Boundary layer Equations

□ Contents:
– Introduction
– Boundary layer thickness
– Boundary Layer Equations;
– Boundary Layer Separation;
– Effect of londitudinal pressure gradient on boundary
layer evolution
– Blasius Solution
– Integral parameters: Displacement thickness and
momentum thickness
 Boundary layer

= separated
bdy layer

adverse pressure
gradient
thicker leads to separation
difficult to use theory
•Re
= Ux/; Re = Uc/; …
•laminar and turbulent boundary layers
• displaced inviscid outer flow
• adverse pressure gradient and separation
Boundary Layer Provides Missing Link
Between Theory and Practice

Boundary layer, , where viscous stresses

(i.e. velocity gradient) are important we’ll define
as where u(x,y) = 0 to 0.99 U above boundary.
In August of 1904 Ludwig Prandtl, a 29-year old professor presented
a remarkable paper at the 3rd International Mathematical Congress in
Heidelberg. Although initially largely ignored, by the 1920s and
1930s the powerful ideas of that paper helped create modern fluid
dynamics out of ancient hydraulics and 19th-century hydrodynamics.

(only 8 pages long, but arguably one of the most

important fluid-dynamics papers ever
written)
 • Prandtl assumed no slip condition
• Prandtl assumed thin boundary layer region where shear forces
are important because of large velocity gradient
• Prandtl assumed inviscid external flow
• Prandtl assumed boundary so thin that within it p/y  0; v << u
and /x << /y
• Prandtl outer flow drives boundary layer boundary layer can greatly
effect outer outer “inviscid” flow if separates
BOUNDARY LAYER HISTORY

- 1904 Prandtl
Fluid Motion with Very Small Friction
2-D boundary layer equations

- 1908 Blasius
The Boundary Layers in Fluids with Little Friction
Solution for laminar, 0-pressure gradient flow

- 1921 von Karman

Integral form of boundary layer equations

- 1924 Sir Horace Lamb

Hydrodynamics ~ one paragraph on bdy layers
Theodore von Karman
- 1932 Sir Horace Lamb
Hydrodynamics ~ entire section on bdy layers
Note – throughout figures the
boundary layer thickness*, δ,
is greatly exaggerated!
(disturbance layer*)

Airline industry had to

develop flat face rivets.
 Re = 20,000
Angle of attack = 6o
Symmetric Airfoil
16% thick
 Flat Plate (no pressure gradient)
~ what is velocity profile?
~ wall shear stress/drag?
~ displacement of free stream?
~ laminar vs turbulent flow?

Immersed Bodies
~ wall shear stress/drag?
~ lift?
~ minimize wake
 Laminar Flow
/x ~ 5.0/Rex1/2
THEORY

Turbulent Flow
Rextransition > 500,000
u(y)/U = (y/)1/7
/x ~ 0.382/Rex1/5
EXPERIMENTAL
 No simple theory
for Re < 1000;
(can’t assume
 is thin)

“At these Rex numbers

bdy layers so thin that
displacement effect on
outer inviscid layer is
small”
 FLAT PLATE – ZERO PRESSURE GRADIENT

outside (x), U is constant so P is constant

u(x,y) is not constant, (x) is thin so

assume P inside (x) is impressed from the
outside

ReL = 10,000 Visualization is by air bubbles see that boundary+ layer, ,

is thin and that outer free stream is displaced, *, very little.
+
Disturbance Thickness, (x); boundary layer thickness, (x)
 FLAT PLATE – ZERO PRESSURE GRADIENT

Rex = Ux/
Assume Rextransition ~ 500,000
x
L

ReL = Ux/

ReL = 10,000 Visualization is by air bubbles see that boundary+ layer, ,

is thin and that outer free stream is displaced, *, very little.
+
Disturbance Thickness, (x); boundary layer thickness, (x)
 Development of laminar boundary layer
(0.01% salt water, free stream velocity 0.6 cm/s,
thickness of the plate 0.5 mm, hydrogen bubble method).

*
* * *
*
Rex  1000
(x)  *


BOUNDARY OR DISTURBANCE LAYER

 +
Boundary Layer
Thickness
δ(x)

Definition:
u(x,) = 0.99 of U=U=Ue
(within 1 % of U)
+
Disturbance
δ is at y location where u(x,y) = 0.99 U ∞

Because the change in u in the boundary layer

takes place asymptotically, there is some
indefiniteness in determining δ exactly.
 NOTE: boundary layer is
much thicker in turbulent flow.

Blasius showed theoretically for laminar

flow that /x = 5/(Rex)1/2 (Rex = Ux/) Experimentally
1/2
found* for turbulent
δ αx
flow that 4/5
δ α x
 NOTE: velocity gradient at wall
(w =  du/dy) is significantly greater.

At same x: U/δL > U /δT

At same x: wL < wT
Note, boundary layer is not a streamline!

From theory (Blasius 1908, student of Prandtl):

= 5x/(Rex1/2) = 5x/(U/[x])1/2 = 51/2x1/2/U1/2
d/dx = 5 (/U)1/2 (½) x-1/2 = 2.5/(Rex)1/2

V/U = dy/dxstreamline = 0.84/(Rex1/2)

dy/dxstreamline  d/dx so  not streamline

U∞ = U = Ue

Behavior of a fluid particle traveling along a streamline

through a boundary layer along a flat plate.
 NOTE: Turbulence is not initiated at
Retr all along the width of the plate

Emmons spot ~ Rex = 200,000

Spots grow approximately linearly downstream at downstream
speed that is a fraction of the free stream velocity.
Emmons spot, Rex = 400,000
smoke in wind tunnel
 x=0

Turbulent boundary layer is thicker and grows faster.

Transition not fixed but usually around Rex ~ 500,000

(2x105-3x106)
For air at standard conditions and U = 30 m/s, xtr ~ 0.24 m
 Nevertheless: Treat transition as
it happens all along Rex = 500,000

Experimentally transition occurs around

Rex ~ 5 x 105
Water moving around 4 m/s past a ship,
transitions after about 0.14 m from the
bow, representing only about 0.1 % of total
length of 143 m long ship.
  (x)
*


DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS
Displacement Thickness
δ (x)
*

Definition
 = 0 (1 – u/U)dy
*

 *
is displacement of outer
streamlines due to boundary layer
Displacement thickness *

x=L

By definition, no flow passes through

streamline, so mass through 0 to h at x = 0
is the same as through 0 to h +  at x = L.
*
 h+* h+*
Uh = 0 udy = 0  (U + u -
h+* h+*
U)dy Uh = 0 Udy + 0 (u - U)dy
h+*
Uh = U(h + *) + 0 (u - U)dy
h+*
-U* = 0 (u -U)dy
h+* 
* = 0 (– u/U + 1)dy  0 (1 – u/U)dy
 displacement of outer
streamlines due to (x)


*
 
 (1 – u/U)dy  
0 function of x!
0 (1 –
u/U)dy
 Displacement Thickness δ *


Definition:  = 0 (1 – u/U)dy
*

U*w = 0  (U – u)dyw  0  (U – u)dyw

the deficit in mass flux through area w due to

the presence of the boundary layer.
=
mass flux passing through an area [*w] in the absence
of a boundary layer
 Displacement Thickness *

Definition:  = 0 (1 – u/U)dy
*

U* = 0  (U – u)dy  0  (U – u[y])dy

 Displacement Thickness, *, Problem

Suppose given velocity

profile:
u = 0 from y = 0 to 
u = Ue for y > .

Show that δ* = Δ

=
 Displacement Thickness  *

Suppose u = 0 from y = 0 to  and u = Ue for y > .

Show that δ* = Δ
* = 0 (1 – u/Ue)dy
 
= 0 (1 – 0/Ue)dy +  (1 – Ue/Ue)dy
Δ
δ = 0∫ dy = Δ
*

=
 Laminar flow on flat plate in uniform free stream

Blasius = 5x/(Re x1/2)

Blasius* = 1.721x/(Rex)1/2

δ*(x) ~ 1/3 δ(x)

δ* = Distance that an equivalent inviscid flow
is displaced from a solid boundary as a consequence of
slow moving fluid in the boundary layer.
Momentum Thickness

  *
(x)

MOMENTUM THICKNESS
Momentum Thickness
Θ (x)
Definition:
Θ = 0 u/U(1 – u/U)dy

How define drag due to boundary layer?

 Momentum Thickness Θ


Definition:  = 
 u/U (1 – u/U )dy
U w =   u(U – u)dyw
2 0 e e

e 0 e

The momentum thickness, , is defined as the

thickness of a layer of fluid, with velocity Ue,
for which the momentum flux is equal to the
deficit of momentum flux through the boundary
layer. (Mass flux through  = 0  udyw)
Summary:
= 0.99U (within 1 %)
 = 0
* 
(1 – u/Ue)dy
  

0 (1 – u/Ue)dy

 =0 
u/Ue(1 – u/Ue)dy

 0 u/Ue(1 – u/Ue)dy
*
&  Easier to calculate form data
and more physical significance
but “can be” dependent on 
 Relate Θ to Drag

Control volume analysis of drag force

on a flat plate due to boundary shear
 Relate Θ to Drag

PRESSURE IS UNIFORM - NO NET PRESSURE FORCE!

- NO DU/DX!
 D
(NO BODY FORCES) (STEADY) 0
Fx = -Don CV = (d/dt) udVol + u(V•n)dA

1. From (0,0) to (0,h): V•n = -Uo = -Ue; V = Ue

2. From (0,h) to (L,): streamline, V•n = 0 (no shear)
3. From (L, ) to (L,0): V•n = u(x=L,y)
4. From (L, 0) to (0,0): V•n = 0 (shear)
 Fx = -D = u(V•n)dA

u(V•n)dy(w)
=   h U (-U )wdy +    u(L,y) u(L,y)wdy
0 o o 0

1. From (0,0) to (0,h): V•n = -Uo = -Ue; V = Ue

2. From (0,h) to (L,): no shear, V•n = 0
3. From (L, ) to (L,0): V•n = u(x=L,y); V = u(x,y)
4. From (L, 0) to (0,0): V•n = 0
-D = - U wh +  u(L,y)2wdy
2

o 0

Not so useful because don’t

know h as a function of (x)
 -D = - U wh +  u(x,y)2wdy
2

o 0

Get rid of h by using conservation of mass.

h
   (V•n)dA=

0
- 0Uowdy +  0u(x,y)wdy = 0
Uoh = 0u(x,y)dy
-D = - U w 
 dy +    u(x,y)2wdy
o 0u(x,y) 0
-D = - Uow 0(x)u(y)dy +  0(x) u(x,y)2wdy

D = w [0(x)Uou(x,y)dy - u(x,y)2dy]

D = w [0(x) u(x,y) [Uo - u(x,y)]dy

D  w [  u(x,y) [U - u(x,y)]dy
 U 2w  0 o
[ [u(x,y)/U ][1 – [u(x,y)/U ]]dy
o 0 o o o

D(x) = Uo w (x)
2
(First derived by Von Karman in 1921)
 Blasius developed an exact solution (but numerical integration
was necessary) for laminar flow with no pressure variation.
Blasius could theoretically predict boundary layer thickness (x),
velocity profile u(x,y)/U vs y/, and wall shear stress w(x).

Von Karman and Poulhausen

derived momentum integral
equation (approximation) which
can be used for both laminar (with
and without pressure gradient)
and
turbulent flow
 Von Karman and Polhausen method
devised a simplified method by
satisfying only the boundary
conditions of the boundary layer flow
rather than satisfying Prandtl’s
differential equations for each and
every particle within the boundary layer.
Laminar Thin Boundary Layer Equations
(<<x) over flat plate
□ Steady flow, constant  and .
□ p y  0 Streamlines slightly divergent
p x  dpe dx
□ 2D Navier-Stokes Equations along x direction:
u u 1 p  2u 2u 
u   ν  2  2 
x v y ρ x  x y 
2u
dpe dx Compared with 2
y
Laminar Thin Boundary Layer Equations
(<<x) over flat plate
□ Laminar thin boundary layer equations (<<x)
for flat plates
u u 1 dp 2u
u  
ρ dx ν y2
e
x v y

pe external pressure, can be calculated with Bernoulli’s

Equation as there are no viscous effects outside the
Boundary Layer
Note 1. The plate is considered flat if  is lower then the local
curvature radius
Note 2. At the separation point, the BL grows a lot and is no
longer thin
Turbulent Thin Boundary Layer
Equations (<<x) over flat plate
□ 2D Thin Turbulent Boundary Layer
Equation (<<x) to flat plates:
u u 1 dp 2u  uu uv uw 
u v     
 ν
e
x y ρ dx y   x
2
y z 
0 0
Resulting from
Reynolds
Tensions (note the
w term)
Boundary Layer Separation
□ Boundary Layer Separation: reversal of the flow
by the action of an adverse pressure gradient (pressure
increases in flow’s direction) + viscous effects

BL / Separation / Flow
over edges and blunt
bodies
Boundary Layer Separation
□ Boundary layer separation: reversal of the flow by
the action of an adverse pressure gradient (pressure
increases in flow’s direction) + viscous effects
Boundary Layer Separation
□ Bidimensional (2D) Thin Boundary Layer
(<<x) Equations to flat plates:
u u 1 dp 2u
u  
ρ dx ν y2
e
x v y

□ Close to the wall (y=0) u=v=0 :

 2u 1 dpe
 2 
 y  μ dx
y
0

□ Similar results to turbulent boundary layer - close to

the wall there is laminar/linear sub-layer region.
Boundary Layer Separation
□ Outside Boundary layer:  2 u2 0
y 

□ Close to the wall (y=0) u=v=0 :

 2u 1 dpe
 2  Same sign
 y  μ dx
y
0

□ The external pressure gradient can be:

o dpe/dx=0 <–> U0 constant (Paralell outer streamlines):
o dpe/dx>0 <–> U0 decreases (Divergent outer streamlines):
o dpe/dx<0 <–> U0 increases (Convergent outer streamlines):
Boundary Layer Separation
□ Zero pressure gradient:
dpe/dx=0 <–> U0 constant (Paralell outer streamlines):

 2u y
 2 0 Curvature of velocity
 y 
y
u profile is constant
δ
No separation of boundary
 u 2
 2 0 layer
 y  y
0

Inflection point at the wall

Boundary Layer Separation
□ Favourable pressure gradient:
dpe/dx<0 <–> U0 increases (Convergent outer streamlines):

 2u y
 2 0
 y 
y

δ No boundary layer
 2u separation
 2 0
 y  y Curvature of velocity profile
0 remains constant
Boundary Layer Separation
□ Adverse pressure gradient:
dpe/dx>0 <–> U0 decreases (Divergent outer streamlines):

 2u y
 2 0 Boundary layer
 y 
y Separation can occur
δ

 2u P.I. Curvature of velocity

 2 0
 y  y profile can change
0

Separated Boundary Layer

Boundary Layer Separation
□ Sum of viscous forces: 2u
ν y2
Become zero with velocity

Can not cause by itself the fluid stagnation (and

the separation of Boundary Layer)
 Boundary Layer Separation
□ Effect of longitudinal pressure gradient:

dpe  0 (Convergent (Divergent

dx outer dpe  0 outer
streamlines) dx streamlines)

Viscous effects retarded Viscous effects reinforced

u 1 1 dpe
 ...
Fuller velocity x u ρ dx Less full velocity
profiles profiles
Decreases BL growth Increases BL growths
 Boundary Layer Separation
□ Effect of longitudinal pressure gradient:

u 1 1 dpe
Fuller velocity  ... Less full velocity
profiles x u ρ dx
profiles

Decreases BL growth Increases BL growths

Fuller velocity profiles – more resistant
to adverse pressure gradients
Turbulent flows (fuller profiles)- more resistant
to adverse pressure gradients
Boundary Layer Sepaation

Longitudinal and intense adverse pressure gradient does

not cause separation
=> there’s not viscous forces
Blasius Solution to Laminar Boundary Layer
Equation over a flat plate with dpe/dx=0

□ Blasius Solution to momentum thickness:

δm with Re x Ux
x  Rex  ν

δ
or  0.133
m
 Exercise
Large plate with neglectable thickness, lenght L=2m. Parallel and
non-disturbed air flow. (=1,2 kg/m3, =1,810-5 Pa.s) with U=2
m/s. Zero pressure gradient over the flat plate. Transition to turbulent
at Rex=106.

=1,2 kg/m3, U=2m/s dpe dx  0

=1,810-5 Pa.s
(Rex)c =106.
L=2m
Exercise
=1,2 kg/m3, U=2m/s dpe dx  0
=1,810-5 Pa.s
(Rex)c =106.
L=2m

a) Find boundary layer thickness δ at sections S1 and S2, at distance

x1=0,75 m and x2=1,5 m of the leading edge
5
Find xc: xc  Rex
ν 
6 1,810 1,2
 7,5m
U 10 2
c at x1 and x2 – We can apply Blasius
Laminar Boundary layer
Solution 5
δ
x  Rex
Exercise
a) Find boundary layer thickness δ at sections S1 and S2, at distance
x1=0,75 m and x2=1,5 m of the leading edge

Laminar Boundary layer at x1 and x2 – We can apply Blasius

Solution δ 5
x  Rex

x1  0,75
0,75m Re  2   105 δ1  5  0,0119m
x1
0,75 1,5
105 105

x2  1,5 m Re x
2
 2 105 δ 2 0,0168m

Exercise

=1,2 kg/m3, U=2m/s dpe dx 

=1,810-5 Pa.s 0 y=δ(x)
(Rex)c =106.
L=2m

b) Check that it is a thin boundary layer.

A: Thin Blayer if
δ/x<<1: δ 0,0119  0,0159
 
 
 x 1 0,75
δ  0,0168  0,0112
   
x
2
1,5
 Exercise

=1,2 kg/m3, U=2m/s dpe dx  0

=1,810-5 Pa.s Streamline
(Rex)c =106. y1=? 
x1=0,75m x2=1,5m
L=2m
c) Find the value of y1 at x1 of the streamline passing through the coordinates
x2=1,5 and y2=.
A: We have the same flow rate between the streamline and the plate at both cross
sections
Flow rate through a cross section of BD: q  U δ  δ d 
Flow rate through section 2: q2  U δ  δ d 2 y1  δ 2  δ d 2 
F l o δwd1 rate
through section 1: y1 δ1 y1

q1   U δ  1 U y1  δ1
   udy  udy
udy 
δ1
δd 
0 0
 Exercise

=1,2 kg/m3, U=2m/s dpe dx  0

=1,810-5 Pa.s Linha de corrente
(Rex)c =106. y1=? 
x1=0,75m x2=1,5m
L=2m
c) Find the value of y1 at x1 of the streamline passing through the coordinates
x2=1,5 and y2=.
A: We have the same flow rate between the streamline and the plate at both cross
sections
Laminar BD: δ d  0,344δ
y1  δ 2  δ d 2 
δd1 0,0058m 0,0041m
0,0168m y1=0,0151m

2004 Mecânica dos Fluidos II Prof.

António Sarmento - DEM/IST
 Exercise

=1,2 kg/m3, U=2m/s dpe dx  0

=1,810-5 Pa.s
(Rex)c =106.
L=2m
d) Find the force per unit leght between sections S1 and S2.
A: There are no other forces applied except that imposed by the resistance (Drag) of plate:
The applied force between the leading edge and the cross section at x is:
D0,  ρU 2
δ 
m x

x
Laminar BD: δ 0,133δ
m


δm δ m1
2
 0,133δ 2
 m
 Drag force to section 2: D0,2=0,0107N/m
0,133δ1 0,00223  0,00158m Drag force to section 1: D0,1=0,0076N/m

Drag force between 1 and 2: D1,2=D0,2-D0,1=0,0031N/m

Exercise

=1,2 kg/m3, U=2m/s dpe dx  0

=1,810-5 Pa.s
(Rex)c =106.
L=2m

e) True or False?: ”Under the conditions of the problem, if the

plate was sufficiently long (L ), the boundary layer would
eventually separate?

False: The BD will separate only with adverse pressure

gradient. The drag forces will decrease with the velocity
over the plate. The drga forces are not able to stop the fluid
flow.