UNIT:2

Microprocessor Architecture and Operation

Outline:
Memory, I/O devices,

Memory & I/O operations

Microprocessor Architecture and Operations

A microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU) and heart of a

computer.

Processing of program instructions and data occurs within Microprocessor.

A basic computer consists of a

1. Microprocessor

2. External memory

3. Input and output devices

Architecture of a Basic Microprocessor
Microprocessor is a controlling unit.

It is a small chip capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations and
communicating with the other devices connected to it.

Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit.

ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data received from the memory or

an input device.
Operations carried out by Microprocessor

1. Memory Read/Write

2. IO Read/Write

3. Fetch operation

4. Decode operation

5. Instruction Execution

6. Parallel Processing

7. Memory Management

8. Synchronization

9. Sending Timing and Control Signal

Classification of Memory
 Primary or Main Memory : Primary memory is also known as the

computer system's main memory that communicates directly within the CPU, Auxiliary
memory and the Cache memory. Main memory is used to kept programs or data when the
processor is active to use them. When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor
first loads instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the
processor starts execution.

The primary memory is further divided into two

parts:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

 Random Access Memory (RAM) is one of the faster types of
main memory accessed directly by the CPU. It is the hardware in a computer device to
temporarily store data, programs or program results.

There are two types of RAM:

1. SRAM
2. DRAM
DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access
Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the dynamic storage of data in RAM. In
DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The cell is made up of two parts:

a capacitor and a transistor. size of the capacitor and the transistor is so small,
requiring millions of them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold more data
than an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor needs to be continuously
refreshed to retain information because DRAM is volatile. If the power is switched off, the
data store in memory is lost.
SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access
Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static data in the memory. It means to store
data in SRAM remains active as long as the computer system has a power supply. However, data
is lost in SRAM when power failures have occurred.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store information
inside a chip. It is a read-only memory that can only read stored information, data or
programs, but we cannot write or modify anything.

A ROM contains some important instructions or program data that are required to start or
boot a computer. It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be
lost even when the power is turned off or the system is shut down.

Types of ROM
MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

Flash ROM:
 Secondary Memory : Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to
hold a large amount of data. Secondary memory is also known as external memory that
representing the various storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and DVDs)
on which the computer data and program can be saved on a long term basis.

Types of Secondary Memory

1) Hard Disk
A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a non-volatile disk that
permanently stores data, programs, and files, and cannot lose store data when the
computer's power source is switched off. Typically, it is located internally on computer's
motherboard that stores and retrieves data using one or more rigid fast rotating disk
platters inside an air-sealed casing. It is a large storage device, found on every computer
or laptop for permanently storing installed software, music, text documentation, videos,
operating system, and data until the user did not delete.
2) Floppy Disk
A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible magnetic
coating disks for holding electronic data such as computer files. It is also known as Floppy
Diskette that comes in three sizes like 8 inches, 5.5 inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data
of a floppy disk can be accessed through the floppy disk drive.

3) CD (Compact Disc)

A CD is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc. It is a storage device
used to store various data types like audio, videos, files, OS, Back-Up file, and any other
information useful to a computer. The CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height,
which can store approximately 783 MB of data size. It uses laser light to read and write
data from the CDs.
 Types of CDs
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only
Memory): It is mainly used for bulk size mass
like audio CDs, software and computer games
at the time of manufacture. Users can only
read data, text, music, videos from the disc,
but they cannot modify or burnt it.
2. CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): The type of
Compact Disc used to write once by the user;
after that, it cannot be modified or erased.
3. CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): It is a
rewritable CD disc, often used to write or
delete the stored data.
Cache Memory : It is a small-sized chip-based
computer memory that lies between the CPU and
the main memory. It is a faster, high performance
and temporary memory to enhance the
performance of the CPU.
It stores all the data and instructions that are often
used by computer CPUs. It also reduces the
access time of data from the main memory.
It is faster than the main memory, and sometimes,
it is also called CPU memory because it is very
close to the CPU chip. The following are the levels
of cache memory.
Register Memory
The register memory is a temporary storage area for
storing and transferring the data and the instructions to
a computer. It is the smallest and fastest memory of a
computer.
It is a part of computer memory located in the CPU as
the form of registers. The register memory is 16, 32 and
64 bits in size. It temporarily stores data instructions
and the address of the memory that is repeatedly used
to provide faster response to the CPU.
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