) 

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 2

 q  r + a cos  − r + a cos  
V =  
4 o  r 2 − a 2 cos 2  
q  2a cos   1  p cos  
V =  2   V =  
4 o  r − a cos  
2 2
4 o  r − a cos  
2 2 2

Case-1:
Electric potential due to a dipole at a point on the axial line
1  p 
In this case,  = 0 o and cos 0 o = 1  Vaxial =  
4 o  r 2 − a 2 
At large distances, a  r and a 2 can be neglected (for short dipole)
1  p
 Vaxial =  
4 o  r 2 
Case-2:
Electric potential due to a dipole at a point on the equatorial line
In this case,  = 90 o and cos 90 o = 0  Vequatorial = 0
Comparison of variation of electric potential charge and an electric dipole:
In the above figure, AB is the V verses r curve with distance between a point
 1
charge V  
 r
 1 
CD is the V verses r curve for a dipole V  2 
 r 
Effect on the potential at a point if the medium around this point is changed:
If the dielectric constant of the medium is increased, the electric potential will decrease.
Note: The electric potential of a charge at a point at infinity is zero
Superposition principle of electric potentials:
Statement:
The resultant electric potential at a given point due to a number of charges is the algebraic sum of the
all the potentials due to number of charges.
Application of the principle:
Electric potential due to a group of 'n' point charges:
Let 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … … 𝑞𝑛 be the point charges placed at distances 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … … 𝑟𝑛 respectively from a point P.
1 q1
Potential at P due to the charge 𝑞1 , V1 =
4 o r1
1 q2
Potential at P due to the charge 𝑞2 , V2 =
4 o r2
1 qn
Similarly, Potential at P due to the charge 𝑞𝑛 , Vn =
4 o rn
From superposition principle, the total electric potential,
V = V1 + V2 + …….. + Vn
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn
V = + ........... +
4 o r1 4 o r2 4 o rn
1  q1 q 2 q 
=  + + ........... + n 
4 o  r1 r2 rn 
n
1 qi
V = 
4 o i =1 ri

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 3

NP2: Two charges 3× 10–8 C and –2 × 10–8 C are located 15 cm apart. At what point on the line joining the
two charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
Let us take the origin O at the location of the positive charge. The line joining the two charges is taken
to be the x-axis; the negative charge is taken to be on the right side of the origin

Let P be the required point on the x-axis where the potential is zero. If x is the x-coordinate of P, obviously x
must be positive. (There is no possibility of potentials due to the two charges adding up to zero for x < 0.) If
x lies between O and A,
1 𝑄 𝑄2
we have 4𝜋𝜖 ( 𝑥1 − 𝑟−𝑥 )=0 where x is in cm.
𝑜
3 2
That is, 𝑥 − 15−𝑥 = 0
which gives x = 9 cm.
3 2
If x lies on the extended line OA, the required condition is 𝑥 − 15−𝑥 = 0
which gives x = 45 cm
Thus, electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive charge on the side of the negative
charge. Note that the formula for potential used in the calculation required choosing potential to be zero at
infinity.
NP.4: Figures (a) and (b) show the field lines of a positive and
negative point charge respectively.
(a) Give the signs of the potential difference VP – VQ; VB – VA.
(b) Give the sign of the potential energy difference of a small
negative charge between the points Q and P; A and B.
(c) Give the sign of the work done by the field in moving a small
positive charge from Q to P.
(d) Give the sign of the work done by the external agency in
moving a small negative charge from B to A.
(e) Does the kinetic energy of a small negative charge increase
or decrease in going from B to A?
Solution:
1
(a) As V∝𝑟 , VP > VQ. Thus, (VP – VQ) is positive. Also VB is less negative than VA . Thus, VB > VA or (VB –
VA) is positive.
(b) A small negative charge will be attracted towards positive charge. The negative charge moves from higher
potential energy to lower potential energy. Therefore the sign of potential energy difference of a small negative
charge between Q and P is positive.
Similarly, (P.E.)A > (P.E.)B and hence sign of potential energy differences is positive.
(c) In moving a small positive charge from Q to P, work has to be done by an external agency against the
electric field. Therefore, work done by the field is negative.
(d) In moving a small negative charge from B to A work has to be done by the external agency. It is positive.
(e) Due to force of repulsion on the negative charge, velocity decreases and hence the kinetic energy decreases
in going from B to A.
TP2: A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has a charge 5 𝜇C at each of its vertices. Calculate the potential at the
centre of the hexagon.

An equipotential surface:
It is the surface having the same electric potential at every point.
Example: The surface of a charged body of any shape.
Equipotential surface for a point charge:

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 4

Equipotential surface for a uniform electric field:

Equipotential surface for a dipole (Two equal and opposite charges):

Equipotential surfaces of two equal and opposite charges separated by a
small distance shows they are closer in the region between the two charges
which represents strong electric field.
Equipotential surface for a pair of equal positive charges:
The equipotential surfaces of two equal positive charges separated by a
small distance shows, they are farther in the region between the two charges
which represents weak electric field.
Note:
1. Two equipotential surfaces never be intersect each other: If they
intersect, then there will be zero values of electric potential at the point of intersection, which is
impossible. Therefore, two equipotential surfaces never be intersect.
2. Work done is zero in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface:
work done
We have, potential difference =  Wok done = Potential difference  charge moved.
charge
On the equipotential surfaces, the potential difference between any two points is zero. Therefore, work
done is zero in moving a charge from one point to another point on the equipotential surface.

3. The direction of electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at every point: If the
electric field is not normal to the equipotential surface, it would have non zero component along the
surface. So to move a test charge against to this component, a work would have to be done. But there
is no potential difference between any two points on an equipotential surface and consequently no
work is required to move a test charge on the surface. Hence, the electric field must be normal to the
equipotential surface at every point.
4. Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the form of strong electric field and equipotential
surfaces farther apart in the region of weak electric field:
dV dV
We have, E =  dx =
dx E
1
When change in potential, dV = constant, dx  . Thus, the spacing between the equipotential
E
surfaces will be smaller in the region of stronger field and vice versa.
Properties of equipotential surfaces:
1. No two equipotential surfaces intersect.
2. Work done is zero in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface
3. The direction of electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface.
4. Equipotential surfaces are closer in the region of strong electric field.
5. They are farther in the region of weak electric field.
 dV 
Relation between electric field and electric potential  E = − :
 dx 
Let E is the electric field due to the charge q, A and B are the two
points in the electric field, dx is the small distance between the points A
and B and q. is the unit positive charge placed at A,
Let dV be the potential difference between A and B and dW be the work
done in bringing qo from A to B

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 5

 dW F dx
By definition, dV =  dV = −
qo qo
Negative sign indicates that the field and displacement are in opposite directions.
F dV
dV = - E dx  =EE=−
qo dx
TP3: Two charges 2 𝜇C and –2 𝜇C are placed at points A and B 6 cm apart.
(a) Identify an equipotential surface of the system.
(b) What is the direction of the electric field at every point on this surface?
Electric potential energy of a system of point charges:
Potential energy of a system of point charges is the work done in bringing them from infinity to given
positions.
Electric potential energy of system of two point charges in the absence of electric field:
Imagine the charges q1 and q 2 are initially at infinity. First, the
charge q1 is brought from infinity to the point A and no work is done for
this. This is because there is no electric field to oppose this charge.
Consider another point B at a distance from A.
1 q1
Electric potential at B due to q1 is given by, V1 =
4 o r
Next the charge q 2 is brought from infinity to the point B. When the charge q 2 is moved, the electric field
due to q1 opposes it. Hence work has to be done.
Work done in bringing the charge q 2 from infinity to the point B
1 q1
W = V1  q 2 =  q2
4 o r
This work done is stored in the charges as potential energy and is given by,
1 q1 q 2
PE = where r is the distance between the charges
4 o r
NP.4: Four charges are arranged at the corners of a square ABCD of side d,
as shown in Fig.
(a) Find the work required to put together this arrangement.
(b) A charge q0 is brought to the centre E of the square, the four charges
being held fixed at its corners. How much extra work is needed to do this?
Solution:
(a) Since the work done depends on the final arrangement of the charges, and
not on how they are put together, we calculate work needed for one way of
putting the charges at A, B, C and D. Suppose, first the charge +q is brought
to A, and then the charges –q, +q, and –q are brought to B, C and D,
respectively. The total work needed can be calculated in steps:
(i) Work needed to bring charge +q to A when no charge is present elsewhere: this is zero.
(ii) Work needed to bring –q to B when +q is at A. This is given by (charge at B) × (electrostatic potential at
B due to charge +q at A)
𝑞 𝑞2
= − q× 4𝜋𝜖 = − 4𝜋𝜖
𝑜 𝑑 𝑜𝑑
(iii) Work needed to bring charge +q to C when +q is at A and –q is at B. This is given by (charge at C) ×
(potential at C due to charges at A and B)
𝑞 −𝑞 −𝑞 2 1
= q(4𝜋𝜖 + 4𝜋𝜖 𝑑)= 4𝜋𝜖 (1 − )
𝑜 √2𝑑 𝑜 𝑜𝑑 √2
(iv) Work needed to bring –q to D when +q at A,–q at B, and +q at C. This is given by (charge at D) ×
(potential at D due to charges at A, B and C)

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 6

 𝑞 −𝑞 𝑞 −𝑞 2 1
= -q(4𝜋𝜖 + 4𝜋𝜖 + 4𝜋𝜖 𝑑)= 4𝜋𝜖 (2 − )
𝑜 𝑑 𝑜 √2𝑑 𝑜 𝑜𝑑 √2
Add the work done in steps (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv). The total work required is
−𝑞 2 1 1 −𝑞 2
= 4𝜋𝜖 [(0) + (1) + (1 − ) + (2 − )] = (4 − √2)
𝑜 𝑑 √2 √2 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑑
The work done depends only on the arrangement of the charges, and not how they are assembled. By definition,
this is the total electrostatic energy of the charges.
(b) The extra work necessary to bring a charge qo to the point E when the four charges are at A, B, C and D is
q× (electrostatic potential at E due to the charges at A, B, C and D). The electrostatic potential at E is clearly
zero since potential due to A and C is cancelled by that due to B and D. Hence, no work is required to bring
any charge to point E.
Electric potential energy of system of two point charges in an
external electric field:
Let q1 and q 2 are the magnitudes of the charges, V1 and V2 are
the potentials at the points A and B respectively due to external field E
and r is the distance between A and B,
Potential energy of the system of two charges is given by,
PE = PE of system of two charges in the absence of electric field+ PE of q1 at A + PE of q 2 at B
1 q1 q 2
PE = + q1V1 + q 2V2
4 o r
Electric potential energy of system of three point charges in the absence of electric field:
Imagine the charges, q1 , q 2 and q 3 are initially at infinity. Let the charges are brought from infinity
and assembled as a corners of triangle.
Work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to the point A is zero. This is because there is no
electric field to oppose this charge.
Work done in bringing the charge q 2 from infinity to the point B is given by,
1 q1 q 2
W12 =
4 o r12
Work done in bringing the charge q 3 from infinity to the point C is given by,
1 𝑞1 𝑞3 1 𝑞2 𝑞3
𝑊13 + 𝑊23 = +
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟13 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟23
Total work done in assembling the three charges is given by,
W = W12 + W13 + W23
q1 q 2
1 1 q1 q 3 1 q 2 q3 1  q1 q 2 q1 q 3 q 2 q 3 
= + + =  + + 
4 o r12 4 o r13 4 o r23 4 o  r12 r13 r23 
This total work done is stored in the system of charges as potential energy and is given by,
1  q1 q 2 q1 q 3 q 2 q 3 
PE = U =  + + 
4 o  r12 r13 r23 
where r12 is the distance between the charges q1 and q 2
r13 is the distance between the charges q1 and q 3
r23 is the distance between the charges q 2 and q 3
NP 5: (a) Determine the electrostatic potential energy of a system consisting of two charges 7 𝜇C and –2 𝜇C
(and with no external field) placed at (–9 cm, 0, 0) and (9 cm, 0, 0) respectively.
(b) How much work is required to separate the two charges infinitely away from each other?
(c) Suppose that the same system of charges is now placed in an external electric field E = A (1/r2); A = 9×105
NC–1 m2. What would the electrostatic energy of the configuration be?

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 7

Solution:
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
(a) 𝑈 = 4𝜋𝜖 = –0.7 J.
𝑜 𝑟
(b) W = U2 – U1 = 0 – U = 0 – (–0.7) = 0.7 J.
(c) The mutual interaction energy of the two charges remains unchanged. In addition, there is the energy of
interaction of the two charges with the external electric field. We find, 𝑞1 𝑉(𝑟1 ) + 𝑞2 𝑉(𝑟2 )
𝑞1 𝑞2
and the net electrostatic energy is 𝑞1 𝑉(𝑟1 ) + 𝑞2 𝑉(𝑟2 ) + 4𝜋𝜖 = 70 − 20 − 0.7 = 49.3 J
𝑑 𝑜
Electric potential energy due to a dipole placed in a uniform electric field:
Electric potential energy of an electric dipole is the work done in rotating the dipole from zero energy
position to the desired position in the electric field.
Torque acting on the electric dipole placed in the external
electric field is given by,
 = pE sin  ------- (1)
where p is the electric dipole moment, E is the electric field,
 
 is the angle between p and E
This torque rotates the dipole.
Small work done in rotating the dipole through an angle d
without acceleration is given by
dW = d ------- (2)
(1) in (2)  dW = pE sin  d ------- (3)
The total work done in rotating the dipole from  1 to  2 is given by
2
W =  dW ------- (4)
1
2 2

 pE sin  d = pE  sin  d = pE− cos   = pE − (cos  2 − cos 1 )

2
(3) in (4)  W = 1
 1 1

 W = pE cos  1 − cos  2 
This work done is stored in the dipole as potential energy.
 U = pE cos 1 − cos  2 
( )
if initially the dipole is oriented perpendicular to the direction of E  1 = 90 o and then brought to an angle 
( 2 =  ) , the potential energy of the dipole will be

U = pE cos 90 o − cos    U = − pE cos  ------- (5)
Case-l: Position of stable equilibrium:
 
When the p is parallel to E ie  = 0 o then cos 0 o = 1  (5)  U= -pE
This is the minimum potential energy. In this position, the dipole will be in the stable equilibrium
Case-2: Position of unstable equilibrium:
 
When the p is anti-parallel to E ie  = 180 o , then, cos 180 o = −1  (5)  U = +pE
This is the maximum potential energy. In this position, the dipole will be in the unstable equilibrium.
Case-3: Position of zero potential energy:
 
When the p is perpendicular to E ie  = 90 o , then cos  = 0 o
 (5)  U = 0
In this position the potential energy of the dipole is zero.
NP.6: A molecule of a substance has a permanent electric dipole moment of magnitude 10–29 C m. A mole of
this substance is polarised (at low temperature)by applying a strong electrostatic field of magnitude 106Vm–
1
. The direction of the field is suddenly changed by an angle of 60º. Estimate the heat released by the substance
in aligning its dipoles along the new direction of the field. For simplicity, assume 100% polarisation of the
sample.
Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 8
Here, dipole moment of each molecules = 10–29 C m
As 1 mole of the substance contains 6×1023 molecules,
total dipole moment of all the molecules, p = 6×1023×10–29 C m = 6×10–6 C m
Initial potential energy, Ui = –pE cos𝜃 = –6×10–6×106 cos 0° = –6 J
Final potential energy (when 𝜃 = 60°), Uf = –6 ×10–6× 106 cos 60° = –3 J
Change in potential energy = –3 J – (–6J) = 3 J
So, there is loss in potential energy. This must be the energy released by the substance in the form of heat in
aligning its dipoles.
Various free and bound charges present in conductors and insulators:
Conductors are the substances which allow electric charges to pass through them easily.
Ex: Gold, silver, copper, aluminum, graphite, human body, acids, alkalis etc.
The electrons revolving in the outer most orbit of an atom are called valance electrons. The valence
electrons are loosely bounded to the nucleus in metallic conductors. The valence electrons detach from the
atom and they can jump from atom to atom inside the metal. These electrons are called as free electrons or
conduction electrons. In metals, there is very large number of free electrons. In an external field, these free
electrons drift in the opposite direction of electric field, which are responsible for current in the metal. The
positive ions which consists of nuclei and electrons of inner orbits remain held in their fixed positions. These
immobile ions are the bound charges
In electrolytic conductors, the charge carriers are both positive and negative ions. However, their
movements are restricted by the external electric field and electrostatic forces between them.
Insulators are the substances which do not allow electric charges to pass through them easily.
Ex: Diamond, glass, wood, mica, wax, distilled water ebonite, etc..
In insulators, the electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei and cannot be detached from the atoms. ie
charges in insulators are bound charges. Due to the absence of free charges, insulators do not conduct the
current.
Various electrostatic properties shown by the conductors when placed in the electrostatic field:
Net electric field is zero in the interior of a conductor when placed in the electrostatic field:
When a conductor is placed in the external electric field (E external ) , the
charges are induced on it as shown in the figure. Due to the induced charges
on the conductor, electric fie1d (E induced ) is induced inside the conductor.
Eexternal and E int ernal are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Therefore, the net field (net electric field),
E = Eexternal - E induced = 0
At the surface of a charged conductor. electric intensity must be normal to the surface:
If the electric field is not normal to the surface, there will be a component of electric intensity along
the surface. Due to this, charges flows from one point to another point and produces surface currents. But no
such currents can exist under static conditions. Hence electric field is normal (perpendicular) to the surface of
the conductor at every point.
The net charge at any point inside the conductor is zero and any excess
charge resides at its surface:
A neutral conductor has equal amounts of positive and negative charges in
every surface element or volume element. When the conductor is charged, the
excess charge is always resides only on the surface. This is because of
property of charges. Hence the net charge and hence electric field inside the conductor is zero.
Electric potential is constant at any point inside and on the surface of a charged conductor:
The surface of a charged conductor is the equipotential surface. The
work done in moving a unit positive test charge from one point to another point
on the equipotential surface is zero. That is, there no potential difference
between any two points on the surface of the conductor.
Hence, electric potential is constant on the surface of a conductor. The
electric potential at any point inside the conductor is same as that on the surface. This is because; electric field

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 9

inside the conductor is zero. Therefore, there is no potential difference between any two points inside the
conductor. Hence, Electric potential is constant at any point inside and on the surface of a charged conductor.
Electric field inside the cavity of any charged conductor is zero:
Consider a conductor with a cavity. When the conductor is charged,
the excess charge is always resides only on the outer surface. This is because
of property of charges. Therefore, the net charge and hence electric field at
any point inside the cavity is zero.
TP4: A spherical conductor of radius 12 cm has a charge of 1.6 ×10–7C distributed uniformly on its surface.
What is the electric field
(a) inside the sphere
(b) just outside the sphere
(c) at a point 18 cm from the centre of the sphere?
Electric field at a point just outside the irregular shaped conductor by using Gauss's law:
Consider an irregular shaped conductor. Due to irregular shape, the charge is distributed non-uniformly
on its surface. Let P be a point close to the surface. Imagine a pillbox of negligible height and area of cross
section dS. This pillbox is Gaussian surface. One end face containing the point P lies outside and the other end
face lies inside the conductor. Let dq be the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface and  be the surface
charge density.
Flux through the end face inside the conductor is zero, since the field (E) inside the
conductor is zero.
The flux across the end face outside the conductor,
d = E cos  dS  d = E dS -------- (1) ( )
 = 0 o , then cos 0 o = 1
dq
From Gauss theorem, d = -------- (2)
o
dq dq
Compare the equations (1) & (2), we get, E dS =  E= -------- (3)
o  o dS
Charge
But, surface charge density,  =  dq =  dS --------- (4)
Area
dS 
(4) in (3)  E =  E=
 o dS o
 
In vector form E = nˆ where n̂ is the unit vector normal to the surface in outward direction.
o
Electrostatic shielding:
It is the process in which the cavity of a conductor is shielded from outside electric field.
We know that the electric field inside the charged conductor is zero. To protect sensitive instruments from
external field, they are enclosed in hollow conductors. Such hollow conductors are called Faraday cages. They
need not be earthed. Whatever is the charge and field outside the cage, the instrument enclosed in the cage is
protected from the external field. This is because the charges resides or induces only on the outer surface of
the cage. If the cages are earthed, the induced charges flow to the earth and the field beyond the region
disappears.
Faraday cage: It is an enclosure used to block electric field.
Applications of electrostatic shielding:
1) Electrostatic shielding is used to protect sensitive components of electronic devices from external
electric disturbances.
2) In thunderstorm accompanied by the lightning, it is safer to sit in a car or in a bus, rather than under a
tree or on the open ground. The metallic body of the car or bus becomes electrostatic shielding from
lightning.
3) Electrostatic shielding is used to design TV cables, etc..

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 10

NP 7: (a) A comb run through one’s dry hair attracts small bits of paper. Why?
What happens if the hair is wet or if it is a rainy day? (Remember, a paper does not conduct electricity.)
(b) Ordinary rubber is an insulator. But special rubber tyres of aircraft are made slightly conducting. Why is
this necessary?
(c) Vehicles carrying inflammable materials usually have metallic ropes touching the ground during motion.
Why?
(d) A bird perches on a bare high power line, and nothing happens to the bird. A man standing on the ground
touches the same line and gets a fatal shock. Why?
Solution:
(a) This is because the comb gets charged by friction. The molecules in the paper gets polarised by the charged
comb, resulting in a net force of attraction. If the hair is wet, or if it is rainy day, friction between hair and the
comb reduces. The comb does not get charged and thus it will not attract small bits of paper.
(b) To enable them to conduct charge (produced by friction) to the ground; as too much of static electricity
accumulated may result in spark and result in fire.
(c) Reason similar to (b).
(d) Current passes only when there is difference in potential.
Dielectrics:
These are the insulators which transmit electric effects without conducting the charges.
Ex: mica, ceramics, pure water, oxygen, etc.
Dielectrics are two types 1. Polar dielectrics 2. non-polar dielectrics
1. Polar dielectrics: These are the dielectrics which are made-up of polar molecules. Ex: water
2. Non-polar dielectrics:
These are dielectrics which are made up of non-polar molecules. Ex: Oxygen
Polar molecules:
These are molecules in which the centers of positive
and negative charges do not coincide. Ex: H2O, HCl, etc..
Polar molecules have permanent dipole moment
because; the polar molecules have unsymmetrical shapes.
Therefore, they have permanent dipole moment.
Non- polar molecules:
These are molecules in which the centers of
positive and negative charges coincide. Ex: O2, N2,
H2, CO2 etc..
Non-polar molecules do not have permanent
dipole moment because; the non-polar molecules have symmetrical shapes. Therefore, they do not have
permanent dipoles.
Development of net dipole moment in a polar dielectric when placed in an external electric field:
The molecules of a polar dielectric have permanent dipole moments.
In the absence of an external electric field, the dipoles are randomly oriented.
So the net dipole moment is zero. When an external field is applied, the
dipoles align along the field. Now the dielectric is said to be polarized. Hence
a net dipole moment is developed in a polar dielectric when placed in an
external electric field.
Development of net dipole moment in a non-polar dielectric when placed
in an external electric field:
In the absence of an external electric field, the centers of positive and
negative charges of the molecules of non-polar dielectric coincide.
Hence net dipole moment is zero. In the presence of an external electric field,
the centers of positive charges are displaced in the direction of external field
while the centers of negative charges are displaced opposite to the direction
of external field. Now the dielectric is said to be polarized. Hence a net
dipole moment is developed in a non-polar dielectric when placed in an external electric field.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 11

Electric polarization (or) polarization density:
Electric polarization is the dipole moment that developed per unit volume of the dielectric when placed
Dipole moment of dielectric
in an external electric field.  p =
Volume of the dielectric
Electric polarization is vector quantity. Its direction is in the direction of external field.
Dielectric breakdown:
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field of very high strength, the electrons are detaches from
their parent atoms and becomes free. Then the dielectric (insulator) behaves like a conductor. This
phenomenon is called as dielectric breakdown.
Dielectric strength:
It is the maximum value of electric field strength of applied field up to the dielectric breakdown does
not take place.
Its SI unit is V/m (or) N/C Dielectric strength of dry air at NTP is 3×106 V/m.
Electrical capacitance of a conductor:
When an electric charge is given to the conductor, its potential increases. If q is the charge given to the
conductor and V is the increase in potential,
Q Q
Then, V  Q  V =  C = where C is the electrical capacitance of a conductor.
C V
It is defined as the ratio of charge given to the conductor to the increase potential.
The SI unit of capacitance of a conductor is farad and its symbol is F.
Q
Consider, C = , If Q= 1C, V= 1 volt then C = l farad
V
Capacitance of a conductor is said to be 1 farad, when 1 coulomb, of charge given to it increases its
potential by I volt.
Farad is a very big unit. In practice, the smaller units of farad are used. They are milli farad, micro
farad, nano farad and pico farad.
Factors which depends on the capacitance of conductor:
Capacitance of conductor is the capacity to hold the charges given to it. It depends upon the following factors.
1. Shape and size of the conductor.
2. The nature (permittivity) of the surrounding medium.
3. The presence of other conductors near it.
Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor:
Consider a spherical conductor of radius R. Let +q be the charge given to the conductor to raise its potential
Q Q
by V. C= =  C = 4 o R when conductor is placed in air.
V 1 Q
4 o R
 C = 4 o  r R , when conductor is placed in medium of dielectric constant  r
The capacitance of a spherical conductor depends on
1. The radius of the conductor.
2. The dielectric medium surrounding the conductor.
Radius of spherical conductor when C = 1F :
C  1 
We have, C = 4 o R  R =  R = C  9  10 9  = 9  10 9 
4 o  4 o 
If C = 1F = 1  10 −6 F , then, R = 1  10 −6  9  10 9 = 9000m = 9 km.
Due to the large radius of spherical conductor, it is not suitable for storing the more charges. The
capacitance of spherical conductor is  radius of the conductor.
Capacitance of a capacitor:

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 12

 A capacitor consists of two conductors having charges +q and -q and potentials V1 and V2. The potential
difference between the plates, V = V1-V2. Here q is called the charge on the capacitor. It is equal to the charge
on one of the conductor. But the net charge of the capacitor is zero (i.e. + q − q = 0) .
For given capacitor, the potential difference V between the two conductors is directly proportional to the charge
q on the capacitor.
q q Charge on the capacitor
That is, V  q  V =  C =  C =
C V Potential difference between the conductors
Where C capacitance of the capacitor. It is the capacity to store the electric charges.
Capacitor:
It is a system of two conductors separated by insulator.
A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by a small gap with dielectric medium. The most
commonly used dielectrics are air, mica, paper etc. a capacitor is also called as condenser. Capacity of a
conductor can be increased by placing oppositely charged conductor nearby.
The circuit symbol of capacitor
Capacitance of a capacitor:
It is defined as the ratio of the charge on the capacitor to the Potential difference between the two plates
of the capacitor.
Charge on the capacitor Q
Capaci tan ce =  C=
Potential difference V
Unit of capacitance of a capacitor:
Q
Consider C = if Q = 1 coulomb, V= 1volt, then C=1 farad=1F
V
Capacitance of a capacitor is said to be 1 farad, when charge on the capacitor is 1 coulomb and the potential
difference between the plates is 1 volt.
Parallel plate capacitor:
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two metal plates parallel to each other and separated by a small
distance.
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor without dielectric:
Consider a parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C if d is the distance between the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor, A is the area of each plate, E is the uniform electric field between the plates, Let q be the charge
on the capacitor, V be the potential difference between the plates,  be the surface density of charge.
Q
We have, C = ------- (1)
V
V
Electric field between the plates is given by E = ------- (2)
d
 
and E= + for two thin charged plates
2 o 2 o

E = ------- (3)
o
V  𝑑𝜎
On comparing equations (2) and (3), we get, =  𝑉 = 𝜀 ------- (4)
d o 𝑜

q q
Equation (4) in equation (1)  C = = o ------- (5)
d d
o
q A o  A
But  =  q = A  (5)  C = C= o
A d d

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 13

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with dielectric medium:
  A
C= o r
d
where  o is the permittivity of free space,
 r is the relative permittivity of the medium between the plates,
A is the area of each plate of the capacitor,
d is the distance between the plates.
TP5: A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has an capacitance of 8 pF (1pF = 10–12 F). What
will be the capacitance if the distance between the plates is reduced by half, and the space between them is
filled with a substance of dielectric constant 6?
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with partially filled dielectric medium:
Let us consider a case of parallel plate capacitor in
which a medium of dielectric constant K is partially filled.
Then the field is uniform in air as well as in medium but they
will have different values. Let 't' be the thickness of the
medium whose relative permittivity is K. The remaining space
of (d - t) thickness be occupied by air.
If Eo is the field in air, then from Gauss law
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
∫ 𝐸𝑜 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀 ⟹ 𝐸𝑜 𝐴 = 𝜀 ⟹ 𝐸𝑜 = 𝐴𝜀
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
Similarly by considering a Gaussian surface through the medium, then by Gauss law,
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠 = 𝐾𝜀 ⟹ 𝐸 𝐴 = 𝐾𝜀 ⟹ 𝐸 = 𝐴𝐾𝜀 where E is a field in the medium
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
The P.D. between the two plates of the capacitor.
𝑞 𝑞
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑜 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐸 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑉 = 𝐴𝜀 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐴𝐾𝜀 𝑡
𝑜 𝑜
𝑞 𝑡 𝑞 𝑞
⟹ 𝑉= [(𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐾 ] ⟹ 𝐶 = 𝑉 = 𝑞 𝑡
𝐴𝜀𝑜 [(𝑑−𝑡)+ ]
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝐾
𝐴𝜀𝑜
⟹𝐶= 𝑡
[(𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐾 ]
Note:
When a metal slab of thickness t is introduced between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor.
𝐴𝜀
New capacity is 𝐶 = [(𝑑−𝑡𝑜) ] since metal k =∞
Factors depend on capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor:
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is
1. Directly proportional to the area of each plate.
2. Inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
3. Directly proportional to the dielectric constant of the medium between the plates.
Increasing the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor can be increased by
1. Increasing the area of the plates.
2. Decreasing the distance between the plates.
3. Using a medium of high dielectric constant between the plates.
Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) in terms of capacitances:
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with free space between the plates is given by
 A
C a = o ------- (1)
d
If the medium between the plates is other than free space of dielectric constant  r , the capacitance will be,
  A
C m = o r ------- (2)
d

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 14

  o r A
(2)  C m = d  C m =   C m =   C =  C
(1) C a  o A Ca
r
Ca
r m r a

d
Note:
1. When a dielectric is inserted fully between the plates of the capacitor, the capacitance increases by  r
times its capacitance in free space value.
2. When a dielectric slab is inserted between plates of the capacitor which is connected to a battery, the
charge on the capacitor is increases by a factor  r
3. When a dielectric slab is inserted between the plates of the charged capacitor after removing the battery
the charge on the capacitor remain same but potential difference decreases by a factor  r and the
capacitance increases by a factor  r .
NP.8: A slab of material of dielectric constant K has the same area as the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor
but has a thickness (3/4)d, where d is the separation of the plates. How is the capacitance changed when the
slab is inserted between the plates?
Let Eo = Vo/d be the electric field between the plates when there is no dielectric and the potential difference is
Vo. If the dielectric is now inserted, the electric field in the dielectric will be E = Eo/K.
The potential difference will then be
1 𝐸 3 1 3 𝐾+3
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑜 (4 𝑑) + 𝐾𝑜 (4 𝑑) = 𝐸𝑜 𝑑 (4 + 4𝐾) = 𝑉𝑜 ( 4𝐾 )
The potential difference decreases by the factor (K + 3)/4K while the free charge Qo on the plates remains
unchanged. The capacitance thus increases
𝑄𝑜 4𝐾 𝑄𝑜 4𝐾
𝐶=( )=( )( ) = ( )𝐶
𝑉 𝐾 + 3 𝑉𝑜 𝐾+3 𝑜
Combinations of capacitors:
Capacitors can be combined in various ways to get desired value of capacitance. We can combine the
several capacitors to obtain some effective capacitance. The effective capacitance depends on the way the
individual capacitors are combined. Two simple combinations are series and parallel combinations.

Capacitors in series:
Capacitors are said to be connected in series when they are connected end to end such that
1) The potential difference across the combination is equal to the sum of the potential differences across
each capacitor.
2) The charge on each capacitor is same.
Consider A and B are the two capacitors connected in series, C1
and C2 are the capacitances of A and B respectively, V1 and V2 are
the potential differences across A and B respectively, V is the
potential difference applied across the combination,
Q be the charge on each of the capacitor
In series combination, V = V1 + V2 -------- (1)
We have, V1 =
Q
and V2 =
Q
( Q is same on A and B )
C1 C2
Q Q 1 1 
(1)  V =  +   V = Q +  -------- (2)
 C1 C 2   C1 C 2 
If the combination is replaced by an equivalent capacitor of capacitance C s
Q
we get, V = -------- (3)
Cs
Q 1 1  1 1 1 
on comparing (2) and (3), we get, = Q +  = + 
Cs  C1 C 2  C s  C1 C 2 

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 15

 1 1 1 1 
For 3 capacitors in series, = + + 
C s  C1 C 2 C 3 
NOTE:
C1C 2
1. for two capacitors C s =
C1 + C 2
2. In series combination, the reciprocal of effective capacitance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of the
capacitances of individual capacitors.
3. The effective capacitance is lower than the lowest of the individual capacitances.
4. This arrangement used to get smaller capacitances from the capacitors of higher capacitances.
5. Increase in number of capacitors in the series combination decreases its effective capacitance.
6. If n identical capacitors each of capacitance 'C’ are connected in series, then the effective capacitance
C
is C s =
n
Capacitors in parallel:
Capacitors are said to be connected in parallel, when they are connected between two common points such
that
1. The potential difference across each capacitor is same as that applied across the combination.
2. The total charge stored in the combination is equal to the
sum of the charges on each capacitor
Consider A and B are the two capacitors connected in
parallel,
C1 and C2 are the capacitances of A and B respectively,
Q1 and Q2 are the charges on A and B respectively,
V is the potential difference applied across the combination.
In parallel combination, Q = Q1 + Q2 -------- (1)
We have, Q1 = C1V and Q2 = C 2V (V is same across A and B)
(1)  Q = C1V + C 2V = V C1 + C 2  -------- (2)
If the combination is replaced by an equivalent capacitor of capacitance Cp, we get,
Q = C pV -------- (3)
On comparing (2) and (3), we get
C pV = V C1 + C 2   C p = C1 + C 2
For 3 capacitors in parallel, C p = C1 + C 2 + C 3
1. In parallel combination, effective capacitance is equal to the sum of individual capacitances.
2. The effective capacitance is greater than the greatest of the individual capacitances.
3. This arrangement used to get higher capacitances from the capacitors of smaller capacitances.
4. Increase in number of capacitors in the parallel combination increases its effective capacitance.
5. If n identical capacitors each of capacitance 'C’ are connected in parallel, then the effective capacitance
is C p = nC
NP 9: A network of four 10 𝜇F capacitors is connected to a 500 V supply, as
shown in Fig. Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance of the network and (b)
the charge on each capacitor. (Note, the charge on a capacitor is the charge
on the plate with higher potential, equal and opposite to the charge on the plate
with lower potential.)
Solution:
(a) In the given network, C1, C2 and C3 are connected in series. The
effective capacitance C’ of these three capacitors is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶 ′ 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 16

For C1 = C2 = C3 = 10 𝜇F, 𝐶 ′ = (10/3) 𝜇F. The network has 𝐶 ′ and C4 connected in parallel. Thus, the equivalent
capacitance C of the network is
10
C = 𝐶 ′ + C4 = ( 3 + 10) 𝜇F =13.3𝜇F
(b) Clearly, from the figure, the charge on each of the capacitors, C1, C2 and C3 is the same, say Q. Let the
charge on C4 be 𝑄 ′ .
Now, since the potential difference across AB is Q/C1, across BC is Q/C2, across CD is Q/C3 ,
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
we have + 𝐶 + 𝐶 = 500 V.
𝐶
1 2 3
𝑄′ 10
also 𝐶 = 500V. This gives for the given value of the capacitances, Q = 500V × 𝜇F = 1.7× 10−3 𝐶 and
3 3
𝑄 ′ = 500V × 10 𝜇F = 5.0× 10−3 𝐶
TP 6: Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are connected in series.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination?
(b) What is the potential difference across each capacitor if the combination is connected to a 120 V supply?
TP 7: Three capacitors of capacitances 2 pF, 3 pF and 4 pF are connected in parallel.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination?
(b) Determine the charge on each capacitor if the combination is connected to a 100 V supply.
TP 8: In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate has an area of 6×10–3 m2 and the
distance between the plates is 3 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is connected
to a 100 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor?
TP 9: Explain what would happen if in the capacitor given in Exercise 8, a 3 mm thick mica sheet (of dielectric
constant = 6) were inserted between the plates,
(a) while the voltage supply remained connected.
(b) after the supply was disconnected.
Charging a capacitor:
Consider a capacitor which is initially uncharged. When a potential difference is applied across the
capacitor using a battery, it acquires a charge Q, with one plate having the charge +Q and the other plate having
the charge –Q. in this process, the charge is transferred from one plate to the other, bit by bit in small amount
of dq. This process of transferring the charge in a capacitor requires work done or energy spent. This done by
the battery at the expense of its stored chemical energy. The total work done or energy spent in transferring
the charge from 0 to Q is stored in the capacitor as electrostatic potential energy and can be removed by
allowing the capacitor to discharge.
Energy stored in a capacitor:
When a battery is connected across a uncharged capacitor, the charge
transfers from one plate to another plate, bit by bit in small amounts dq.
Consider an intermediate situation when the charges on the plates are
q and -q. at this stage, the potential difference between the plates is
q
V  = ----- (1) where C is the capacitance of the capacitor
C
Let dq be the extra charge transferred in the capacitor such that V  remain constant
The work done in transferring charge dq is given by
 W 
dW = V dq ------- (2)  V =  W = Vq 
 q 
q
Eq (1) in (2)  dW = dq --------- (3)
C
The total work done in transferring the charge from q = 0 to q = Q is given by
Q

W =  dW -------- (4)
0

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 17

 Q
1 q2  1 Q 2 0 
Q Q
q 1 Q2
Eq (3) in (4)  W =  dq =  qdq =   =  −   W=
0
C C 0 C  0
2 C  2 2 2C
Q2
This work done is stored in the capacitor as electric potential energy, U =
2C
Note: Other forms of expressions energy stored in
Q2 1 1
capacitor, U = = CV 2 = QV
2C 2 2
NP 10: (a) A 900 pF capacitor is charged by 100 V battery
[Fig.(a)]. How much electrostatic energy is stored by the
capacitor?
(b) The capacitor is disconnected from the battery and
connected to another 900 pF capacitor [Fig.(b)]. What is
the electrostatic energy stored by the system?
Solution:
(a) The charge on the capacitor is Q = CV = 900×10–12 ×
100 V = 9× 10–8 C
The energy stored by the capacitor is = (1/2) CV2 = (1/2)
QV = (1/2) ×9×10–8C×100 V = 4.5×10–6 J
(b) In the steady situation, the two capacitors have their positive plates at the same potential, and their negative
plates at the same potential. Let the common potential difference be 𝑉 ′ . The charge on each capacitor is then
𝑄 ′ = C𝑉 ′ . By charge conservation,
1 1
𝑄 ′ = Q/2. This implies 𝑉 ′ = V/2. The total energy of the system is = 2 × 2 𝑄 ′ 𝑉 ′ = 4 𝑄𝑉= 2.25×10-6 J
Thus in going from (a) to (b), though no charge is lost; the final energy is only half the initial energy. Where
has the remaining energy gone?
There is a transient period before the system settles to the situation (b). During this period, a transient current
flows from the first capacitor to the second. Energy is lost during this time in the form of heat and
electromagnetic radiation.
TP 10: A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much electrostatic energy is stored in the
capacitor?
TP 11: A 600pF capacitor is charged by a 200V supply. It is then disconnected from the supply and is
connected to another uncharged 600 pF capacitor. How much electrostatic energy is lost in the process?

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