SECTION V:MATTER

has been plastically deformed. The stress where Important definitions

plastic behaviour begins is called the yield 1.Brittleness
strength. When a material has plastically Brittle materials cannot be permanently
TOPICS deformed it will still recover some of its shape stretched. They break after the elastic limit is
 Phases of Matter (like an overstretched spring). When a stress in exceeded.
the non-linear region is removed, the stress- 2.Creep
 Deformation of Solids
strain graph will follow a line with a slope equal to Creep occurs when a material is under constant
 Temperature
the modulus of elasticity.The plastically stress over time. Strain gradually increases,
 Thermal Properties of Materials deformed material will now have a linear region causing eventual fracture. Is used to describe
 Ideal gases that follows the dashed line.Greater stresses in the gradual increase in strain which occurs when
 Non-viscous Fluid Flow the plastic region will eventually lead to fracture a material is subjected to stress for a long
 Transfer of Thermal Energy (the material breaks).The maximum stress the period of time.Unlike fatigue it occurs even when
material can undergo before fracture is the stress is constant.It is greater at higher
DEFORMATION OF SOLIDS ultimate strength. temperatures and may result in fractures in the
STRESS AND STRAIN Hooke's Law material if it is severe.Turbine blades in jet
Stress is the force per unit cross sectional Hooke's Law states that the extension(x) of a engines are particularly susceptible to creep.
area.Stress has units of Nm-2 = Pa spiral spring (or other elongated body) is Soft metals e.g. lead and most plastics show
When the stress applied results in an increase in proportional to the applied force (F), provided considerable creep even at room temperature.
length it is known as a tensile stress. If it results the limit of proportionality is not exceeded. 3.Dislocation
in a reduction in length it is a compressive stress. A dislocation is the movement of a broken bond
Breaking stress (or ultimate tensile stress) is the where k is the constant of proportionality(a through a crystal. The broken bond creates a
maximum tensile stress that produces fracture. measure of 'stiffness') small void between molecules. When a force is
The elastic region has the unique property that So force-extension curves of different materials applied to the crystal, the void moves across
allows the material to return to its original shape are straight lines through the origin, with lattices in the opposite direction to the force.
when the stress is removed. As the stress is gradient k. 4.Ductility
removed it will follow the same line back to zero. This is the property a material has whereby it
One may think of stretching a spring and then can be permanently stretched.
letting it return to its original length. When a 5.Elastic limit
stress is applied in the linear region, the material This is the maximum force a body can endure and
is said to undergo elastic deformation. When a still regain its original shape and size, when the
stress is applied that is in the non-linear region, force is removed.
the material will no longer return to its original 6.Elasticity
shape. This is referred to as plastic deformation. Elasticity is the property a material has whereby
If you have overstretched a spring you have seen it regains its original size and shape when a
that it no longer returns to its initial length; it deforming force is removed.
7.Fatigue 12.Strength X - stress removed here, body has
Fatigue is the weakness induced in a material by Strength relates to the maximum force that can permanent strain 0X'
it repeatedly being stressed in opposite be applied to a body before it breaks. B - breaking stress
directions. It can also occurr when a material is 13.Yield point For a given material, by definition, Young's
repeatedly stressed and the stress being For a body being extended by an applied force, Modulus (E) is the ratio of stress to strain,
removed. Material will fracture even if maximum the yield point is when a large extension is provided the limit of proportionality is not
stress applied in any cycle could have been produced for a very small increase in force. The exceeded. The gradient at any point on a stress -
indefinitely sustained if applied steadily. material of the body is said to show 'plastic' strain graph is the Young's Modulus (E).
Approximately 90% of failures which occur in behaviour. On a stress-strain graph the Young's Modulus is
aircraft components are due to fatigue. 14.Young's Modulus(E) constant for the portion of the graph where
Mild steel and many ferrous metals can safely This is a typical stress-strain curve of a ductile Hooke's Law applies. This can be easily shown by
undergo an infinite number of stress cycles if material. A brittle material would have a much substituting for stress and strain as shown:
maximum stress is below the fatigue limit. smaller strain value before breaking (making EB
Fatigue fractures usually start in the surface at shorter). The Young modulus of a material
points of high stress, e.g. at sharp corners and describes its stiffness. This only relates to the
around rivet holes. initial, straight-line section of the stress–strain Thus
8.Hooke's law graph. In this region, the material is behaving
where F-applied force ;l-original length ;
The extension of a stretched spring (or wire) is in an elastic way and the straight line means that
e-extension and A-cross-sectional area
directly proportional to the extending force, the material obeys Hooke’s law. However, if we
E is a constant because l, A and F are all
provided the limit of proportionality is not continue to increase the force beyond the elastic
constant.
exceeded. limit, the graph may cease to be a straight line. A
Determining the Young modulus
9.Stiffness typical stress-strain graph is shown below.
Metals are not very elastic. In practice, they can
The stiffness of a body is the measure of its
only be stretched by about 0.1% of their original
resistance to changes in size and/or shape.
length.Beyond this, they become permanently
10.Strain(ε)
deformed. As a result, some careful thought
Strain is the ratio of change in length to original
must be given to getting results that are good
length. It can also be considered as the
enough to give an accurate value of the Young
extension per unit length. Strain has no
modulus.
dimensions. It is given by
First, the wire used must be long. The increase in
length is proportional to the original length, and
11.Stress(σ) so a longer wire gives larger and more measurable
Refers to the ratio of the force acting per unit extensions.Typically, extensions up to 1 mm must
area i.e stress= .The S.I unit for L - limit of proportionality be measured for a wire of length 1 m. To get
E - elastic limit suitable measurements of extension there are
stress is Pa or Nm-2
Y - yield point
two possibilities: use a very long wire, or use a of original length l0 where a force F produces an
method that allows measurement of extensions extension x. It is assumed that the wire obeys
that are a fraction of a millimetre.The apparatus Hooke's Law.
shown below can be used with a travelling
microscope placed above the wire and focused on
the sticky tape pointer. When the pointer moves,
the microscope is adjusted to keep the pointer at
the middle of the cross-wires on the microscope. Now, let the force F cause a further extension
The graph illustrates how for a given force, the
The distance that the pointer has moved can δx, where δx is so small that F may be considered
extension is greater for unloading than loading.
then be measured accurately from the scale on constant.
Looking at this another way, for a given extension
the microscope.In addition, the cross-sectional Since work done = force x distance force moves
the loading force is greater than the unloading
area of the wire must be known accurately.The
The total work done when the wire is stretched force.The stretching produces an increase in
diameter of the wire is measured using a
from 0 to x is the area under the F- x curve temperature (loading), but when the strain is
micrometer screw gauge. This is reliable to within
between these two limits. ∫ reduced (unloading) the temperature drops.
±0.01 mm. Once the wire has been loaded in
Since the wire obeys Hooke's Law, F=kx However, some heat is retained to keep the
increasing steps, the load must be gradually
Substituting for F in the integral expression material above its initial temperature. For a
decreased to ensure that there has been no
(above): complete cycle, the increase in heat energy is the
permanent deformation of the wire.
area of the hysteresis loop. The graph is for
Other materials such as glass and many plastics ∫ rubber, but metals also exhibit this property,
are also quite stiff, and so it is difficult to
though the effect is considerably smaller.
measure their Young modulus. Rubber is not as
stiff, and strains of several hundred per cent can Types of solids
be achieved. However, the stress–strain graph Crystalline Solids
for rubber is not a straight line.This means the A crystal is a regular 3D arrangement of atoms,
value of the Young modulus found is not very ions or molecules. All crystals are made from
precise, because it only has a very small linear identical sub units called cells.
region on a stress–strain graph. As can be seen from the graph, the area under examples of cubic cells:
Plasticity the curve is half the product of F and x
A perfectly plastic material is one which shows Elastic Hysteresis
no tendency to return to its original size and
shape when the load which has been deforming it
is removed.
Strain Energy
To obtain an expression for the strain energy
(work done) in stretching a wire, consider a wire
The physical properties of solids are governed to Borosilicate glass is heat-resisting and has many
a large extent by their crystal structure (e.g. uses in the kitchen, laboratory and in industry. It
graphite & diamond).It is a basic rule of physics is familiarly known under its trade name Pyrex.
that systems tend towards the lowest level of Fused Quartz
potential energy:-Such is the case with crystals, Fused quartz is manufactured by melting pure
where regular arrangements of atoms have a Examples of amorphous solids: quartz crystals at temperatures around 2000 °C.
lower potential energy than the same atoms all  wax, It transmits U.V. and has low expansivity.
jumbled up, with no structure.  glass, Applications include:
In a large single crystal similar planes of atoms  ice,  optics (lenses & mirrors),
are parallel to each other. So the crystal can be  toffee,  halogen lamps,
cleanly cut or cleaved along these planes.  polythene  optic fibre,
Amorphous solids behave more like liquids with  acid glassware,
high viscosities. For example, over time, a  high temperature industrial use.
vertical pane of glass is observed to be thicker
at the bottom than at the top. Test yourself
Glasses 1. Springs and wires obey Hooke’s law. State
Glasses are electrical insulators and transmit I.R. Hooke’s law. [1]
This is not the case with polycrystalline solids. In radiation. Manufacture is by melting mixtures of 2. A spring has a natural length of 2.5 cm. A
this case, a solid consists of many small crystals their components and cooling so that an force of 4.0 N extends the spring to a length
called crystallites (or grains). amorphous solid is produced. of 6.2 cm.
Types of glass: a) What is the extension of the spring? [1]
Soda-Lime b) Determine the force (spring) constant k for
Soda-lime glass is the commonest type of glass the spring in N /m. [3]
and is made from a mixture of silica SiO2, calcium c) Calculate the extension of the spring when a
Large single crystals display a property called
oxide CaO and sodium oxide Na2O. tensile force of 6.0 N is applied. You may
anisotropy. This means that physical properties
Its main uses are window panes and bottles. assume that the spring has not exceeded its
(e.g. resistivity, linear expansion) are different
Lead Crystal elastic limit.
for different directions along crystal axes.
Lead crystal glass has a high refractive index and
Amorphous Solids
a relatively soft surface that can be easily cut.
Unlike crystals, amorphous solids have no definite
For these reasons it is used for wine glasses,
structure. Further, they melt not at one
decanters, flower vases, bowls etc. In the
temperature, like crystals, but over a range of
manufacture of lead crystal, lead oxide PbO is
temperatures.
used instead of calcium oxide CaO and potassium
oxide K2O is used instead of sodium oxide Na2O.
Borosilicate
 b) Calculate the energy stored (elastic potential Heat capacity (C) is the heat energy required to
3. The diagram shows the stress–strain graphs
energy) in the spring when its extension is raise the temperature of a body by one degree
for two wires A and B made from different
5.0 cm. [3] (oC or K).
materials.
5. A length of cable of diameter 1.2 mm is where,
under a tension of 150 N. Calculate the stress in ΔQ is the heat energy added to the body
the cable. [3] Δθ is the temperature rise of the body
6. A metal wire of diameter 0.68 mm and C is the heat capacity of the body
natural length 1.5 m is fixed firmly to the ceiling The units of heat capacity are Joules per degree.
at one end. When a 6.8 kg mass is hung from the Since Kelvin and Celsius degrees are equivalent
free end, the wire extends by 2.8 mm. Calculate: the units are: JK-1 or J 0C-1
a) the stress in the wire [3] Specific Heat Capacity c
b) the Young modulus of the material of the wire. By definition, specific heat capacity (c) is the
The wires have the same length and cross-
heat energy required to raise the temperature of
sectional area. Explain which of the materials is:
unit mass by one degree (oC or K).
a) brittle
b) stiffer
c) stronger. where,
THERMAL PROPERTIES ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned
4. A graph of force F against extension x is
m is the mass of the body
shown for a spring. OF MATERIALS Δθ is the temperature rise of the body
c is the specific heat capacity of the body
Thermal physics deals with the changes that
This can be put more conveniently as
occur in substances when there is a change in
The units of specific heat capacity are Jkg-1K-1 or
temperature.
Jkg-1C-1
Internal energy
Relationship between C and c is
When you heat up a material, it may change
state. The increased kinetic and potential (from Determination of Specific Heat
their greater separation) energy of the particles Capacity by experiment
is an increase in what we call internal energy. These two methods concern the heating up a
Internal energy is defined as: known mass and measuring the temperature rise
The internal energy of a system is the sum of for a known amount of electrical energy used.
the randomly microscopic distributed kinetic Specific Heat Capacity of a liquid by an
and potential energies of its molecules. electrical method
Therefore, an increase in temperature for a
a) Use the graph to determine the force (spring) material means an increase in its internal energy.
constant k of the spring. [2] Heat (thermal) Capacity C
 Heat energy provided is used to break these
bonds and hence there is no increase in the
kinetic energy of the molecules.Change of phase
of liquid to gas (boiling) occurs when the
intermolecular bonds are completely broken.
Heat energy provided is used to increase the
potential energies of the molecules and also to do
work against the external pressure as the liquid
expands to become a gas. The temperature thus
The heat energy supplied by the electrical during a phase change is constant.
element is given to the liquid and its container, Latent Heat
producing a temperature rise Δθ. Latent heat is the energy involved when a
The heating current (I) and voltage (V) are The method is very similar to that for a liquid substance changes state.
monitored for a time (t). except that there is no container. Latent heat energy (L) has two components:
energy supplied by heater = VIt The solid under test is a lagged cylinder with ΔU - the increase/decrease in internal PE
energy absorbed by liquid and container = mLcLΔθ holes drilled for the thermometer and the heater ΔW - the external work involved in expansion
+ mCcCΔθ element. (+ΔW) and contraction (-ΔW)
where, A little glycerine is added to the thermometer This can be summarized as:
mL mass of liquid hole to improve thermal contact.
mC mass of container Heat energy supplied by the electrical element is The phase changes involving latent heat energy
cL specific heat capacity of liquid given directly to the solid, producing a are:
cC specific heat capacity of container temperature rise Δθ.
phase change action symbol
Equating the two quantities,
where, solid to liquid melting LF
mL , mC , cC are known and V, I, t, Δθ are all ms- mass of solid
liquid to solid fusion LF
measured. So the specific heat capacity of the cs - specific heat capacity of solid
ms is known and V, I, t, Δθ are measured. So the liquid to vapour vaporization LV
liquid (cL) can be calculated.
Specific Heat Capacity of a solid by an specific heat capacity of the solid (cs) can be vapour to liquid condensation LV
electrical method calculated.
solid to vapour sublimation LS
note: more accurate results can be obtained by
vapour to solid sublimation LS
applying a 'cooling correction'.
Melting and Boiling The graph illustrates the temperature changes
Change of phase from solid to liquid (melting) when a solid (e.g. ice) is heated from below its
occurs when the bonds between the solid melting point, to above boiling.
molecules are broken.
 There are a number of different methods for θhigh temperature of the hot water
finding l for different substances and different θfinal temperature of mixture
phase changes. l specific latent heat of fusion of ice
The specific latent heat of ice by the 'method Hence l can be calculated from the known
of mixtures' quantities and measured values.
The specific latent heat of vaporization of a
liquid

Note that the changes of state occur in the flat

areas. There is no temperature rise here and
hence no increase in kinetic energy latent heat
must be absorbed from the surroundings (and
given to the substance) for the substance to melt Water is heated electrically until it boils.
or boil. Ice cubes are added to hot water of known The condensed water (m) is collected over time
Latent heat is given out to the surroundings temperature in a copper calorimeter. (t). Heating element readings of voltage (V) and
(from the substance) when the substance The mixture is stirred until all the ice has melted current (I) are recorded. In the steady state,
condenses or freezes. and a final reading of temperature taken. electrical energy supplied = heat energy to
Specific Latent Heat Capacity l produce steam
the latent heat of fusion of a substance is the
energy involved in changing the state of unit Cooling effect of Evaporation
mass of the substance at the melting/freezing Collisions between molecules cause a transfer of
point. energy, where some molecules gain and some lose
the latent heat of vaporization of a substance is energy. If the fast moving molecule is near the
the energy involved in changing the state of unit surface it will have enough energy to escape the
mass of the substance at the boiling point. force of attraction of the other molecules.
This may be summarized by the equation: The lower energy molecules are left behind.
( ) ( ) A liquid with less Ek has a lower temperature.
where,ΔQ is the amount heat energy concerned Thus evaporation provides cooling.
m is the mass of substance where, OR Latent heat of vaporisation e.g. for sweat is
l specific latent heat of fusion/vaporization mw mass of water provided by the body.The body becomes cooler
The units of specific latent heat capacity are mi mass of ice having lost heat energy.
Jkg-1. mc mass of calorimeter The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Determination of Specific Latent heat cl specific heat capacity of liquid water If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with
Capacity by experiment cc specific heat capacity of calorimeter a third system, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
To understand this concept we must first *Only internal energy changes can be measured.
appreciate what thermal equilibrium is. Absolute values of internal energy are not
Consider a body at a high temperature in contact defined.
with a body at a low temperature. Heat is This can be stated as the equation:
transferred from the high temperature body to
the lower temperature body until the
temperatures are equalized. When these equal, a Note:
constant temperature is reached and maintained, +ΔQ - heat is absorbed by the system
the two bodies are said to be in thermal -ΔQ - heat is lost by the system Note ΔW is negative - work is removed
equilibrium. +ΔW - work is put into the system from the system
-ΔW - work is done by the system When no heat is applied and work is done
+ΔU – increase in internal energy externally by pushing the piston inwards to
-ΔU – decrease in internal energy compress the gas:
the temperature of the gas increases
Consider a mass of gas in a piston arrangement work ΔW is done compressing the gas
(frictionless piston, an ideal gas in the cylinder). the internal energy of the gas increases
Consider three bodies, X, Y and Z. +ΔU
Z is in thermal equilibrium with Y. the volume of the gas decreases ΔV
X is in thermal equilibrium with Y. When heat energy ΔQ is taken from the gas :
Then Z is in thermal equilibrium with X.
To try to visualize this further, consider a hot
cup of tea. After about twelve hours, the saucer,
the cup and the tea will all be at the same
From work done = Force x displacement
temperature.
But we get W=pAs
The saucer is in equilibrium with the cup.
Now As=change in volume =
The cup is in equilibrium with the tea.
Hence Work done= or
Therefore the tea is in equilibrium with
the saucer. When heat energy ΔQ is supplied to the gas : Note:
They are each in thermal equilibrium the temperature of the gas increases ΔW is positive - work is done on the
with each other. work ΔW is done by the gas expanding system
The First Law of Thermodynamics to move the piston the internal energy ΔQ is negative - heat is removed from
The change in the internal energy* (ΔU) of a of the gas increases ΔU the volume of the system
system is equal to the amount of heat supplied the gas increases ΔV
(ΔQ) to the system, minus the amount of work
(ΔW) performed by the system on its
surroundings.
 the vibrations. The arrangement in the diagram
TRANSFER OF THERMAL below can be used to show the difference
between brass and wood. If the rod is passed
ENERGY through a flame several times, the paper over
Heat is transferred from the high temperature the wood scorches but not the paper over the
body to the lower temperature body until the brass. The brass conducts the heat away from
temperatures are equalized. When these equal, a the paper quickly, preventing the paper from
constant temperature is reached and maintained, reaching the temperature at which it burns. The
the two bodies are said to be in thermal wood conducts the heat away only very slowly.
equilibrium. To keep a building or a house at a These experiments show which metal is the best
comfortable temperature in winter and in conductor (copper and A), and which is the worst
summer, if it is to be done economically and (steel and D)
efficiently, requires a knowledge of how heat
travels.There are several ways in which heat is
transferred:
Convection
Conduction
Convection is the method by which all fluids
The handle of a metal spoon held in a hot drink
transfer heat. as a fluid (liquid or gas) warms up,
soon gets warm. Heat passes along the spoon by
the particles which are warmer become less
conduction. And the results are shown in the diagram below:
dense and rise. They then cool and fall back to
Conduction is the flow of thermal energy
the heat source, creating a cycle called a
(heat) through matter from places of higher
convection current. As particles circulate they
temperature to places of lower temperature
transfer energy to other particles. If a cooling
without movement of the matter as a whole.
object is above a fluid it will create a convection
Heat is conducted faster through a rod if it has
current (like the freezing compartment at the
a large cross-sectional area, is short and has a
top of a fridge).Convection is the heat transfer
large temperature difference between its ends.
by the macroscopic movement of a fluid. When Radiation
Most metals are good conductors of heat;
most fluids are heated they expand becoming Radiation is the heat transfer without the
materials such as wood, glass, cork, plastics and
less dense, than that which is above it. It presence of any medium that is it can occur in
fabrics are bad conductors: in non-metals - when
therefore rises to the top and the cooler to the vacuum. Radiation is the flow of heat from one
heat is supplied to something, its atoms vibrate
bottom.The cycle continues as this cooler fluid is place to another by means of electromagnetic
faster and pass on their vibrations to the
heated and also rises setting up convection waves. Thermal radiation is emitted by all bodies
adjacent atoms. In metals – conduction happens
currents. with a temperature above absolute 0.It consists
in the previous way and in a quicker way – some
of a number of wavelengths; objects at low
electrons are free to move, they travel randomly
temperatures emit waves of longer wavelengths.
in the metal and collide with atoms and pass on
(less energy).Objects at higher temperatures It cools down the air which then sinks.
emit waves of longer wavelengths (more energy. Any warm air rises to the top and then is
Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but cooled.
very hot objects also give out light waves. Infra- metals are used in cooking pans because
red radiation is part of the electromagnetic they conduct the heat well
spectrum. The table compares the Consequences
absorbing/emitting abilities of various colours a metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up
Matt White Silver because it conducts the heat
Black Convection currents create sea breezes.
emitter best worst During the day the land is warmer and
reflector worst best acts as heat source. During the night the
sea acts as the heat source. The idea of a gas
absorber best worst
a black saucepan cools better than a The diagram above shows a weather balloon being
An emitter sends out thermal radiation. A
white one, launched. Balloons like this carry instruments
reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is
white houses stay cooler than dark ones. high into the atmosphere from where
a bad absorber. An emitter will cool down quickly,
measurements of pressure, temperature, wind
an absorber will heat up more quickly and a
speed and other variables are transmitted back
reflector will not heat up quickly.
to the ground.The balloon is filled with helium so
that its overall density is less than that of the
surrounding air. The result is an upthrust on the
balloon, greater than its weight, so that it rises
upwards. As it moves upwards, the pressure of
the surrounding atmosphere decreases so that
the balloon expands.The temperature drops,
which tends to make the gas in the balloon shrink.
In this chapter we will look at the behaviour of
gases as their pressure, temperature and volume
change.
Consequences of energy transfer Real and ideal gases
Applications The relationships between p, V and T that we
solar panel:the sun’s thermal radiation is have considered above are based on experimental
absorbed by a matt black surface and observations of gases such as air, helium,
nitrogen, etc., at temperatures and pressures
warms up the pipes containing water
refrigerator:the freezer compartment IDEAL GASES around room temperature and pressure. In
practice, if we change to more extreme
is located at the top of the refrigerator.
conditions, such as low temperatures or high 5. the laws of Newtonian mechanics apply walls is negligible each other, but for
pressures, gases start to deviate from these 6. extremely large numbers of molecules compared with the most of the time they
laws as the gas atoms exert significant electrical mean that statistical methods can be time between are moving
forces on each other. For example, Figure 22.6 applied collisions. with constant velocity
shows what happens when nitrogen is cooled down 7. between collisions molecules move in The collisions of Kinetic energy cannot
towards absolute zero.At first, the graph of straight lines at constant speed particles with each be lost.
volume against temperature follows a good 8. the motion of molecules is random other and with the
straight line. However, as it approaches the 9. gravitational effects are negligiible container are
temperature at which it condenses, it deviates 10. the time for each collision is negligible perfectly elastic, so
from ideal behaviour, and at 77 K it condenses to that no kinetic energy
become liquid nitrogen. Thus we have to attach a is lost.
condition to the relationships discussed above. Assumption Explanation/comment The internal energy There are no
We say that they apply to an ideal gas. When we A gas contains a very A small ‘cube’ of air of the gas is the intermolecular forces
are dealing with real gases, we have to be aware large number of can have as many as total kinetic energy between particles
that their behaviour may be significantly spherical particles 1020 molecules of the particles.
different from the ideal. (atoms or molecules). The ideal gas equation is, where,
V/m3 The forces between If the particles n is number moles of gas
Ideal behaviour particles are attracted each other R is the Universal Gas Constant
negligible, except strongly over long T is the temperature in kelvin
during collisions. distances, they would Test yourself
all tend to clump For the questions which follow, you will need
together in the middle thefollowing value:R = 8.31 J /mol/K
of the container. 1. At what temperature (in K) will 1.0 mol of a
The particles travel in Most of the time, a gas occupy 1.0 m3 at a pressure of 1.0 × 104 Pa?
straight lines between particle moves in a 2. Nitrogen consists of molecules N2 . The
77 100 300 T/K collisions. straight line at a molar mass of nitrogen is 28 g /mol. For 100 g
Main assumptions of the Kinetic Theory constant velocity. of nitrogen, calculate:
1. all the molecules of a particular gas are
The volume of the When a liquid boils to a the number of moles
equal
particles is negligible become a gas, its b the volume occupied at room temperature
2. collisions between molecules and their
compared to the particles become much and pressure? (r.t.p. = 20 °C , 1.01 × 105 Pa.)
container are completely elastic
volume occupied by farther apart. 3. Calculate the volume of 5.0 mol of an ideal
3. collisions between molecules themselves
the gas. gas at a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa and a
are completely elastic
The time of collision The particles collide temperature of 200 °C.
4. the size of actual molecules is negligible
with another particle with the walls of the 4. A sample of gas contains 3.0 × 1024 atoms.
compared to molecular separation
or with the container container and with Calculate the volume of the gas at a
temperature of 300 K and a pressure of 120kPa. It collides with face A. Moves a distance L to Up to now we have considered the velocity of a
5. At what temperature would 1.0 kg of oxygen collide with opposite face B, before molecule in one direction. Now, let us consider
occupy 1.0 m3 at a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa? returning to face A . the resultant velocity of a molecule in three
(Molar mass of O2 = 32 g /mol.) Since speed = distance/time, then dimensions.
time = distance /speed
Therefore the time (t) it takes for the
Derivation of equations molecule to traverse this distance 2L is given
The first step in understanding this theory is to by:
appreciate the momentum change when a particle
The rate of momentum change in this time
rebounds from a collision with a wall.
interval is given by:
In the diagram, molecule velocity (c1) is resolved
into x, y and z directions. The value of each
Thus component is respectively, u1, v1 and w1.Replacing
the three components of the velocity with just
From Newton's 2nd Law, applied force is equal to one resultant we get:
the rate of change of momentum.The molecule
initial momentum. in the x-direction = mu1
therefore exerts a force F on the wall, given by: The equation represents component velocities for
final momentumm. in the x-dir. = m(-u1) =-mu1
one molecule.
momentum change. = mu1-(-mu1) = 2mu1 F
Replacing these velocities with mean square
Consider a volume of gas in a cuboidal shape of Since pressure (p) = force/area , the pressure on
velocities, the equation now applies for all
side L. wall A produced by a single molecule is,
molecules.
We make the assumptions that there are very
Hence
large numbers of molecules and their motion is
Now, consider all the molecules (N) in the cube random. So we can say that mean square velocity
and each of their x-component velocities (u1 u2 u3 components are equal to one another.
. . . uN). The pressure on wall A becomes:
where, So molecular velocity c in terms of components
is the mean square velocity of molecules in the becomes,

We have seen how the change in momentum x-direction Substituting for into the equation for
of a molecule of gas when it rebounds from The density ( ρ ) of the gas is given by: pressure previously obtained,we get
one face , is 2mu1 . Hence
The distance the molecules travels between
Substituting for Nm/L3 into the equation for Molecular KE and temperature
collisions is 2L.
pressure p we get Multiplying the Kinetic Theory equation
 for pressure by V, (the volume of the gas) we is called the average translational KE of a within the container. [4]
obtain: [1] molecule b Sketch a graph of PV against P when the gas
Substituting for density density ρ (rho) is given So the average kinetic energy of gas molecules is is kept at a constant temperature.Explain the
by: making the mass M the subject, (where directly proportional to the temperature. shape of the graph. [3]
M is the mass of gas) This can also be said in the converse: 6 A rigid cylinder of volume 0.030 m3 holds 4.0
substituting for ρV into the Kinetic Theory temperature is a measure of the average kinetic g of air. The molar mass of air is about 29 g.
equation (i , energy of gas molecules a Calculate the pressure exerted by the air
when its temperature is 34 °C. [4]
[2]
Test yourself b What is the temperature of the gas in
With some simple arithmetic and a more detailed
degrees Celsius when the pressure is twice your
description of M, this equation can be amended 1 Determine the number of atoms or molecules value from part a? [4]
into a more useful form : in each of the following. 7 The diagram shows a cylinder containing air
If N is the total number of molecules and m is a 1.0 mole of carbon at a temperature of 5.0 °C.The piston has a
the mass of one molecule: m=Nm b 3.6 moles of water cross-sectional area 1.6 × 10-3 m2 .It is held
Now, substituting for 1/3 and M into equation [2] c 0.26 moles of helium [3] stationary by applying a force of 400 N applied
2 The molar mass of helium is 4.0 g. normally to the piston.The volume occupied by
Determine the mass of a single atom of helium the compressed air is 2.4 × 10-4 m3.The molar
The ideal gas equation is, pV=nRT
in kilograms. [2] mass of air is about 29 g.
Eliminating pV between the last two equations,
3 The molar mass of uranium is 238 g. a Calculate the pressure exerted by the
a Calculate the mass of one atom of uranium.[2] compressed air. [2]
Making the subject of the equation, b A small rock contains 0.12 g of uranium. For b Determine the number of moles of air inside
[3] this rock, calculate the number of: the cylinder. [3]
i moles of uranium [2] c Use your answer to b to determine:
The Avogadro Number NA is by definition the
ii atoms of uranium. [1] i the mass of air inside the cylinder [1]
number of molecules per mole. It is obtained by
4 Explain what is meant by the absolute zero ii the density of the air inside the cylinder. [2]
dividing the total number of molecules by the
of temperature. [3]
number of moles of matter:
5 a Write the ideal gas equation in words. [1]
We can now modify equation [3] to include NA b One mole of an ideal gas is trapped inside a
rigid container of volume 0.020 m3.Calculate the
By definition the Boltzmann's constant k is given pressure exerted by the gas when the
by: where k is the Boltzmann constant temperature within the container is 293 K. [3]
6 A fixed amount of an ideal gas is trapped in a
So the final form of the equation is:
container of volume V.The pressure exerted by
the gas is P and its absolute temperature is T.
8 The mean speed of a helium atom at a
a Using a sketch of PV against T, explain how
temperature of 0 °C is 1.3 km s–1. Estimate the
you can determine the number of moles of gas
mean speed of helium atoms on the surface of a a the number of moles of gold in the bar b The density of air at room temperature and
star where the temperature is 10 000 K. [6] b the number of gold atoms in the bar pressure, r.t.p. (20 °C and 1.03 × 105 Pa),
9 The surface temperature of the Sun is about c the mass of one gold atom. is 1.21 kg /m3. Calculate the average speed of
5400 K. On its surface, particles behave like (Relative atomic mass of gold = 197.) air molecules at r.t.p. [4]
the atoms of an ideal gas. The atmosphere of 13 A cylinder holds 140 dm3 of nitrogen at room c State and explain the effect on the average
the Sun mainly consists of hydrogen nuclei. temperature and pressure. Moving slowly so speed of the air molecules of:
These nuclei move in random motion. that there is no change in temperature, a piston i raising the temperature of the air [2]
a Explain what is meant by random motion. [1] is pushed to reduce the volume of the nitrogen ii going to a higher altitude (but keeping the
b i Calculate the mean translational kinetic to 42 dm3. temperature constant). [1]
energy of a hydrogen nucleus on the surface of a Calculate the pressure of the nitrogen after
the Sun. [2] compression.
ii Estimate the mean speed of such a hydrogen
nucleus.
b Explain the effect on the temperature and
pressure of the nitrogen if the piston were
TEMPERATURE
(The mass of hydrogen nucleus is 1.7 × 10-27 kg.) pushed in very quickly.
10 a Calculate the mean translational kinetic 14 A lorry is to cross the Sahara desert. The What is temperature?
energy of gas atoms at 0 °C. [2] journey begins just before dawn when the Temperature is a measure of the average
b Estimate the mean speed of carbon dioxide temperature is 3 °C. The volume of air held in kinetic energy of the particles making up the
molecules at 0 °C. each tyre is 1.50 m3 and the pressure in the substance being examined.Temperature must not
(The molar mass of carbon dioxide is 44 g.) [5] tyres is 3.42 × 105 Pa. be confused with heat.
c Calculate the change in the internal energy of a Explain how the air molecules in the tyre Heat is the amount of vibrational energy
one mole of carbon dioxide gas when its exert a pressure on the tyre walls. [3] contained in a particular mass.
temperature changes from 0 °C to 100 °C. b Calculate the number of moles of air in the
The meaning of temperature
11 a State how many atoms there are in: tyre. [3]
Picture a beaker of boiling water. You want to
i a mole of helium gas c By midday the temperature has risen to
measure its temperature, so you pick up a
ii a mole of chlorine gas 42 °C.
thermometer which is lying on the bench. The
iii a kilomole of neon gas. i Calculate the pressure in the tyre at this new
thermometer reads 20 °C. You place the
b A container holds four moles of carbon temperature. You may assume that no air
thermometer in the water and the reading goes
dioxide. Calculate: escapes and the volume of the tyre is
up … 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C e.t.c. This tells you that
i the number of carbon dioxide molecules there unchanged. [2]
the thermometer is getting hotter; energy is
are in the container ii Calculate the increase in the average
being transferred from the water to the
ii the number of carbon atoms there are in the translational kinetic energy of an air molecule
thermometer. Eventually, the thermometer
container due to this temperature rise. [2]
reading reaches 100 °C and it stops rising.
iii the number of oxygen atoms there are in the 15 a Explain what is meant by Brownian motion
Because the reading is steady, you can deduce
container. and how it provides evidence for the existence
that energy is no longer being transferred to the
12 A bar of gold has a mass of 1.0 kg. Calculate: of molecules. [3]
thermometer and so its scale tells you the When two objects, in contact with each other, (warmer) water, into the (cooler) air in the
temperature of the water. are at the same temperature, there will be no freezer. This flow of heat out of the ice cube in
This simple, everyday activity illustrates several transfer of thermal energy between them. We to the air causes it to cool down and (eventually)
points: say that they are in thermal equilibrium with freeze. Again, any warm object in thermal
We are used to the idea that a thermometer each other contact with a cooler one will cool down due to
shows the temperature of something with Thermal equilibrium heat flowing out of it.
which it is in contact. In fact, it tells you its Now that we have defined the temperature of an There is one special case which we have not yet
own temperature. As the reading on the isolated object (usually referred to as a body) we discussed {what happens if A and B are at the
scale was rising, it wasn’t showing the need to consider how heat will move between same temperature? In this case B will neither
temperature of the water. It was showing bodies at different temperatures. Let us take warm up nor cool down, in fact, its temperature
that the temperature of the thermometer two bodies; A which has a fixed temperature and will remain constant. When two bodies are at the
was rising. B whose temperature is allowed to change. If we same temperature we say that they are in
Energy is transferred from a hotter object allow heat to move between the two bodies we thermal equilibrium. Another way to express this
to a cooler one. The temperature of the say they are in thermal contact.First let us is to say that two bodies are in thermal
water was greater than the temperature of consider what happens if B is cooler than A. equilibrium if the particles within those bodies
the thermometer, so energy transferred Remember { we have fixed the temperture of A have the same average kinetic energies. You
from one to the other. so we need only worry about the temperature of should notice that heat always °ows from the
When two objects are at the same B changing. An example of such a situation is an warmer object to the cooler object, never the
temperature, there is no transfer of energy ice cube being dropped into a large pan of boiling other way around. Also, we never talk about
between them. That is what happened when water on a stove. The water temperature is fixed coldness moving as it is not a real physical thing,
the thermometer reached the same i.e. does not change, because the ¯re keeps it only a lack of heat. Most importantly, it should be
temperature as the water, so it was safe to constant. It should be obvious that the ice cube clear that the flow of heat between the two
say that the reading on the thermometer will heat up and melt. In physical terms we say objects always attempts to bring them to the
was the same as the temperature of the that the heat is flowing out of the (warmer) same temperature (or in other words, into
water. boiling water, into the (cooler) ice cube. This flow thermal equilibrium).
From this, you can see that temperature tells us of heat into the ice cube causes it to warm up The logical conclusion of all this is that if two
about the direction in which energy flows. If two and melt. In fact the temperature of any cooler bodies are in thermal contact heat will flow from
objects are placed in contact (so that energy can object in thermal contact with a warmer one will the hotter object to the cooler one until they are
flow between them), it will flow from the hotter increase as heat from the warmer object flows in thermal equilibrium (i.e. at the same
to the cooler. Energy flowing from a region of into it.The reverse would be true if B were temperature).We will see how to deal with this if
higher temperature to a region of lower warmer than A. We can now picture putting a the temperature of object A is not fixed in the
temperature is called thermal energy. (Here, we small amount of warm water in to a freezer. If section on heat capacities.
are not concerned with the mechanism by which we come back in an hour or so the water will have Fixed Points
the energy is transferred. It may be by cooled down and possibly frozen. In physical Temperature scales are often confusing and
conduction, convection or radiation.) terms we say that the heat is °owing out of the even university level students can be tricked into
using the wrong one. For most purposes in physics * there are triple points for many other
we do not use the familiar Celcius (often substances besides water
innaccurately called centigrade) scale but the Temperature scales are divided into a specific
closely related absolute (or kelvin) scale { why?} number of degrees between the two fixed points.
Let us think about the Celcius scale now that we The gap between the upper and lower fixed
have defined temperature as a measure of the points is called the fundamental interval.
average kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules
in a body.A scale is a way of assigning a number
to a physical quantity. Consider distance { using a
ruler we can measure a distance} and find its
length. This length could be measured in metres,
inches, or miles. The same is true of As a matter of historical interest, the
temperatures in that many different scales exist Fahrenheit scale was founded on the following
to measure them. fixed points: lower fixed point 0 deg. (0oF) - the
coldest salt mixture temperature attained higher By definition one degree Kelvin is: 1 / 273.16
This is usually achieved by defining the
temperature of some physical process, e.g. the fixed point 100 deg. (100oF) - horse blood (approximately 0.00366) of the difference
temperature between absolute zero and the triple point of
freezing point of water.
The Kelvin (Absolute) temperature scale water.
Armed with our knowledge of temperature we can
see that Celcius's scale has a big problem { it This scale uses the triple point of water as the The Celsius temperature scale
allows us to have a negative temperature.} upper fixed point and absolute zero (zero The Celsius scale was defined by using the ice
For any temperature scale, it is necessary to molecular motion) as the lower fixed point. point and the steam point.These were designated
have two fixed points.These are temperatures at The triple point of water is assigned the as 0oC and 100 oC resp.The Celsius scale is closely
which particular physical properties manifest temperature 273.16K while the ice point is related to the Kelvin scale.
themselves e.g. melting, boiling. 273.15K and the steam point 373.15K. By definition one degree Celsius is: 1 / 273.16
Common fixed points: (approximately 0.00366) of the difference
ice point - temperature when pure water ice between absolute zero and the triple point of
is in equilibrium with liquid water at standard water.This is the same definition as for a degree
atmospheric pressure (76mm Hg). Kelvin. So a temperature change of 1K equates to
steam point - temperature when pure liquid a change of 1oC.
water exists in equilibrium with water vapour The two scales are also defined by the equation:
at standard atmospheric pressure.
Where - temperature in 0C
triple point* - temperature when pure water
T-temperature in Kelvin
ice, pure liquid water and pure water vapour
exist in equilibrium. TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
There are various types of thermometers.
However each type uses a particular Mercury:
thermometric property (i.e. a property whose  opaque
value changes linearly with temperature.) E.g. a  is a metal and therefore a good heat
liquid in glass makes use the change in length of a conductor
column of liquid confined in a capillary tube of  does not stick to glass - convex meniscus
uniform bore as shown.  temperature range: -39oC (fp of
Liquid in glass mercury) to ~356oC just below its b.p
The temperature on a liquid in glass
thermometers can be calculated by making
certain measurements.
Thermocouples work on a principle called the
thermoelectric or Seebeck Effect.When two
different metal wires are twisted together at a
junction, an EMF (electromotive force) is
These are simple to use and are cheap.
generated across the loose ends.The magnitude
The thermometer works by an expanding liquid in
of this EMF relates to the temperature at the
a vacuum, moving against a scale. There are a
junction.
number of disadvantages to this instrument:
The glass itself expands and contracts
and leading to under and over reading of
temperatures.
Where: – temperature at any length
Parallax errors mean readings are only
- length at ice point
accurate to about 0.1oC.
-length at steam point
The diameter of the bore is not
Advantages Disadvantages
consistent.
It suitable for normal It has limited range
Their large thermal capacity means that
room temperature
they do not react quickly and they may
It is portable Less accurate
affect the temperature they are trying
Easily and quickly read Easily broken
to measure.
This is how the two liquids used in thermometers,
Thermocouple On the graph, the value of T where the EMF is
alcohol and mercury compare:
maximum is called the 'neutral temperature'.
Alcohol:
The gradient (d(EMF)/dT) anywhere on the curve
 transparent, must be used with a dye
is called the thermoelectric power . Measured
 heat conduction poor
with a high resistance millivoltmeter, EMF values
 sticks to glass - concave meniscus
are in the range 1mV - 4mV/100oC.This simpler
 temperature range ~ 150oC to -114.9 oC
 Cu/Constantan 200 - 350 NON-VISCOUS FLUID FLOW
Advantage Disadvantage
It is accurate Not suitable for
Platinum-Resistance thermometer Definition of terms
measuring rapidly
The property of metals that their resistance is 1.Fluid: A fluid is a substance that flows and
changing
temperature-dependent makes them ideal as takes the shape of its container.Both liquids and
temperatures
thermometers. The metal of choice is platinum as gases are fluids, with water and air being common
Suitable for measuring examples.
a result of its high melting point (1773oC) and
constant temperature 2.An ideal fluid is
large resistance temperature coefficient.
Used as a standard Incompressible – the density is constant
Platinum-resistance thermometers are both
thermometer for Irrotational – the flow is smooth, no
sensitive and useful over large ranges of
temperature of 180-630 turbulence
temperature.The range is -200 oC to 1200 oC
degrees Non-viscous – fluid has no internal
Main disadvantage is that they have large heat
arrangement has a disadvantage in that there are friction (η=0)
capacities and cannot follow rapidly changing
three EMFs set up and the temperature reading Steady flow – the velocity of the fluid
temperatures.In practice resistance
is therefore not consistent.A more convenient at each point is constant in time.
thermometers are either thin films of platinum
and efficient setup is to have two junctions 3.Steady flow:
on a substrate or platinum wire wound around a
instead of one, but still have just two metals. The
former.
reference cold temperature is usually melting ice.

(Also known as streamline flow, uniform flow,

lamina flow ,etc.)This is when all the fluid
particles pass any given point follow the same
path at the same speed (i.e. they have the same
velocity).Opposite of this is turbulent flow.
Streamlines"
Typical pairs of metals and temperature ranges: - in steady flow,a bundle of streamlines makes a
metals temperature range oC flow tube.
-An individual fluid element will follow a path
chromel/alumel ~1100 max. The general equation for calculating a called a flow line."Steady flow is when the
Pt/Pt-Rh 1100 - 1700 temperature is thus pattern of flow lines does not change with time.
4.Incompressible flow:
Fe/Constantan 95 - 760
A fluid in which changes in pressure produce no
change in the density of the fluid is known as an
incompressible fluid.Incompressible flow is flow
of an ideal fluid.Liquids can be considered to be
incompressible, and gases subject to small
pressure differences can be taken to be such.
5.Non-viscous fluid flow:
A viscous fluid offers resistance to the motion 9.A tube of flow
through it of any solid body or to its own motion A tubular region whose boundaries are defined by
past a solid body.In non-viscous fluid flow we a set of streamlines.
consider the flow of a fluid without any internal Equation of continuity In a time interval Δt the fluid at x will
friction of adjacent layers. In steady flow the mass of fluid entering one end move forward a distance vXΔt.
6.Laminar flow of tube is equal to mass leaving the other end The volume AXvXΔt will enter the tube
A special case of steady flow in which the during the same time interval. at X.
velocities of all the particles on any given Consider an ideal fluid undergoing steady flow; The mass of fluid entering at X in time
streamline are the same. Different streamlines consider a section XY of a tube of flow within Δt is ρXAXvXΔt
may have different speeds. the fluid. similarly the mass leaving at Y in the
7. Laminar flow Let: same time will be ρYAYvYΔt since mass
Uninterrupted flow in a fluid near a solid in which AX and AY be the cross-sectional areas leaving is equal to mass leaving at Y,
the direction of flow at every point remains of the tube of flow at X and Y ρXAXvXΔt = ρYAYvYΔt
constant respectively. for an ideal fluid ρX = ρY i.e
ρX and ρY be the densities of the fluid at AXvX = AYvY Thus Av = constant
X and Y respectively. Av is known as the flow rate, or volume flux of
vX and vY be the velocities of the fluid the fluid.
particles at X and Y respectively as Bernoulli’s Equation
shown States that for an incompressible, non-viscous
fluid undergoing steady flow, the pressure plus
the kinetic energy per unit volume plus the
8. Turbulent Flow
potential energy per unit volume is constant at all
A fluid flow in which the velocity at a given point
points on a streamline, i.e.
varies erratically in magnitude and direction

where P is the absolute pressure, ρ is the fluid

density, v is the velocity of the fluid, h is the
height above some reference point, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
For a horizontal tube of flow there is no The net work done by these forces in Δt
potential energy therefore the Bernoulli equation is
becomes:  Part of the work is used to change the
kinetic energy and part to change
potential energy of the fluid element.
A small volume of fluid along its path, various
If m is mass passing through pipe in time
quantities in the sum may change, but the total
Δt then change in kinetic energy is
remains constant.
Bernoulli’s equation becomes
Change in potential energy is

Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation Work energy theorem can be stated

It is used to measure the volume of a gas or
States that: An increase in the For horizontal tube flow and liquid per second flowing through gas pipes or oil
pipes.
speed of fluid flow results in a therefore
Atomizers
decrease in the pressure. (In an Hence:
A stream of air passing over an open tube
dividing by V throughout and
ideal fluid.) reduces the pressure above the tube. This
substituting we get
reduction in pressure causes the liquid to rise
into the airstream. The liquid is then dispersed
into a fine spray of droplets. This atomizer is
used in perfume bottles and paint sprayers. The
Consequences of Bernoulli equation same principle is used in the carburetor of a
Whenever a flowing fluid speeds up, there is a gasoline engine. In this case, the low-pressure
corresponding decrease in the pressure. region in the carburetor is produced by air drawn
1.Filter pump in by the piston through the air filter. The
Consider the flow of an ideal fluid Has a narrow section in the middle section in the gasoline vaporizes, mixes with the air, and enters
through a non-uniform tube in a time Δt. middle so that a jet of water flows faster here. the cylinder of the engine for combustion.
The force on the lower end is P1A1. Work The pressure drop caused forces or sucks in air
done on the lower end of the fluid by the from the pipe connected to the side.
fluid behind it is

Similarly the work done on the fluid at

the top in time Δt is

 Note that this work done is negative

since force is opposite to displacement. Venturi meter
 Design of aircraft wings speeds up air molecules orientation with respect to the fluid flow,
above the wing.This ensures a lower pressure spinning motion (spinning baseball). And the
above than that below, and results in a dynamic texture of the object's surface.
upward lift force. For a spinning ball,:
Airplane Wing: assume that the airstream -the stitches on the ball will cause pressure on
approaches the wing horizontally from the right one side to be less than on its opposite side. This
with a velocity v1. The tilt of the wing causes the will force the ball to move faster on one side
airstream to be deflected downward with a than the other and will force the ball to "curve."
velocity v2. Because the airstream is deflected This is the Magnus Effect.
Air stream passing over an open tube reduces by the win, the wing must exert a force on the
pressure above the tube.This reduction causes airstream. According to Newton's third law, the
liquid to rise into the air stream. Liquid is the airstream must exert an equal and opposite force
dispersed into a fine spray of droplets. A spray F on the wing. This force has a vertical
gun is as shown below: component called the lift and a horizontal
component called drag. The lift depends on When a pitcher throws a curveball, he will throw
several factors, such as the speed of the it such that the axis of rotation is not
airplane, the area of the wing, its curvature, and perpendicular to the ground, as it is in a fastball.
the angle between the wing and horizontal. As Because it is spinning in a skewed axis, the
this angle increases, turbulent flow can set in Magmus force will force the ball to curve in a
above the wing to reduce the lift. The lift on horizontal direction instead of vertical "curve" of
the wing is consistent with Bernoulli's a fastball.
equation. The speed of the airstream is For a Burnsen burner,:
greater above the wing, hence the air pressure
above the wing is less than the pressure below
the wing, resulting in a net upward force.

Aerofoil

A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is

a common piece of laboratory equipment that
An object experiences lift by any effect that
produces a single open gas flame, which is used
causes the fluid to change it's direction as it
for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The
flows past the object. Some factors that
gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane)
influence the lift are the shape of the object, its
or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, The more oxygenated blue flame is both hotter
butane, or a mixture of both. and more controlled than the oxygen-deprived
How does a Bunsen burner work? flame; scientists generally prefer a controlled
Parts and Diagram blue flame.
A Bunsen burner is made entirely of metal. In Adjusting the gas valve on the Bunsen burner
order to function properly, Bunsen burners must changes the volume of gas flow; the more gas
have a barrel (A) that's approximately five entering the burner, the larger the flame. The
inches long, a collar (B) with air holes (C), a gas collar at the base of the barrel contains air holes
intake (D) and gas valve (E) and a stand (F) to to control the amount of oxygen reacting with
keep all of the pieces from making contact with a the gas. The collar can be rotated to adjust
work surface. oxygen intake

Real life applications

Qn:In a storm how does a house lose its roof?
Ans.
Air flow is disturbed by the house. The
"streamlines" crowd around the top of the roof.
⇒ faster flow above house
⇒ reduced pressure above roof to that
inside the house
Function
⇒roof lifted off because of pressure
Once connected to a source of fuel, usually
difference.
methane, the Bunsen burner can be ignited with a
Qn:Why do rabbits not suffocate in the
spark. Incoming gas reacts with oxygen in a one-
burrows?
to-three ratio to produce a blue flame that
Ans:
comes out of the top of the barrel.
Air must circulate. The burrows must have two
Adjusting the gas valve on the Bunsen burner
entrances.Air flows across the two holes is
changes the volume of gas flow; the more gas
usually slightly different
entering the burner, the larger the flame. The
⇒ slight pressure difference
collar at the base of the barrel contains air holes
⇒ forces flow of air through burrow.
to control the amount of oxygen reacting with
One hole is usually higher than the other and the
the gas. The collar can be rotated to adjust
a small mound is built around the holes to
oxygen intake. In general, the more oxygen
increase the pressure difference.
present, the more intense and blue the flame will
be. Less oxygen lends to a weaker yellow flame.