Astable Multivibrator

Astable Multivibrator
Astable Multivibrators are free running oscillators which oscillate between two states continually
producing two square wave output waveforms

Regenerative switching circuits such as the Astable Multivibrator are the most
commonly used type of relaxation oscillator because not only are they simple, reliable
and ease of construction they also produce a constant square wave output waveform.
Unlike the Monostable Multivibrator or the Bistable Multivibrator we looked at in the
previous tutorials that require an “external” trigger pulse for their operation,
the Astable Multivibrator has automatic built in triggering which switches it
continuously between its two unstable states both set and reset.
The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled transistor switching
circuit that has NO stable output states as it changes from one state to the other all the
time. The astable circuit consists of two switching transistors, a cross-coupled
feedback network, and two time delay capacitors which allows oscillation between the
two states with no external triggering to produce the change in state.
In electronic circuits, astable multivibrators are also known as Free-running
Multivibrator as they do not require any additional inputs or external assistance to
oscillate. Astable oscillators produce a continuous square wave from its output or
outputs, (two outputs no inputs) which can then be used to flash lights or produce a
sound in a loudspeaker.
The basic transistor circuit for an Astable Multivibrator produces a square wave
output from a pair of grounded emitter cross-coupled transistors. Both transistors
either NPN or PNP, in the multivibrator are biased for linear operation and are
operated as Common Emitter Amplifiers with 100% positive feedback.
This configuration satisfies the condition for oscillation when: ( βA = 1∠ 0o ). This
results in one stage conducting “fully-ON” (Saturation) while the other is switched
“fully-OFF” (cut-off) giving a very high level of mutual amplification between the
two transistors. Conduction is transferred from one stage to the other by the
discharging action of a capacitor through a resistor as shown below.

Basic Astable Multivibrator Circuit

Assume a 6 volt supply and that transistor, TR1 has just switched “OFF” (cut-off) and
its collector voltage is rising towards Vcc, meanwhile transistor TR2 has just turned
“ON”. Plate “A” of capacitor C1 is also rising towards the +6 volts supply rail
of Vcc as it is connected to the collector of TR1 which is now cut-off. Since TR1 is in
cut-off, it conducts no current so there is no volt drop across load resistor R1.
The other side of capacitor, C1, plate “B”, is connected to the base terminal of
transistor TR2 and at 0.6v because transistor TR2 is conducting (saturation). Therefore,
capacitor C1 has a potential difference of +5.4 volts across its plates, (6.0 – 0.6v) from
point A to point B.
Since TR2 is fully-on, capacitor C2 starts to charge up through resistor R2 towards Vcc.
When the voltage across capacitor C2 rises to more than 0.6v, it biases
transistor TR1 into conduction and into saturation.
The instant that transistor, TR1 switches “ON”, plate “A” of the capacitor which was
originally at Vcc potential, immediately falls to 0.6 volts. This rapid fall of voltage on
plate “A” causes an equal and instantaneous fall in voltage on plate “B” therefore
plate “B” of C1 is pulled down to -5.4v (a reverse charge) and this negative voltage
swing is applied the base of TR2 turning it hard “OFF”. One unstable state.
Transistor TR2 is driven into cut-off so capacitor C1 now begins to charge in the
opposite direction via resistor R3 which is also connected to the +6 volts supply
rail, Vcc. Thus the base of transistor TR2 is now moving upwards in a positive
direction towards Vcc with a time constant equal to the C1 x R3 combination.
However, it never reaches the value of Vcc because as soon as it gets to 0.6 volts
positive, transistor TR2 turns fully “ON” into saturation. This action starts the whole
process over again but now with capacitor C2 taking the base of transistor TR1 to -
5.4v while charging up via resistor R2 and entering the second unstable state.
Then we can see that the circuit alternates between one unstable state in which
transistor TR1 is “OFF” and transistor TR2 is “ON”, and a second unstable in
which TR1 is “ON” and TR2 is “OFF” at a rate determined by the RC values. This
process will repeat itself over and over again as long as the supply voltage is present.
The amplitude of the output waveform is approximately the same as the supply
voltage, Vcc with the time period of each switching state determined by the time
constant of the RC networks connected across the base terminals of the transistors. As
the transistors are switching both “ON” and “OFF”, the output at either collector will
be a square wave with slightly rounded corners because of the current which charges
the capacitors. This could be corrected by using more components as we will discuss
later.
If the two time constants produced by C2 x R2 and C1 x R3 in the base circuits are the
same, the mark-to-space ratio ( t1/t2 ) will be equal to one-to-one making the output
waveform symmetrical in shape. By varying the capacitors, C1, C2 or the
resistors, R2, R3 the mark-to-space ratio and therefore the frequency can be altered.
We saw in the RC Discharging tutorial that the time taken for the voltage across a
capacitor to fall to half the supply voltage, 0.5Vcc is equal to 0.69 time constants of
the capacitor and resistor combination. Then taking one side of the astable
multivibrator, the length of time that transistor TR2 is “OFF” will be equal to 0.69T or
0.69 times the time constant of C1 x R3. Likewise, the length of time that
transistor TR1 is “OFF” will be equal to 0.69T or 0.69 times the time constant of C2 x
R2 and this is defined as.

Astable Multivibrators Periodic Time

Where, R is in Ω’s and C in Farads.

By altering the time constant of just one RC network the mark-to-space ratio and
frequency of the output waveform can be changed but normally by changing
both RC time constants together at the same time, the output frequency will be altered
keeping the mark-to-space ratios the same at one-to-one.
If the value of the capacitor C1 equals the value of the capacitor, C2, C1 = C2 and
also the value of the base resistor R2 equals the value of the base resistor, R3, R2 =
R3 then the total length of time of the Multivibrators cycle is given below for a
symmetrical output waveform.
Frequency of Oscillation

Where, R is in Ω’s, C is in Farads, T is in seconds and ƒ is in Hertz.

and this is known as the “Pulse Repetition Frequency”. So Astable
Multivibrators can produce TWO very short square wave output waveforms from
each transistor or a much longer rectangular shaped output either symmetrical or non-
symmetrical depending upon the time constant of the RC network as shown below.

Astable Multivibrator Waveforms

Astable Multivibrator Example No1

An Astable Multivibrators circuit is required to produce a series of pulses at a
frequency of 500Hz with a mark-to-space ratio of 1:5. If R2 = R3 = 100kΩ, calculate
the values of the capacitors, C1 and C2 required.
and by rearranging the formula above for the periodic time, the values of the
capacitors required to give a mark-to-space ratio of 1:5 are given as:

The values of 4.83nF and 24.1nF respectively, are calculated values, so we would
need to choose the nearest preferred values for C1 and C2 allowing for the capacitors
tolerance. In fact due to the wide range of tolerances associated with the humble
capacitor the actual output frequency may differ by as much as ±20%, (400 to 600Hz
in our simple example) from the actual frequency needed.
If we require the output astable waveform to be non-symmetrical for use in timing or
gating type circuits, etc, we could manually calculate the values of R and C for the
individual components required as we did in the example above.
However, when the two timing resistors and capacitors are both of equal value, we
can make our life a little bit easier for ourselves by using timing tables. Timing tables
show the astable multivibrators calculated frequencies for different combinations or
values of both R and C relevant to our circuit. For example:

Astable Multivibrator Frequency Table

 Capacitor Values
Res.

1nF 2.2nF 4.7nF 10nF 22nF 47nF 100nF 220nF 470nF

1.0kΩ 714.3kHz 324.6kHz 151.9kHz 71.4kHz 32.5kHz 15.2kHz 7.1kHz 3.2kHz 1.5kHz

2.2kΩ 324.7kHz 147.6kHz 69.1kHz 32.5kHz 14.7kHz 6.9kHz 3.2kHz 1.5kHz 691Hz

4.7kΩ 151.9kHz 69.1kHz 32.3kHz 15.2kHz 6.9kHz 3.2kHz 1.5kHz 691Hz 323Hz

10kΩ 71.4kHz 32.5kHz 15.2kHz 7.1kHz 3.2kHz 1.5kHz 714Hz 325Hz 152Hz

22kΩ 32.5kHz 14.7kHz 6.9kHz 3.2kHz 1.5kHz 691Hz 325Hz 147Hz 69.1Hz

47kΩ 15.2kHz 6.9kHz 3.2kHz 1.5kHz 691Hz 323Hz 152Hz 69.1Hz 32.5Hz

100kΩ 7.1kHz 3.2kHz 1.5kHz 714Hz 325Hz 152Hz 71.4Hz 32.5Hz 15.2Hz

220kΩ 3.2kHz 1.5kHz 691Hz 325Hz 147Hz 69.1Hz 32.5Hz 15.2Hz 6.9Hz

470kΩ 1.5kHz 691Hz 323Hz 152Hz 69.1Hz 32.5Hz 15.2Hz 6.6Hz 3.2Hz
 1MΩ 714Hz 325Hz 152Hz 71.4Hz 32.5Hz 15.2Hz 6.9Hz 3.2Hz 1.5Hz

Pre-calculated frequency tables can be very useful in determining the required values
of both R and C for a particular symmetrical output frequency without the need to
keep recalculating them every time a different frequency is required.
By changing the two fixed resistors, R2 and R3 for a dual-ganged potentiometer and
keeping the values of the capacitors the same, the frequency from the Astable
Multivibrators output can be more easily “tuned” to give a particular frequency value
or to compensate for the tolerances of the components used.
For example, selecting a capacitor value of 10nF from the table above. By using
a 100kΩ’s potentiometer for our resistance, we would get an output frequency that
can be fully adjusted from slightly above 71.4kHz down to 714Hz, some 3 decades of
frequency range. Likewise a capacitor value of 47nF would give a frequency range
from 152Hz to well over 15kHz.

Astable Multivibrator Example No2

An Astable Multivibrator circuit is constructed using two timing capacitors of equal
value of 3.3uF and two base resistors of value 10kΩ. Calculate the minimum and
maximum frequencies of oscillation if a 100kΩ dual-gang potentiometer is connected
in series with the two resistors.
With the potentiometer at 0%, the value of the base resistance is equal to 10kΩ.

with the potentiometer at 100%, the value of the base resistance is equal to
10kΩ + 100kΩ = 110kΩ.

Then the output frequency of oscillation for the astable multivibrator can be varied
from between 2.0 and 22 Hertz.
When selecting both the resistance and capacitance values for reliable operation, the
base resistors should have a value that allows the transistor to turn fully “ON” when
the other transistor turns “OFF”. For example, consider the circuit above. When
transistor TR2 is fully “ON”, (saturation) nearly the same voltage is dropped across
resistor R3 and resistor R4.
If the transistor being used has a current gain, β of 100 and the collector load
resistor, R4 is equal to say 1kΩ the maximum base resistor value would therefore be
100kΩ. Any higher and the transistor may not turn fully “ON” resulting in the
multivibrator giving erratic results or not oscillate at all. Likewise, if the value of the
base resistor is too low the transistor may not switch “OFF” and the multivibrator
would again not oscillate.
An output signal can be obtained from the collector terminal of either transistor in the
Astable Multivibrators circuit with each output waveform being a mirror image of
itself. We saw above that the leading edge of the output waveform is slightly rounded
and not square due to the charging characteristics of the capacitor in the cross-coupled
circuit.
But we can introduce another transistor into the circuit that will produce an almost
perfectly square output pulse and which can also be used to switch higher current
loads or low impedance loads such as LED’s or loudspeakers, etc without affecting
the operation of the actual astable multivibrator.
However, the down side to this is that the output waveform is not perfectly
symmetrical as the additional transistor produces a very small delay. Consider the two
circuits below.

Astable Multivibrators Driving Circuit

An output with a square leading edge is now produced from the third
transistor, TR3 connected to the emitter of transistor, TR2. This third transistor
switches “ON” and “OFF” in unison with transistor TR2. We can use this additional
transistor to switch Light Emitting Diodes, Relays or to produce a sound from a
Sound Transducer such as a speaker or piezo sounder as shown above.
The load resistor, Rx needs to be suitably chosen to take into account the forward volt
drops and to limit the maximum current to about 20mA for the LED circuit or to give
a total load impedance of about 100Ω for the speaker circuit. The speaker can have
any impedance less than 100Ω.
By connecting an additional transistor, TR4 to the emitter circuit of the other
transistor, TR1 in a similar fashion we can produce an astable multivibrator circuit that
will flash two sets of lights or LED’s from one to the other at a rate determined by the
time constant of the RC timing network.
In the next tutorial about Waveforms and Signals, we will look at the different types
of Astable Multivibrators that are used to produce a continuous output waveform.
These circuits known as relaxation oscillators produce either a square or rectangular
wave at their outputs for use in sequential circuits as either a clock pulse or timing
signal. These types of circuits are called Waveform Generators.