PRELIMINARIES

Vectors and
Scalar
e

only magnitude ,
no direction

"both magnitude and direction

Vectors Drawn :
using ana rrow ,
and length of arrow represents magnitude b >
(larger magnitude)
-

Represented symbolically using F ,

F

System of units - Basic and derived quantities

Basic quantities Derived

quantity
-

-
Mass :

kg Ex-speed
-

Length-m : A
:
time-s speed m/s
-

-
Current A -

Temperature -
K

Luminosity-Cd (candella)
-
No of particles : mol

Significant figures+
1 .
All non-zero digits are significant .

significant /12060 +]
2 All blu non-zero numbers are + 4 S 7 900 43 55
zeroes
.
. .

,
.
>
- .

3 Filler zeroes to the left of a decimal are not

significant (220 = a s f 0 30 + 2 St]
. .
. .
.

↳. Filler the right of decimal place are not

significant (0 0006 1s.f 0 00 1 s + )
+
zeroes to a > .
. - .
.
,

5 All non-filler zeroes to the right of a decimal place are significant (80 2 > & s.f 60 40 > 3s f]
.
.
- . . +
. .

Significant figures in calculation >

-

Multiplication :

58
~
2

>
-
23 x =
13292 + 1.3 x 104

The should have the same of s f the with the leasts f in

answer no as no
question
·
. . .

NOTE Same for division

:

Addition3 subtraction :

13
>
- 3 21
.
+ 4 = 7 .
31 + 7 3 .

· The ans should have the same no of d.p's as the no. with the least d.p in the operation.
 Scientific notation >
-

ax (b

NOTE-Value in the place of a has to hy the same no of sf as the

of number
.

3 sf
.
.

>
-
504 = 3 S f . .
- 5 82

Rounding off -
·
3 250000
.
- will be rounded off to 3 2 -3 3 bes the . .
no .
bfo the last non-zero digit is even .

↓ for odd round off to next number .

Uncertainties -

L Lo DL- absolute
: +
uncertainty
·

.
I/

absolute value/ measured value

As the instrument changes uncertainty changes bis they function differently

,
.
A
↓
·
In a digital instrument ,
the least count is the uncertainty
. (Digital clock-LC :
seconds]
·
In an analog instrument ,
the / is the uncertainty
.

Fractional e For multiplication [Q : e

uncertainty
19 Ab
Q
Al
: - :
+

Percentage uncertainty For addition Q b

x100 a
: >
- : -

Q0 : 90-bo , AQ : Aa + Ab

NOTE :
Uncertainties are always added no matter the operation of 10.

Power-Q a Square Na
AQ
For In 1
AQ A Q
*A
: :
= < root + : :
:
 (A) KINEMATICE
Scalar Vector
↑ ↑
Distance and displacement :
length from one point to another
.

d
·
shortest path possible from one path to another
. (disp [dist]

Distance be 7) but be both

disp can 0
-

can never ,
or .

Speed and velocity : Rate of change of disp (or) dist. (Speed = Velocity]
de
V = S/t [distance/time]

Velocity is represented as i

·
For instantaneous velocity ,
draw a tangent in the graph and find for that point

Average speed >

-

>
-

distance 7
FOR UNIFORM MOTH
Varg
total
:
-
A

FOR NON-UNIFORM SPEED -

Tavg =+ +
only applicable if t is same for both journeys. (4 , # V2 ; ith

Projectile motion >

-

·
The mass will have both x and y coordinates .

Has parabolic path

.............
a
-

V 7

m)o I
1 /
-
Is thrown at an angle ,
O .

M
~
ylm
Point H-has both values
xey
-

"= 0
·

The only acceleration gravity (a 9) %

"
.
. -

is = +
·

·
H

To
7 ·

H
..........
10
old
↳

Hxi'm >

Usino at the
top is O In this graph horizontal component is vertical is Using
.
-

Ucos0 component
-
.

,
-

decelerating accelerating
↑
·
Usino is while going up to the vertex but
T when it is -
UcOSO :
constant , as there is no
change in velocity.

moving down -

Usin O will keep changing

 Equations for projectile motion -

Horizontally :

O
T
1.

Vx =
Ux + Axt 6 V UY -
=
20xSx . Sx = Ut
3 + a

Xx = Ux Xy - Ux = 0 Sx =
Uxt

Vx UCOSO : V :
Ux
* >
-

XX :
UCOSO 3: UCOSOXE

Vertically ~
+
:
:

2
. V
3 42
1. V U + At 2 S:
Utta+2 : Las
.

Vy - Uy2 2AySy Rmax

Xy My + Ayt Sy Uyt tayt :
in
: : + =

Vy :
UsinO-gt Sy : UsinOt -

- gt2 Vy (Usin0)-2gs
:

hmax-sir
·

Creating equations from projectile motion requires : Max height , range time , of flight

(a FORCES 3 MOMENTUM
↳ mi
' =

-
Amount of force required to displace an object depends on its mass .

> newton's
- first law
Inertia Phenomena : of an object resisting force because of a
greater mass. [Resistance to
applied force
-

Types of forces >

-

m
[W] WEIGHT :
Always acts downwards
-
wi Mass x
g [wi mg] (wimg]
g
V
then
-
If
g increases , weight also increases .

/ I
/ / /
I I / I /

Mass the in
-
can never change despite
,
changes g.

TENSION Present in a string.

:

·
If there is a mass at the end of a string tension ,
is a force that acts along the string ·

towards the point of suspension

. TV
>
-
Points of

suspension
·
The ball also has the force of weight
.
knot
-
nT

·
Because the mass doesn't drop weight and tension
,
are equal o W =T =
MG
·
Net force blu
weight and tension is .
O
"Wi
·
↓
Tension acts both and ↑ as there are a points of suspension .
 SPRING FORCE : associates with Hooke's law

Restoring force is force which makes the spring back to the

original shape and
-displacement
·
come

thByF
Force L X
position
.
·

a
I spring
constan
Fr -kx
F
Frestoring &-x
: + =

NORMAL FORCE :

something that balances the weight

-N f-friction

↑
N

>
- at rest MG
cosO -e masing
,
- Ir L
A m d

- , /

"W =
,

MG
, " I I I

· /

FRICTION :

. (F2 + ]
Et , fr also increases
·
There are 2 types of friction : static and dynamic . - as applied
Static friction - Body is at rest -
For an obj to move ,
I has to overcome f.

If
cost) fret
-N N : Mg In static friction
,
-

0 :
rest
x(F2N/mg]
Fee e
=

·
to Masino
: -
As
my
↑ applied I should also increase
masino
,

f C F
r
,- I
>
A
-

·
" I I I / , , ,
F2Mg +
FEMsxmg
L

-
MG (or) N E
=

"W =
MG Ys

For the body to change from static to dynamic friction 'f'

,
F needs to
needs to break and overcome f.

Point At when I breaks and

M
A
f ......
-·

Dynamic friction :
Body starts moving coefficient of dynamic friction
.
MS F overcomes f

Famg + F :
MaxMg >
-
if Elmg : Md
..... . . .
B Point B -Constant
Ud
↓
&a is a constant - doesn't change even if velocity changes dynamic friction starts

F
,

"rest
A

moving

BUOYANCY (Fb) :

Vim Volume of immersed obj -P

M Mass e i
: :

: +

Fb =
Pxgx Yim "Where :
P :
density .
of fluid

-
If Ep =
weight of body the body
,
will float in the fluid .

-
If Fp weight of body the body will sink
,
in the fluid
.
 VISCOUS DRAG :

Drag force acting on a small sphere opposing its motion through a fluid

Fa GHHUV = +
r-radius of sphere U-velocity
,
of sphere through the fluid
,
4-fluid viscosity constant
"eta kgn's" Pas Pascal's
= = = .
second
Stokes law :

When
-
an
object moves through a fluid it has to
, push the fluid out of its path .

-
A fluid's resistance to such movement is called viscosity.

Viscosity and drag are directly proportional /V < Fa] .

Equilibrium >
-

equilibrium of a
point particle means that the net force on the particle is zero
.

Momentum and impulse+

·
Momentum :

product of mass and velocity (kgm/s or N/s)

·
In terms of momentum ,
newton's second law is Fret :
Ap/st (Fne+d a]
"The avg net force on a system = rate of change of
'
of
system

m(14) (derivationone
Pi A4
·
Fret
MMU
MXa +

1
:
a : +
= - =

A collision in which total KE before total KE after is elastic collision

-

= an .

Momentum in LD collisions ->

M
2kg
Conservation of momentum > - -
If kinetic
energy
is same before and after it is elastic
,

Umls ,
8kgm)s
4x2
:

~
8 sin 20 ↳ PV :
along X-axis : collision

i
mV
, ,
=
M2Vz -

If KE is not conserved ,
its inelastic .

kgm/s
:
12 =
8 cos20 + 4VcOsO -
Q

10
I
12 = 7 91 .
+ HVCOSO
3
8106200
4XCOSO 4vCo1O + X

Long y-axis :

X ↳ sin O
m ,V , =
McV2
-
ukg
(going in pp' directions]
V °

W o = Osin20 -4xsin O + Q
PV = 44 kym/s
Grls rest
sinO = 27 .
+
y
-
· ⑳
(0 60: or
AsinO
-tanO 0 60 0 tan "
F
.
-
:
= .
+ :

2kg uky
↓
Before= 2x6 +0 =
12kgm/s 4VSIN31 : 2 7 :

4 : F : 5 4 .
+ 1: U : 1 35
.

e
 2
rest Conversation of momentum
⑳
before : 3W
along X-axis :
sky
M V,: , McV2 Substitute
i n eq O -
KEbf :
-MV2
3
M
k 3w
[x8x 32
= Sxc0620 + 15C0660 3w : 5 x 7 .

4(0620 + 7 9 .

=
?
kgrals
°
~ 15 sin 60
15
30 = SV(OS20 + 7 5 .
+ Q 3w = 38 + 7 .
E = 100 ]

along y-axis >

-
3W = 49 E .

KEaf :
-MV
°

(60 15 LOS 60
M V,
,
=
McVc W = 43 E .

I
:
- x8 x/5 + 1.6]
scosco
> -

(200 0 =
15 Sin60-SVSiNGO
3
: 5 x8x6 62 :

=
1747

0 =
13-Susin 20 KE (before) = KE (after)
↓.
5 X Sin 200
V 0 = 13-5Vx0 39 .
Plastic collision

~
(5xkgm(s) Sxx 0 35 .
= 13

SX :
E = 37 14 .

o -
IM

V = 37 14 7 4 m/
.

Connected motions >

- a
1) a =? 2)
E m, M
,
>
-
m,
F = MXd

Em,
M2
F = M, + M2 XA

a : F
- -
a+m ,
M , + M2

-2
f (
M,a Med f

Ein
f f >
-

I > mu > m
, m , M2 M2
- -
-

+ +

f is the force exerted by m , on Mc M2 =x f M2A :

M2 + : ②inc
and mc on m , m ,- > F f =
= M ,A
fi fq =
McA + Q f2 -f =
M2Q

for M2 = f = Mcd + Q F-McA :

Mid M - f2-MyA :
Mea

for
↓,
m, -> there is force exerted on both sides a
: m
,
f =
M3A - ② f2 :
Mya + M29

F -f = M ,a >
- f McA =
fi M> = f =

f
F M3 + M2
Qin O M2

·
Sub

Timeima
:

mine
--
+
Mc+ M ,

F-Mca = m a
, Ms 1
Mit M2
=
M2m ,

F = M ,a + McA

(m mc)
Lim E 2:
F
M3Xf <
,EXM
a + U :
M2X
= : : =
,

#ms
F = 10 X men

+
a

M
Is

f
:
f =
Circular motion + M
·

v >
(i) r2
-

Time taken - One rotation

L ⑳-M .
Total distance for one rotation 2TV
(so
:

X Y
el, ⑳ > obs ech

·
r >
- linear velocity At
·
Speed" stance = y

-
Circular motion has linear speed and angular speed
.

Object takesIt time to 10 Object

-

x cover &

Angular velocity Angular displacement

:

time y takes At to cover 10 .

(p) distanceloved
* *

O refers
-

Object y covers more distance at same T and O

to the amount of distance from the horizontal D US
17

as object X therefore Object travels faster

y
.

, ,

↑
In time T = 0 :
24
Om f + V GNUXf
:A = V:
=
⑳
-
>
↑
W W Omega/angular Velocity
:
= =

·
V UXC
:

di
-

V= Wxt radius

-unit is radian/second .
Centripetal acceleration :

1) Angular velocity of Earth

+always Ac :
-
a act inwards >
-

2x10 vals
a
W=
Ey :%x Hence
=
:

Fret :
Ec (centripetal force)
mass
2) O for 30
days ?
Ec Ac Alternate Fc Mr
=
:
m x >
- :
:

0
30
= 24 = 0 31 radians e
.

4
dc : :
cir :
 Vehicle on a bending road -

⑳ V = VW Fr friction
=

- N

FCA
2
Basics FrI F
I
A ac
F2 = .

~ -
,

........
↳ L
F : MU
-
mg the vehicle remains on the track.
W

-
-normal
Fo =
N -
mg - R

1 .

Mcar : 1100 kg :

Yxmq

Us : 0 70 .

, Umax :?, r : 95m Fc =

My
>
-

umg1 m
.
Mg =
M
149
A 100
:
0 70.
x 1100 x 9 8 .
T

14gr
: U 0 70
.
x 4 8x99
.

Tyrg
:
V < 25 .
54m/s +
Vmax = 26 m/
↓

The max of V that be obtained without frictional force that the in

can overcoming ,
so car
stays

the track .

Banking without friction

mmmn
:

-
If a car moves too fast who friction it will slide off the ,
curve .
COSO is if O is adjacent .

If the vehicle moves too slow it will slide into the centre Sino is if O is opposite e
·
- .

In y direction
:

N
x
=
NsinO ENy =
NCOSO-mg

Nut
& bis
Ny = NCOSO =

Mg Ny = 0 ,
no acceleration vertically
7

N NCOSO-mg 0

= .
: .
N
MG
=

"d 'N +.
,

& In x direction :
-

mg The a , is in C direction
: so Sin n i
-

x
.

ENx = -

NsinO (acting to left)

m x - Ac :. FMd , =
NsinO
I :
gxtan o :. V :

↓
Ugta o
S
Mxy : Nsin speed at which car can maintain

its position who sliding up or down -

If & T , the VN .
 Banking with friction :

If the car is not moving ,

friction acts
up the incline .
UNCOSO
NSinO All vertical forces must add to 0 because the vehicle doesn't act
·

up or down
.
-
↑
T
O Pertically :

<
MNCOS
O . form EFy May : =
0

yNsinO
Y NcosO-MNsinO-mg = 0

Mi O

ing Horizontallay x : .
Nsino +
yNcoso - i
it
L

Vertical - Horizontally -

NCOsO-yNsinO-mg =
0 NsinO +
yNcosO MP : : my (sino ycos0)+ =
My

N (COSO-ysinO) - mg = 0 N(sino + y c010) : COSO-ysinO

N =
mg -vertical .
:. =
vg(sinO Mc0s0) + : .
V:
Vgx (sino + (0s0)
COS O-ysinO COSO-UsinO COSO-ysinO

·
V:
Vgx (sino + (010) ->
Using this formula make o the subject for , angle of bending.
COSO-ysinO O tan"
(tr og
:

doesn't drop
Vertical circular motion- so
it
,

in circle and not like a pendulum

tension and velocity. >
- so it moves a
When the
-
mass reaches the top of the circle the , mass/string needs to have minimum

1]
2 °

Ec Fret 0 0 when body is at the bottom [cos0 ::

MV
= ·
=
>
-

⑳ >

my
2
T =
+

⑳
· = T-MgCOSO
-
>
string with masino · T: at the bottom
ingcoso large
tension is
MG
.
+
+

M
L
mass attached T Mgcos
·
-
+

mit my ↓,
for bottom
-

If the mass is at the top :

~
-

0 : 1800, -
Tension centripetal force and weight will act downwards/towards the centre

·i
,

1 for the top

COS180 : -

E-m + MG G ) = T=
M -

my

highestpoint,Timelungore
At

velocity than required so it move and notd o

,
a

If T 0 (attop) >
m- mg 0 "At the top if V =
Jrg the T will be O and mass will drop down
.
-
= =
, ,

My Therefore at the VJ Jrgi to

=
g ,
top ,
continue
T

#
=
g = V =
Jrg
 s WORK POWER 3 ENERGY ,
us

work done ,
power energy -
interrelated

CASE 1 CASE 2 Fcoso helps in s .

~
EnsinO
V Frsin O =
mg
V
Fnet -
Fnet
-
- -
=>
Fret 10s 20 FACOSO
>
-
m > M m m m m
=>

· i
angle blwFGS .

"mg
(w)
-

Work Done =
Fe (If sand Fare in the same direction w :
Friet. cos
Li

Scalar

Cases for work dones >

- Work energy theorem
-
>
-

1. 0 = 90 °, W = 0 ,
because cos 90 : 0 -
The body is changing its velocity to accelerate
*
Kineticenergey gy
>
- M

Fret
8 0° c Maximum bes COs0 1 Energy something stored in body to do work
. X
2 : :
,
:
. -

"Scalar
I,
=
W Fret X S
"Elastic potential energy (only in elastic bodies)
.
3 0 :
180 : W= -

Fret XS ,
bes COS 180 = -1
>
-

Nork done by F, on a circular track is 0* KINETIC ENERGY : Energy in an

accelerating/moving body. (K E . :
[MP) x-speed m

= U

m I
L m .....
-

Movingw speed (h) but due to Fret ,

it changed to
speed (v) + acceleration
.

&
If KET , W =
(H ↓ H- + work is e a
by reaction
If KE k W G Force Emu Fret
KE
Initial KE
=
,
final
↓,
↑
= -mu
+
a :
e+
Work done is change in

Y U => 4 MV-mu
2as u = 1 W Kinetic
2 x Exs 2
xy 2w
=
=
=> c energy
he
= = -
=

frictional restrictive force

. ,
mechanical energy
↑ X
If work is done the system a in that
from outside the system is called isolated the of the system does not change
-

no on case
, ,
energy .

We say that the total .

is conserved
energy
>
-
KE + PE
If mechanical energy is conserved work is the amount of
energy transformed blu different different forms of energy
-

elastic
x
>
-
E
,
=
Ex +
Ep +
Ey
=
-MV + mgh +kx +

If there are interactions F d

blu system and surroundings the total mechanical energy may change.
-

- -

cWi +
F To
>
-

W :
AKE >
-
~
-
In this the speed so 2 Ball speeds while coming down
,
up
, -
,

->-
-> -

KE k + DKE G) = co = >
-

So KER . -
DKE = +

1 bas W= AKE :
(W =
() ~ (W = AKE =
#

↓
Kinetic
energy of transational motion :
Ep"m"2 (Relationship blokEOP = E or KE-P
I
2M .

<(MV) x
2
E EMV <P <MX'x
=
:
= MXX : ·

E : + E :
 work/time [1 watt :
15/s] 1 KW =
1000 W
-
°
POWER rate at which work
:
is done 3 energy is transferred
. 1 MW =
1 X10 G

"rate at which energy flows -

1 hp : 746W

P-FXV :. P P Fxy
A
: :. :

Energy efficiency -n :

- How much of a
given amount of energy can be converted from one form to another important form
.

Foutput-Poult
4 :

a
A 1-Kinematics
.

drag
↑ parachute
↳
>
-

Fluid resistance 3 terminal velocity -

Fret =
Mg-drag = O

kng
&
F
When blw drag force and mg 0 then terminal velocity (vi) is acheived
.
a = 0

(vi)
-
=
net ,
v = constant

Vi is also acheived in fluids -

buoyancy
N
"As the mass
goel deeper into the fluid the pressure increasel thereby viscosity + which increases a drag force .
"My
, ,

>
-
fluid
F KV (for
= low speeds] F Ky (for
:
high speeds]
mg = kx Y ;

Vi #
=

my
 thermal physics
Temperature and absolute temperature :

:... Particlesmolinginrandomdirections withdifferentspeci i

-

%
-
-

273 C
°

Of It 0 K- absolute temperature - motion freezes

-
Pressure is force applied by gas particles perpendicularly to the walls of the container
.

Internal energy :

G
particles connected with a bond.

wo
In case o f

solids
-When heat both the
vibrating and the bond stretches , therefore
-

applica to one particle particles start

is ,
acquering
"elactic potential energy .

P E .
:
AVgKE
Internal P E TE
energy = +
.

:
%

T =
30 %, 313 K
"
/T ,
= 30% i : 60 ] -

change in temperature will remain same ,

no matter the scale -

°
Is
°

30 C is 30°, 30 F and etc

°

AT = T2 -

11 = 60-30 : 30 C So ,
....

333K-303K
°
AT :
Tz -T , = :
30 K

Specific
heat capacity
+ no change in potential energy
t
X

-substance will take time Swater 4200 j/kg

°
to +
temp from Tito if =
K

Ti
m Al :
Tf -

Ti >
-

DT is bes of heat energy

.
-

42005 of energy is
required to ↓
temp of

↑ :
Q AT/Qm -Q x MAT 1 kg of H2O by 1
Q-heat
supplied formulas Q =
CMST + fixed for a substance Cice = 2200 j/Kg
°
K

Unit for
J/kg
°
-
c : K

specific when the state of matter

heat
capacity changes changes
-

Q1 +
Q 9800]
:
, M = 1 .

8kg ,
c =
450T/kgOK ,
AT =?

>
-

Q :
MCAT + 9800 :
1 8 x450
. x ST

818 " AT 12 1
9800 ST
100
- : - -
.

20C colder
°

2 -
Ti(water)
=
-

Iron loses heat to HcO as it is .

-
°

fe
↑ (iron) = 300 C
-
The temperature is exchanged b/w both bodies
( M(water) :
1kg
Predict equilibrium temp before both reach the
(fe) 2009
same temperate
- .
M : a

Q MCAT
=
equilibrium
.

Iron m C 1T
~
T = 477000 26 4
.
:

(300 1)
-
heat energy lost 0 2 450 (300 7) (T- 20)
27000
= x x
0 2 x 450 x =
4200 T 4200 T 8400
.

x
-

4201
2 - - = -

>
-

+
X
heat energy gained by H20 =
1 x 4200 x (T- 20) 90 x (300 1)
-
=
1200 X [T- 20) 27000 + 84000 :
4200 T +T + 111000 =
4201 T
 - Latent heat of fusion

Specific latent heat : [L] J/kg >

- Latent heat of vaporisation

state of matterchanges P&M Q ML L

=
-
. + : -

~ T: Constant

me phase changes P.E

changes If doesn't
changeo
-
:
,

↳ Latent heat of fusion : (melting or

freezing) >
-
↓ =
L Latent heat of vaporisation :
(condensing/vaporising) C
:
T= constant

heating ge :
Specific Latent Heat : only phase change

"heat transfers from hot body to cold body till they reach thermal equilibrium
To, ·

1
.
water What is the thermal equilibrium ?

ST = 0
mmm =
3009 T : 20°

Cice
-
: 2200 Jkq"k'
L # ice cube
'

0
DC
T = - 10 C ·

CH20 : 4200 JkgI

AT =
m =
299 bas
↑ it is changing phases

i
st L -

Lice = 334 Jkg"

L

C
Let final temp = T

< 1) Q MCAT (H2O) =

tr Hs
Q : 0 3
. x 4200 x
(20 - - Q
i)

-
Equate ea 1 to the sum of
.
"ice" equations > -
For ice :

&
(20 -1) 10 3347 + (0 021x42007]
°
0 3x 4200 < : 025 <2200 x
10] + 20 029 x second stage Uses Q to change temp from -10 c to 0' First state changes and
. . . .
- -
,

-(0 ( 10)
-

de
-

1260/20 T] -
=
590 + 8 33 .
+ 103 T 0 023
.
x 2200 x 10 (Q MCAT) = then temperature changes
-
29200 12607 598 35 1097 first stage uses Q to change state at 0°
:
- .
+ -

29200 -
558 39 .
:
1097 + 12607 = 0 029
.
x
334

°
24641 7
°

13697 18 09 C
°
.
: >
-
T = .
third stage- Q to change temp from O C to T C

to water , so
-ice c value
change
: 0 029 x 4200
.
x (T b) -

M
To
2) Msolid : 120
g .6 %... - - - -↳

Ti(solid) = 20 C
48 ° -

...... &

( (

power-constant -heater
!
I

·
200 ,

·
<

C
solid = 1500 j/kgok I

>
120 560s 600S

Find power =?

P · what vale. d)
energy heat 00 is
of gar
:
: energy :
o C :?

Q : Pxt

Q Q MXL Q (600-960)
0 12 1500 28 6400] D
Om 70 70 40 2800J
: .
x x : -
: >
+ : : x : x :

>
P Q Q PXt
(360-120)S Q MCAT
: : :
+

F >
-

Q : 70 x440 :
30800 c :
:
2 9 .
x 18 jkg"i

↓ 18° i kis
20800 : 2 3 .
x
 Transfer of thermal energy :

.
1 Conduction > -

#Ax + (1) (ax) (AT)

-

Factors affecting rate of heat transfer : Cross-sectional area

,
width ,
Temperature difference

That Told

-Q
KA
At &T: TH
.

-
>
direction of conductivity
heat transfer .

1) k 3K

A o T A

L L
Find T ?
100C O'C

(200 ACO
-
Heat energy in left rod : -1) 0

=
3T = 100 -
T

Right rod (ie

(A)
- :
°

4T : 100 + T = 25 C

2 .

Radiation Doesn't require : medium

luminosity
-

- to calculate
Stefan-Boltzman's law :
P =
GAT" ·
Intensity of radiation : =
P-power T-Surface temp
%
A-surface area -Stefan-boltzman constant 5 67
.
x10 Wm214

-
P : AT" >
-
:
SAT 1 : 4TP 8 Th

- X -
minosity
A black body is something that absorbs and radiates all spectras of radiation .
-

* *

Every object has a certain body temperature. Depending on the

temperature ,
the objects emit different colours. (radiation)

As
M

Intensity
As temperature and
decreasing intensity
wavelength
-
is ,
decreases increases .

the most emitted wavelength is the color you see

o

Wein's displacement law :

no
↑
maxT = 2 90
.
x 103 km
Y
Wave length/yo

1. m = 0 .

150 g AT =
5 C
.
Q 383]
=

Q MCAT
G =80
+ C
:
=
=
=

.
2 Mc 909 =

calorimeter
= 420 Jkq" K

310g
°
m =
Ti = 15 C P : 20W
,
°

Tf : 19 C +: 3 min = 180s

& 3600 =lacaist<mcst

: MCAT
Q

Q: PX +: 20 x 180 : 3600] 03x(x4

to
used
by calorimeter and water
 Black bodies :

solids can be heated to incandesence & different temperatures have different visible radiation.
-

An object that absorbs all of the radiation incident it and does not reflect transmit radiation.
-

on or
any

Wien's displacement law-

"max # +X maxT = 2 9 x10 mk
wavelength emitted by a body to its temperature.
.

Relates >
-
-

The the shorter the wavelength

higher the temp of body and the greater the
intensity of radiation.
-

a ,

Stefan-Boltzmann's law >

-

Power output of a black

body depends on surface temp and radius
-
.

The total by black

energy emitted body the fourth absolute
a per unit area per second is proportional to
power of
temp
-

8-stefan-boltzmann constant
of the body. >
-
P = AT"
P : <Troy
-
When considering a
sphere such as a star ,
the equation is :

solar constant >

-

Amount of solar radiation across all wavelengths that is incident in one second in one m at mean distance of Earth from

Sun

=>

Albedo -

Proportion of
light reflected
by a given surface .

- a :
total scattered power

total incident power

>
- effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation .
>
-
perfect reflector
Emissivity - > (e) => values can range from 0-E , black body (incident radiation is absorbed emitted as thermal radiation with max strength)
Power radiated
-

by a surface divided by power radiated from blackbody of same surface drea stemp .

C : Power radiated by object

power emitted by black body

Stefan-Boltzmann for real body : P : eSAT" + e :

GAT" tranges from O to 1

Apparent brightness luminosity/ power -

>
-

F 1 di distance from
light source .
=
,

>
4πd

Stefan-Boltzmann law :

-
E < ATY
E

4 d AT"

=A
P = 8 AT" + b
=
d
-
GAS LAWS :

Moles molar
,
mass and Avogadro's constant :

n = moles
R Universal gas constant
= : 8 31 5K
.
mol"
Ideal gas equation - P ,
V .
T ,
h >
-
PV = URT

Allogadro's constant > -

1 mole :
no . of particles in 129 of C" >
-
6 . 023x10" atoms in one mole .
,

Particles in one mole of any substance

-
" x Na

Charle's Law -

VST ,
P =
constant >
-
P =E
a

Presurre the walls of the containe

gasparticles
-

is force exerted by on . .

Perpendicularly.

FCos
O
Pos
>
-

Find
⑳

Boltzmann equation :

- = V,+ V2 + Vz + .....
In RMS Speed - Root mean square speed (c)
N *
C = V
2
+V ,
+
Vjf In
...

N
*

Ep of
gas
= my" + Emx + ...

[Mv" >
- KEd T

Ekaygotgas =

Im ll.In2) ....
>
-

1 mc2 :
El +average Kinetic
energyo

Kinetic in terms of temperature

energy
:

PV : URT
: Mass ofeachparticlea
(0-density ofa
1 (N') <
-

2
Step 1 : P = Step 4: URT Nm =
mass of all particles .

p, - =

(5PcY V ART
.
=

> N =
MXNA >
- n
= A
<2
Step 5:
A (NM) : e
NA

Step 2 :
p My
:
masogasa
15-(2) . HR Step 6: Multiply both sides by 2
:

>

x, (NM) E ** T
=
-

Step
GMC
3: = HR
-
((XM) C = x +

>
-

1 mc =

=R*
-
Er :
KBT/Ep :

EPx
Boltzmann constant -

KB-1 .
38 s e
 Past paper

An ideal monostomic gas is kept in a container of volume 2 1 x . 10 m temperature

,
.
°
310K and pressure 5 3 x10 Pa
.

(ii) No- of atoms in the gas.

PV #
My
= nRi + R =

Na
PU
:* T
xRT PV -Pl
:
- :

>
-
2 . 6x/022

F A I.
. .

Syllabus >
-

-
heat and temperature -
StefanBoltzmann equation

thermal energy transfer -

Wein's law

specific heat capacity gas laws

-
-

specific latent heat -

ideal gas equation

-
method of mixtures

thermodynamics
Internal Sum of random
I E of all
particles and the P E due to intermolecular forces.
energy gas
: .

in a .

In an ideal
gas ,
internal energy is only KE as intermolecular force is negligible
.
gatan
Ex KB
xkBxT
in
= +

With
gas-niEors an
internal energy ran ideal

29-2 2024
-

current circuits (Bs)

Properties of charge :

1 .
Like forces attract and unlike forces repel.
x charge of

.
2 Entire charge of body : Q : n .

q +
(9 : 16 x 10 c) e

Current I = seconds
.
3 >
19 + I= ampere 9 + conloumb
- :
, ,

AT

Cowloumb's law of electric force

+

>
-
2 particles with charges are placed in air/vaccum ,
and they will either attract or .
repel

Fd492 -
F4
q ,................ 2
+
, F 9
,

F K
>
-

Follows inverse square law .

99
= x

>
-
The medium
changes ,
then the force also changes.
 If the substances are placed in air/vaccum
-

-
E
.
Cepsilon knot) -
has a specific value dependent on medie
he

Kair 9 x10'Nm/
= >
-

Eoa = 8 85
.
x 10" NM2

-
If one of the charge is doubled ,
then the force will also double

-
If both the charges are doubled ,
then the force will + by 4 times .

If the r is halved then the force doubles.

,

4 3-2024
-

Resistance and reactivity I

>

R/2 Plam

Natural property of any material which allows for opposition of flow of current.

elength P-row-resistivity
R & Land R <
-cross-sectional area >
-
R <
#=> R =
Px -

Ohm's law Voltage : is directly proportional to the current for constant resistance
,
.

V = RxI

-
Devices that follow Ohm's law are called ohmic devices. -

Devices that don't follow are non-ohmic devices-

I
-

Gradient of this
graph is -
Ex : filament bulb V = -Work
histance
-

N In
7 >
9 -
charge

> >
Y
V
(ohmic device)

6-3-2024

Electric Power (P) :

Watts (w)

OFF s
*

U Potential different
=
:

work current

E Ha *
P Watt P P: P
* P I
: : :
>
- : >
- x >
-
:
>
- =
-

Power is the work done over a period of time .

1 .
I = 2A ,
R 12 = -
How much
energy is generated in the resistor in 1 minute ?

P 12 x R
: >
-
P = 22 x 12 + P 48 : >
-

Energy j 4xt :
48x60 =
2880]
↓

P
Energy
: Pinergy
i
or +

2 4 : 60W U 220U P D HOU -

Power generated ?
.
: . :
, ,

* 220"
:0
P 0
: o
=
>
-
60 :
,
D :
>
-
-

= (10) :: (t)" :

=* => P he
 Combination of Resistors :
(How much is the total ristance)

1 .
Series
total resistance
I
................
R2
>
,
-

R
n oMM Rs = R ,
+ R2 + ..... Rs

I i loli ↓ -

The current is same and it is not shared by resistor

component
-

The voltage from battery .

is shared (The voltmeter is connected at the end
points of the resistor Voltmeter should be connected
-

parallel to the unknown

.
2 Parallel
~
Ri
Voltage splits based
-

num
is constant but the current is shared ,
so it on the resistor .

#Fit
1I V I,
,

I
⑳

= A Rp
=
R2 + +..... + >
-

XI2 1I2

Ill
7-3-2024

Potential Divider :

Yin
I it
Iin is constant
Ill
-

>

12 V

-
Series resistors will only share equal voltages ,
if the resistor is identical -

4l 22

T ]
Vin shared
-
=

Ry R2

-
Total current = Total voltage = 12 =
2A >
-

Voltage of Rc = IxR = 2 x2 : 4V

& Resistance G

Fot
* =
e
constant

.... Potential divider

KE
R
formula

E
x
-

-H Not You
1
V Vou Vin
=

o
=
= :
cor) :

O
>
-

0 09 A
.

7
Design a voltage divider circuit with output of 12V and current of A
using a 201 battery.

Hot +20
Rot :
or e
20V

Hill
~ 0 05 A
.

R2
Yout "inp (a) 20x2 R2 2-
:
Ri :
+ 12 = +

- umm -

240l 160
&

R R -R2 = 400-240 : 160h

=
+o+
 d-fields
D 1-Gravitational fields
.

,
P 2+. Electric and magnetic fields ,
D 3-Motion in EM field
.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS >

-

Newton's law of gravitation : A mass M ,

has a field f and if a smaller mass is placed in the field , it will experience attraction of F .

F 67110'"NM2k
FamM
6 C 6
M
M x
= =
=
.

m , ,
d

F F
GM
m >
Mxg
-

= =
,

9 dependent
:
of mass of planet -
gravitational field strength
↳
g nk G = universal
=>
Mg MM M
:
=
G =
d = distance b/w 2 bodies

M Mass of larger body

a
~
B ·
:

- - &
· Gravitational field strength (g-N/kg) is the force experienced by an object that is in another mass'
residing
-

Earth

field
-

gravitational .

The field lines

↓ In
gives us magnitude and direction of field strength.
-

Tr
M

For
-

a spherical body ,
the field line an radially inwards -

1
g =? M : 10 Mearth V 20 Hearth
.
=

9 M 9E
GME = 9
OME OME) 9
: : :
=
=
,

.
2 Calculate the where it is 300km from surface of Earth Radius of Earth is 6 4x10'm 3 M of earth is 6 0x18" kg.
g
. .
.

9
&M G
(667 X10lx(6YoY EGX6 x 10 % N
: :
8 92 x 10
.

=> = .
= &
?

=
M
dur to M : Total g :
-M
>
me -g
C M2 d
②
⑳ ·

9
-M +M
:

A
-
X -
1 A- d- x

-9 que to

:M
m

9/1

·
NKg
-

Relationship between X/total d and

g
of M,
-- 0 75.
O f 0 25 f .
=

x/d
o'2 >
O
onof ↑ 08
M m Ratio of
M =? 9 0 at
# 0 75 distance from
:
I = = .

0 75.

distance from the

= g 0 at
# 0 25
= : .

EM +-M E
-M EN EAN +M + E
Ozg.

Orbital Motion >

-

↳ Ec
m To Gym M : MM = V :

&M =
V
:
M
>
-
velocity
-
of m around M with
a

The lesser the radius the faster the speed

,
oha

If value of M 4 then speed of m will +.

,
 ↑ 3k Kepler's
third awe

F Vir - r
:
M
=P -
M
=
Tre
A =
Th =

4 , π , 6 Mare constant , so
,
relationship blwv T is tested
.

Kepler's laws of planetary motion :

-The law of orbits : Each planet's orbit around the sun is an eliptical shape. [Sun is at foci]
planet
(fast motion)
Foie
⑳ -
The point X is the perihelion where the sun is closest to the planet .

X
⑳
⑳ ·
↓
Majoraxis -
Pointy is the aphelion where planet is farthest from sun .
(slow motions
Minor axis
Foci 1

2 :
The law of equal areas :

The area covered at timeT , and Tz is the A , -the planet slower while Ac-planet faster.
-

m same ,
as moves moves
·
⑳ m

Tz Ac ⑳ Al T,
A , =Az at same time .

~ ·
m

.
3 The law of harmonies The squares of the semi-major : axis and cube of time taken for a revolution is directly proportional
.

↑
>
<
3
=> TX2312

revision

1 .
a .
Q 98885
:

<iron = 440 J/kgK m =

0 .

50kg AT ? ,

Q Mx(x1T 9800 0 5 440 &T 44 59 k

800
: = : .
x x = ST :

=
.

°
b .

Quater
=
9800J removed ,
Ti() = 48 C ,
C = 4200 ]kq"k" m 0 3 kg. = .

(48 x) (48 X) 436 c

9800
9000
:
0 3 .
x 4200 x -
=> 9800 : 2160 - => 9800 :
100800 -
2100 X = -
91 000
,
: -2100X = X :
:

.
2
Ti(water) 20 C
M(p) 1kg 42005/kgk
=

<water
: :
, ·

Miron
=
2009 , Ciron :
4405kgk ,
Ti =
300 C ·
Find equilibrium of this
.

(
Q :
MCAT (iron) Q: MCAT (water) >
-
02 x420x (300 Tf) - = 4200 x(T f 20) =

: 200 x 102 x 440 x (100 if) -

: 1 x 4200 x
(if 20)
-
88 x
/300 if) - =
4200 TX-84000

=> 26400 -

88Tf : 4200 if -

84000 = 26400 + 84000 =

4200 X + 88 x

=> 770400 4688X 7126-

1400
: :
=
x =
25 :