By Kaine, AIN; Ajie, IA; Abojei, JO (2024).

Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences

ISSN: 2276-7770
Vol. 14(2), pp. 67-72, 2024
Copyright ©2024, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International.
https://gjournals.org/GJAS

Socio – economic determinants of child

labour among female headed household
cassava farmers in some selected States of
South - South, Nigeria: A Post Covid-19
Experience

Kaine, A.I.N.1; Ajie I.A.2; Abojei, J.O.3

1Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, National Open University of Nigeria,
Kaduna, Nigeria
2Department of Library and Information Science, National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja
3Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Dennis Osadebay University

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article No.: 051624064 The study was conducted in South – South, Nigeria with particular reference to three
(3) states that were randomly selected. Data required for the study was collected
Type: Research
using a well-structured questionnaire (primary source). Secondary source of data
Full Text: PDF, PHP, HTML, EPUB, MP3
was generated from review of previous work. Oral interview and field observation
was used to augment information sort for by the questionnaire. Analysis of the result
revealed that farmers were relatively young and well experienced. Literacy level was
Accepted: 17/05/2024 high and household size was small. Determinants of supply of child labour include:
rural urban migration of adults, population, wage rate and change in income. The
Published: 21/06/2024
logistic regression model was used to estimate the social – economic determinants
of child labour in the study area. Logistic regression analysis established that
*Corresponding Author coefficient of age (0.039) and education (0.068) were positive determinants of child
Anthony I N Kaine labour. It also indicated that the coefficients of the variables marital status (-0.151),
E-mail: akaine@ noun.edu.ng number of children (-0.015), farming experience (-0.457), household size (-0.413), age
of child (-0.0779) and farm size (-1.264) were negatively and inversely related to use
Telephone: 08038822372
of child labour. It was recommended that government at all level should embark on
rural and agricultural developmental policies, projects and programmes.
Keywords: Determinants, Child, Government should also put in place policies that will provide social security
Labour, Cassava, Household, programme and services. Use of conditional cash transfer should be expanded.
female and farmers. Governments should formulate policies that will discourage child labour but improve
access to qualitative education in the study area. Intensification of sensitization
campaign against child labour should be carried out.

Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 67-72, 2024
68 Kaine et al / Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY cassava farming households in South – South agro –

ecological zone in Nigeria. It is against this background
In Nigeria, the agricultural sector dominates the that this study was carried out to examine the socio –
general sector of the economy (Kaine and Ume 2017). It economic characteristics of the farmers, ascertain the
has been documented that the agricultural sector is the factors that determine the supply of labour and estimate
most important sector of the economy that ensure food the socio-economic determinants of child labour.
security and enhance economic growth and
development (Audu, 2017; Adeoye et al 2017and Kaine,
2018a). Adeoye et al (2017) reported that the Nigerian MATERIALS AND METHODS
agricultural sector is characterized by small land holdings
and use of child labour. They further reported that the The Study Area
use of child labour in agricultural production was adopted
as a means of reducing the cost of production. The study was conducted in South – South agro
Child labour in this context is used to refer to all – ecological Zone of Nigeria. Three (3) randomly
activities carried out in the farm by children of school age selected states was used for the study. South – South
that interferes with schooling. However, the International comprises of six States which include: Akwa – Ibon,
Labour Organization (ILO) reports (2013) noted that Balyasa, Cross River, Edo, Delta and River States. The
where child labour does not have negative effect(s) on zone has a total population of twenty one million, and
the schooling of the child, health status, physical and forty four thousand and eighty one (21,044, 081) people.
mental development, it is generally not regarded as child This population is made up of ten million, seven hundred
labour. The claim was further exemplified and stated that and five thousand, five hundred and thirty three
where a child is used to look after the siblings at home, (10,705,533) male. The female population was recorded
working to earn pock money after school hours and to be ten million, three hundred thirty eight thousand, five
during holiday cannot be regarded as child labour. hundred and forty eight (10,338,548) (National
Alao et al (2013) reported that about 186 million Population Commission, 2006). Total projected
child labourers are used all over the World. From the population figure with a growth rate of 3.2 percent as at
estimated population it was stated that about 111.3 2022 was estimated to be thirty four million, nine hundred
million of the children used, work in harmful thirty three thousand, one hundred and seventy four
environments. It was also reported that at least 120 (34,933,174) people with seventeen million, seven
million of the world’s children labourers who are engaged hundred and seventy one thousand one hundred and
on full time basis ranges between the ages of 5 and 14 eighty five (17,771,185) male. The female projected
years and work for more than 10 hours a day. population was estimated to be seventeen million, one
The effect(s) of child labour has been hundred and sixty one thousand, nine hundred and
documented to include but not limited to: fatigue, waste ninety (17,161,990). Akwa Ibom, Delta and Edo were the
of talent and energy, academic waste, high rate of school three (3) randomly selected States that were used for the
dropout among others (Ofuku et al 2014). Determinants study. Total population of these States was eleven
of child labour have been identified to include: poverty, million, two hundred and forty seven thousand, seven
high fertility rate with a consequent increase in hundred and sixty two (11,247,762) people (Census,
household size, cultural and family tradition as well as 2006). The total projected estimated figure was eighteen
lack of access to affordable and quality education (Etim million, six hundred and seventy one thousand, two
and Udofia, 2013 and Glory and Nsikak – Abasi, 2013). hundred and eighty five people.
Kaine and Ume (2019) and Kaine and Ume
(2017) regarded household size as individuals or people Sources of Data
occupying the same building or a house and its
occupants. The authors further opined that household Data required for the study was collected using
size is the number of people living under the same roof both primary and secondary sources of data. A well-
and feeding from the same pot. The household is either structured questionnaire (primary source) was used to
headed by a male or a female (adult or youth) who collect the required data for the study. Secondary source
provides the needs of the family. Where the female takes of data was generated from review of previous work.
charge of the entire needs of the family, it is regarded as
female headed household. Sampling Procedure
It has been documented that Nigerian farmers
make use of family labour majorly made of children and Multi – stage random sampling technique was
do not often hire children outside their households used for the study. The first stage involved selection of
(Ofuoku et al 2020). Although, various studies have been three (3) States out of the six (6) States in the zone. The
conducted to examine various level and nature of second stage involved the selection of two (2)
children’s involvement in farming activities, it is not agricultural zones from each of the selected States.
certain that studies have been carried out with respect to Thirdly, three (3) Local Government Areas was randomly
determinants of child labour among female micro selected from the three (3) selected States. Thereafter,
 Kaine et al / Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences 69

four (4) communities each was selected from the showed that one hundred and six (106) (73.10%) of the
randomly selected Local Government Areas. The sample farmers were single while only thirty nine (39) ((26.909%)
frame consist of five (5) female headed household of them were married.
cassava farmers selected from the thirty six (36) Household size examined revealed that majority
communities given a total sample size of one hundred (108) (74.48%) of the respondents in the study area had
and eighty (180) respondents. household size within the range of 0 – 4. The result
Enumerators that could read and write in English indicated that majority of the farmers had small
and Local Language of the selected communities were household size. Analysis of the educational attainment
recruited, trained and assigned to the selected studied showed that literacy level of the farmers in the
communities with the assistance of the Assistant Chief study area was high. The result revealed that one
Agricultural Officers (ACOA), Local Government hundred and fourteen (114) (74.48%) of the farmers had
Agricultural officers and resident Agricultural Extension formal education while thirty one (31) (21.38%) had
Officers in the selected Local Government Areas as well informal education.
as the village heads and chiefs were used for effective The variable farming experience determined
data collection exercise. showed that the farmers were well experienced in
cassava production. Majority of the farmers (124)
Data analytical technique (85.52%) had a farming experience of over ten (10)
years. The result of the farm size revealed that farmers
Descriptive statistics, and the logistic model were used in the study area were small holder farmers. A detailed
for data analysis. analysis of the farm size indicated that sixty eight (68)
(46.90%) of the farmers had a farm size range of 0 – 1
Model Specification hectare, forty nine (49) (33.79%) had a farm size range
of 2 – 4 hectares while twenty three (23) (15.86%) and
Logistic Model twenty three (15.86%) had a farm size range of 4 – 5 and
6 and above respectively.
The model is expressed as
Table 1. Socio – economic characteristics of the
Yi = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2+ β3X3 +β4X4 +β5X5 +β6X6 +β7X7 farmers ∑n = 145
+β8X8 +Ui Characteristics Frequency Percentage
Age (Categories)
Where Yi = Dummy variable which takes the value of 20 – 30 30 20.68
unity “1” If the household engages in child labour and 31 – 40 39 26.89
zero “0” if otherwise. 41 – 50 63 43.44
50 and above 13 8.96
The independent variables include:
X1 = Age of the household head (years), Marital Status
X2 = Household size (Number) Married 39 26.90
X3 = Educational level of the household head (years), Single 106 73.10
X4 = Farm size (ha), Household Size
X5 = Household income (N), 0–4 108 74.48
X6 = Number of male children, 5–9 21 14.48
X7 = Number of Female Children, 10 – 14 9 6. 21
X8 = Number of Female Children 15 and above 7 4.83
Ui = Error term, β 1 – β 8 =Parameters.
Education attainment
Informal 31 21.38
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Formal 114 78.62
Farming Experience
Socio – economic characteristics of female headed 1–5 11 7.58
household cassava farmers 6 – 10 10 6.90
11 – 15 63 43.45
Socio – economic characteristics of female 16 – 20 18 12.41
headed household cassava farmers in the study area 20 and above 43 29.66
was studied, determined and presented in Table 1. The
result of the variable: age indicated that the farmers were Farm Size
relatively young. Thirty (30) (20.68%) of the farmers were 0–1 68 46.90
within the age bracket of 20 – 30 years, thirty nine (39) 2–3 49 33.79
(26.89%) were within the age bracket of 31 – 40 while 4–5 23 15.86
seventy six (76) (54.40%) were within the age bracket of 6 and above 05 3.45
41 and above. The result of the marital status studied Source: Computed from field survey, 2023
70 Kaine et al / Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences

but significant determinant of child labour at probability

Factors that determine of supply of child labour in level of 0.878. A similar result was obtained by Oladukun
the study area et al (2017). The authors reported that a negative result
coefficient found implied that single headed household
The result of the determinants of supply of child were less likely to employ the use of child labour in
labour in the study area was determined and presented farming activities. However, this result was not in
in Table 2. The result revealed that majority: one hundred consonance with that of Adeoye et al (2017) who
and seven (107) (73.79%) of the respondents indicated reported a positive relationship between marital status
wage rate as a determinant of supply of child labour. and use of child labour.
Rural urban migration was established as a determinant Education, another important variable that was
of supply of child labour. This was indicated by ninety determined in this study. The result showed that the
eight (98) (67.59%) of the respondents. Population (63) coefficient of education (0.068) had a positive
(43.45%), substitution effect (31) (21.38%), efficiency relationship with the engagement of child labour among
(93) (64.14%) and change in income (51) (35.17%) were the farmers. It implied that education was a positive and
proven by the farmers to be determinants of child labour significant determinants of child labour in the study area
in the study area. at a probability level 0.837. Empirical studies carried out
by Ume et al (2018), Iheke, (2010) and Ume and Okoye
(2007) revealed that literacy level of farmers affect the
Table 2. Determinants of supply of labour use of child labour in the farm. Okpukpara and
Variables Frequency Percentage Chukkwuone (2007) also established a positive
Rural urban 98 67.59 relationship between educational level of farmers and the
migration of adults use of child labour. This is in line with the findings of this
Wage rate 107 73.79 study. The authors opined that the more educated the
Population 63 43.45 household head is, the lower the likelihood of involving
Substitution effect 31 21.38 children in the farm. The positive coefficient of education
Efficiency 93 64.14 found in this study is not in line with the result of the study
Changes in 51 35.17 carried out by Oladokun et al (2020), Adeoye et al (2017)
income and Aloe et al (2013). A negative relationship between
Source: Computed from field survey, 2023 education and child labour use was reported by the
authors. According to the authors, a negative coefficient
of education influences farmers to the use child labour in
Socio-economic determinants of child labour use the farm. The authors further stated that the less
among respondents (logistic regression) educated the farmers, the higher the propensity to
employ child labour in the farm. This is in consonance
The logistic regression model was used to with the a priori expectation that illiterate farmers often
decide or estimate the social – economic determinants of use children and household labour to work in the farm
child labour in the study area and the result was without considering the benefits of education on human
presented in Table 3. It was revealed that the coefficient capital development.
of age (0.039) was a positive and significant Household size was another important variable
determinants of child involvement in cassava farming at that was studied and discussed. The result established
0.202 probability level. This result was in consonance that household size (-0.413) was a negative but
with the result of Alao et al (2013) who found a positive statistically significant determinant of child labour use
relationship between age of farmer and the use of among the farmers. The variable was statistically
children in the farm. A positive relationship between age significant at 5% level of significance. A negative
and child labour that was observed in this study implied coefficient of household size according Oladokun et al
that as the household head is aging, the higher the (2020), implied that an inverse relationship exist between
likelihood of using child labour in the farm. This is in line household size and use of child labour. This result is in
with the a priori expectations that aged farmers are line with a priori expectation that with a lower number of
associated with more lassitude that make them to be household size, it is anticipated that family expenditure
exhausted easily. Oladimeji and Edun (2018) who on feeding, clothing and other social services will be
observed a positive relationship between age and child lesser. Hence the higher propensity to use child labour in
labour also reported that older farmers were more likely the farm. On the other hand, Omeje et al (2020) and Alao
to involve more children in the farm than the younger et al (2013), found a positive relationship to exit between
farmers. This the authors stated that it is expected household size and use of child labour.
because the older people tend to be less productive. A further analysis of the social economic
Iheke (2010) on the other hand observed a negative determinant of child labour use with respect to the
relationship between age and child labour. variable experience established that coefficient of
The variable marital status was considered, experience (-0.457) had a negative sign. This implied an
determined and presented in Table 3. It was revealed inverse relationship with the variable and this might
that the coefficient (-0.151) of marital status was negative predispose the farmers to the use of child labour.
 Kaine et al / Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences 71

Farm size was studied and determined. The The authors stated that the larger the farm size the more
result showed a negative coefficient (-1.264) that was the farming activities that will be required and will
statistically significant at 5% level of significance. This predispose the household heads to use children on the
implied that the variable was a significant determinant of farm to cultivate the large expanse of land.
child labour. A negative coefficient of farm size observed Age of child also showed a negative coefficient (-0.779).
in this study is not in consonance with that observed by This result is in line with that observed by Ogunwande et
Alao et al (2013). The authors established a positive al (2016).
relationship between farm size and use of child labour.

Table 3. Socio – economic determinants of child labour

Parameter Coefficient (b) Wald Chi – Square Prob. Level
Constant 5.570 11.41 0.001
Age 0.039 1.62 0.202
Marital status -0.151 0.02 0.878
Education 0.068 0.04 0.837
No of children -0.015 0.01 0.928
Household size* -0.413* 8.77 0.003
Experience -0.457 0.98 0.322
Farm size* -1.264* 8.02 0.005
Age of child* -0.779* 13.25 0.000
Source: Computed from field survey, 2023
*Significant at 5%;
Likelihood ratio test: χ2 = 90.03; p<0.05 (Compares the fitted model against the intercept-only model); Goodness-of-
fit test: χ2 = 94.66; df = 46; p>0.05

Dichotomous response variable (use of child labour): against adverse effects of wage rate and changes in
Don't use = 63.9%; Use = 36.4% income. Use of conditional cash transfer should be
expanded. Education was also reported to be a
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION determinant of child labour use in the study area. Since
access to education is one of the basic right of a child, it
The study revealed that farmers in the study area is imperative for Federal, States and Local Governments
were relatively young and well experienced in farming. to formulate policies that will discourage child labour but
Literacy level was recorded to be high, household size improve access to qualitative education in the study
was small and the result also indicated that farmers in area. Intensification of sensitization campaign against
the study were small holder farmers. The result of the child labour should be carried out. This will help to
determinants of supply of child labour was established to increase awareness and change attitude of people
include but not limited to rural urban migration of adults, towards supply of child labour.
population, substitution effect, wage rate and change in
income among others. The logistic regression model was
used to estimate the social – economic determinants of ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
child labour in the study area. Analysis of the result
indicated that coefficient of age and education were The Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund)
positive determinants of child labour. It also established sponsored this research work “Socio – economic
that the coefficients of the variables marital status, determinants of child labour among female headed
number of children, farming experience, household size household cassava farmers in some selected States of
and age of child were negatively and inversely related to South - South, Nigeria: A Post Covid-19 Experience” by
use of child labour. providing the much needed fund that was used to carry
Since the study established that rural urban out the study. Much appreciation to this great institution
migration of adult was a determinant of supply of child for their kind gesture. The contributions of other scientist
labour in the study area, it was recommended that are acknowledged.
government at all level should embark on rural and
agricultural developmental policies, projects and
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Cite this Article: Kaine, AIN; Ajie, IA; Abojei, JO (2024). Socio – economic determinants of child labour among female
headed household cassava farmers in some selected States of South - South, Nigeria: A Post Covid-19 Experience.
Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 14(2): 67-72.